Presented by:

Jayaprasad K M
Lecturer ,

Introduction
What history says
Network structures
Network services
Terminology
Regulation
Standard
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Electrical communication began with the invention of the

telegraph independently by two persons, Wheatstone and
Samuel Morse in 1837.
Telegraphy system consisted of separate point-to-point
lines, sending information in one direction.
Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone in 1876.
First telephone exchange @ New Haven, Connecticut
opened in 1878.

If communication is required between n users stations, it

could be provided by a network consisting of a line from
each station to every others.
Different types of network configurations
Mesh network
Bus network
Ring network
Star network
Tree network

 Each station needs lines to n-1 others.

Total number of lines required is
N=1/2n(n-1)

If n>>1, then N

n2

Practicable if n is small & the lines are

short.
Used for small system serving a number of
telephones in the same office.
As n increases & the lines become longer,
the arrangement becomes too much
expensive.
A system serving 10,000 users would nearly require 50
million lines

Instead of connecting each station to

every other, they can all be connected to
a single line as shown in figure.
Useless for normal telephony, since only
one conversation at a time can take
place.
Used for higher speed data transmission,
generated by the individual terminals.
When the common circuit is already in
use, a terminal that needs to send a
G
message stores it until the circuit
becomes free.
Used for LAN connection over short
distance.

A
B

C
D
BUS NETWORK
A
B

C
D

F
E
RING NETWORK

For telephony, two-way

communication is required i.e.
between any pair of stations it
must be possible for many
conversation to take place at the
same time.
This requirement is met by
providing a line from each users
station to a central switching
centre, which connects the line
together as required.
Number of lines reduced to N=n.

B
S

C
STAR NETWORK

Cont...
As
the area covered by the star
..network
& the number of stations
served by it grows, line cost
increases.

It becomes economic to divide

the network into several smaller
networks, each served by its own
exchange.

Cont...
If an area is served by several exchanges, customers on one
..exchange will wish to communicate to customer on other
exchanges.
Hence circuits between the exchanges are provided, these
are called junction circuits & they form a junction network.
Junction networks have mesh configuration.
if the cost of the junction circuits is high, it will be
uneconomic to connect all the exchanges directly.
To make cheaper, connections between the customers local
exchanges via a central switching centre called tandem
exchange is made.
Junction networks then have star configuration.

Cont...
In practice, direct junctions between two local exchanges
..prove economic when
there is a high community of interest between their customers(resulting in
high traffic)
the distance between them is short(resulting in low transmission cost)

Indirect routing via a tandem exchange is cheaper when the

traffic is small or distance is large.
A multi-exchange area usually has direct junctions between
some exchanges, but traffic is routed via tandem exchange.
The network of the area is then a mixture of a star network
joining all local exchanges to tandem exchange, and a mesh
network connecting local exchanges together.

Fig: Multi-exchange area.

L

L
L
L

L
L = local exchange
T = tandem exchange

Cont...
Different areas of the country are interconnected by long..distance circuits, which forms a trunk network or toll
network.
As it is usually uneconomic for all the local exchanges in an
area to be fully inter-connected, it is often uneconomic for
all the trunk exchanges to be fully inter-connected.
Hence routings between different areas are provided by
tandem connections via trunk transit exchanges.

TREE NETWORK

Fig: National telecommunications network

Submarine cables

Satellite links

International gateway
exchange
(Centre de Transit 3)
International network

National tandem exchanges

(Tertiary trunk switching
centers)

Trunk network
Regional tandem exchanges
(Secondary trunk switching
centers)
Local tandem exchanges
(Primary trunk switching
centers)
Local network

Local exchange
Customer lines

Cont...
In the network shown in figure, when there is a direct route
two exchanges at the same level, there is also a possible
..between
alternative route between them via an exchange at the next
higher-level.
If the direct route is not available, it is possible to divert traffic to
the indirect route.
In older switching systems, such changes are made by manual
rearrangements.
In modern switching systems it is done automatically, it is
known as automatic alternative routing(AAR).
With AAR, if an originating exchange is unable to find a free
circuit on the direct route to a destination exchange, it
automatically routes the call through the higher-level exchange.

Cont...
AAR routing takes place not only when there is no free
..direct circuits available because of breakdown but also
when they are all busy.
Use of AAR improves the resilience of the network to
withstand both breakdowns and traffic overloads

Cont...
A national public switched telecommunication network(PSTN)
..consists of the following hierarchy:
1.

2.

3.

Local networks - connects customers stations to their local exchanges. (also

called as subscribers distribution networks, customer access networks or the
customer loop)
Junction networks - interconnects a group of local exchanges serving an area
and a tandem or trunk exchange.
Trunk or toll network - provides long-distance circuits between local areas
throughout the country.

The totality of (2) & (3) is sometimes known as core network ,

the inner core consisting of the trunk network and the outer
core consisting of junction networks.
International network provides circuits linking the national
networks of different countries.
National network is connected to international network by one
or more international gateway exchanges.

Cont...
Below the hierarchy of the PSTN, some customers have
..internal lines serving extension telephones.
These are connected to one another and to lines from the
public exchange by a private branch exchange(PBX).
A telecommunications network contains a large number of
transmission links joining different locations, which are
known as the nodes of the network.

Customer nodes.
Switching nodes.
Transmission nodes.
Service nodes.

Cont...
Each customers terminal is a node.
..
Switching centers form other nodes.
At some nodes, certain circuits are not switched but their
transmission paths are joined semi-permanently.
Customers require connection to nodes where there are
telephone operators to assist them in making calls and to
public emergency services.
They can also obtain connection to commercial providers of
value-added network services (VANS) such as voice mail,
stock-market prices, sports results, etc

Cont...
In order to set up a connection to the required destination,
..and clear it down when no longer required, the customer
must send information to the exchange.
For a connection that passes through several exchanges,
such information must be sent between all exchanges on the
route.
This interchange of information is called signaling.
A telecommunications network is considered as a system
consisting of the following interacting subsystems:
Transmission systems.
Switching systems.
Signaling systems.

Customers of a public telecommunications operator (PTO)

require many different services which may require different
networks.
Examples of networks

Public switched telephone network (PSTN).

Public switched telegraph network (Telex).
Private networks for voice and data (using circuits leased from the PTO).
Cellular radio networks providing mobile communications.
Public data networks (PDN), employing packet data.
Special service networks, to meet specialized demands from customer.

Service providers over telecommunication networks can be

divided into two categories
1. Teleservices, in which provision of the service depends on particular terminal apparatus
( e.g. a telephone or a teleprinter).
2. Bearer services, which present the customer with transmission capacity that can be used
for any desired function ( e.g. private circuits).

Table 1.1 Comparison of nomenclature

North America

British

Customers loop

Local network / Access network

Central office

Exchange

End office

Local exchange

Class 5 office / Inter-office trunk

Junction

Junctor

Trunk

Toll office

Trunk exchange

Toll network

Trunk network

Regulation
Standards