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Aircraft Structural Integrity

Module 2: Fatigue
Lecture 1

Todays Lecture
Introduction to Fatigue : Some Basics

Fatigue Crack in Boeing 7373-300

Emergency landing of Southwest flt 812 ,
Apr 2013

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FATIGUE
Basics

What is fatigue?

Fatigue is
a process in which damage accumulates due to
repetitive loads which may be well below yield
stress or static strength
a fracture phenomenon occurring after a large
number of load cycles where a single load of the
same magnitude will do no harm
a form of failure that occurs in structures
subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses.
Under these circumstances it is possible for
failure to occur at a stress level considerably
lower than the tensile or yield strength for a
static load.

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Stress Life (S-N) Curve

Fatigue: Cyclic (even if low) loads cause failures!

Steel,
Ferrous Alloys

Many non-Ferrous
Alloys
e.g., Al Alloys

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Why should the cyclic loads lead to

failure at lower loads?
Origin of fatigue phenomenon

Fatigue Process : Crack Initiation and Growth

LOADING
DIRECTION

STAGE II: CRACK GROWTH

STAGE I: CRACK INITIATION:

Several micro-cracks originate and then coalesce into a macro-crack

Free Surface

Dislocations Slip Microcrack Macrocrack

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Dislocations

Slip bands and micro-crack initiation

~ 0.1

~ 0.1

Persistent Slip Bands

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Features of Fatigue Phenomenon

A gradually progressive process

Dislocations Slip Microcrack Macrocrack Crack Propagation Failure

Slow development of damage in the early stage

followed by rapid growth towards the end

First stage: crack initiation phase,

May occupy most of the life in most cases (e.g., nicely

machined parts, small cyclic loads )
Usually confined to a small area of high local stress,
Adjacent areas with only slightly lower stresses may
not see any fatigue damage
usually several independent micro-cracks grow and
coalesce to form one dominant crack

Features of Fatigue Phenomenon

Second Stage: Crack Propagation phase

This crack grows slowly under steady fatigue loading,

but starts to accelerate as the net section decreases
increasing the local stress at the crack-front

Third and Final Stage : Failure.

Failure occurs as an unstable fracture when the

remaining area is too small to support the load.

Stages create distinctive features

of the fracture surface - used to
identify fatigue failure in failure
investigations

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Tell-tale marks of Fatigue - Striations

Features of Fatigue Phenomenon

Some materials exhibit endurance

limits, i.e. a stress below which the
life is infinite:

Steels: typical endurance limit - 40% 60% of YS

solutes (carbon, nitrogen) present in
the material pin the dislocations and
prevent their motion at small strains.
Al alloys : No endurance limits;
Related to the absence of dislocationpinning solutes

At large Nf, the lifetime is dominated by nucleation.

Therefore strengthening the surface (shot penning) is
beneficial to delay crack nucleation and extend life.

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Observations on S-N Curve

Typically, load , life and

.
Experimentally-determined

load , life

Rotating bending m/c; round specimens

Electrohydraulic m/c; flat (or other) specimens

The practical limit of experimental testing has

been 106 or 107 cycles, due to impractical test
times, frequency limitations of machines and
artefacts of higher frequencies
Adjustment for mean stress using Goodman
Relation

Observations on S-N Curve

X-Axis : No of Cycles. On Log10 scale. Log10 N

Y-Axis : Stress.

Either Stress Amplitude (Alternating stress) or Max

Stress.
Alternating Stress (i.e., Stress Amplitude) is the
most dominant aspect of load that influences
fatigue
Either linear scale or Log10 scale

Curve is obtained for a given stress ratio, R.

R = (Min Stress / Max Stress)

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Observations on S-N Curve

S-N curve data is generally developed under

Constant Amplitude.
we will discuss later variable amplitude

The curve is dependent on many conditions,

Loading : ratio min load / max load (R-ratio)
Material,
stress concentrators,
surface finish
frequency, cyclic shape, dwell, etc Not much
effect unless in corrosive environment

High cycle fatigue vs Low cycle fatigue

Arbitrary! Could be 103

HCF: Life usually more than 104 cycles.

The distinction between high cycle fatigue and low

cycle fatigue is reflected in most design standards
as high cycle fatigue design standards normally
give S-N curves starting with N = 104 cycles.
Arbitrary! C!ould be 103

LCF: Life usually less than 104 cycles.

For low cycle fatigue design, the stress range

concept is not immediately valid, since typically
the low cycle fatigue strength is governed by
(large inelastic) strains.

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HCF and LCF

HCF:

Typical of rotating components; machineries

100 RPM = 6000 cycles per hr = 1.44x105 /day or
taking 8 hr/day operation5x107 /yr
Automobile crankshaft may accumulate 108 cycles in
100,000 km run
Reciprocating machineries, springs etc etc

LCF:

Airplane: Ground-Air-Ground Cycles

Ships
Vehicle Chassis

Various types of fatigue

Fretting fatigue

Fatigue associated with or aided by repetitive rubbing

of surfaces causing wear and cracks, also often
accompanied by corrosion. Such cracking provides
sites for fatigue damage and decreases fatigue
strength of materials operating under cycling stress.

Sonic fatigue (Acoustic fatigue):

Fatigue caused by acoustic vibrations, acoustic

pressures, engine noise can generate high stresses

Thermomechanical fatigue:

Mechanical loads (cyclic) also accompanied by

thermal cycles.

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Endurance Limit, Fatigue Limit, Fatigue Strength

All these terms refer to how much stress amplitude can be

applied in a cyclic loading without causing a failure
Endurance Limit: A stress level below which a material can
be cycled indefinitely without failure
Several Steels, Ti-alloys, Mo-alloys etc exhibit such endurance
limit

Many materials (e.g., Al-alloys, Mg Cu, Ni Alloys, even some

steels) do not have Endurance Limit. For such materials, we
define
Fatigue Strength as the max stress amplitude that can be
applied to get given life (say, 106 cycles, 5x108 cycles, etc)
Fatigue Limit as the limiting value of stress amplitude at
which the life (no of cycles to failure) becomes very large

[Theoretically, there is no proof of endurance limitNo infinite

life.. it may be just that we havent tested for large number of
cycles. So Fatigue Limit is a more realistic term]

S-N Curve Fatigue Tests: Test Arrangements

Rotating Bending loading

Axial loading

22

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Fatigue Strengths for Steels

Rotating bending, 107 or 108 Cycles

x Carbon Steels
Alloy Steels

MPa

Alt Fatigue Strength, Sf, ksi

MPa

Tensile Strength, Su, ksi

Ref: Ali Fatemi, eFatigue, Chap4

Fatigue Strengths for Al-alloys

Rotating bending, 108 Cycles

x Wrought
Cast

MPa

Alt Fatigue Strength, Sf, ksi

MPa

Tensile Strength, Su, ksi

Ref: Ali Fatemi, eFatigue, Chap4

Metal Fatigue in Engineering by Ralph I. Stephens, Ali Fatemi, Robert R. Stephens, Henry O. Fuchs, John Wiley & Sons, Nov. 2000

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Some related ASTM test standards

Cyclic Deformation and Fatigue Crack Formation

Designation
E466 - 15
E468 - 11

E606 /
E606M - 12
E2714 - 13
E2789 10(2015)
E2948 - 14

E739 10(2015)

E1049 85(2011)e1

Title
Standard Practice for Conducting Force Controlled Constant
Amplitude Axial Fatigue Tests of Metallic Materials
Standard Practice for Presentation of Constant Amplitude
Fatigue Test Results for Metallic Materials
Standard Test Method for Strain-Controlled Fatigue Testing
Standard Test Method for Creep-Fatigue Testing

Standard Guide for Fretting Fatigue Testing

Standard Test Method for Conducting Rotating Bending Fatigue

Tests of Solid Round Fine Wire
Standard Practice for Statistical Analysis of Linear or
Linearized Stress-Life (S-N) and Strain-Life (-N) Fatigue Data

Standard Practices for Cycle Counting in Fatigue Analysis

Observations on S-N Curve

Sa

Log N

log Sa

Basquin
Relation

Log N

log = log + log

=
Often, N is written as 2Nf
which is no. of reversals
Constant a is generally
representative of the
Fracture Strength of
material, say, (also called
Fatigue Strength Coeff)

= 2
=
b is Basquin (Year , 1910)
Exponent,
b -0.05 to -0.15

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Nomenclature in Cyclic Loading

:

=
: = /2 = ( )/2
: = ( + )/2

: =

Constant Amplitude Fatigue Loading

100

Tension - Compression

= 100, = 100

= 0,
= 100
= 200,
= 1

100

100

Tension - Tension

20

0 10

120

= 100,

= 60,
= 80,

= 20
= 40
= 0.2

Compression - Compression

= 10, = 120

= 65, = 55
= 110,
= 12

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Constant Amplitude Fatigue Loading

Stress

Tension - Tension.
0<R<1

Tension Comp.
R = -1

0 Tension
R=0

Time

0 Comp.
R=
Comp Comp.
R>1

Effect of Mean Stress

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Mean Stress Effect

Stress Amplitude, Sa

The damaging portion of load cycle: Tensile stress

o this causes cracks to open and grow.
Baseline Sa-N curve: Zero mean stress (Sm=0) and cyclic
stress amplitude (alternating stress), Sa.
Let us superimpose an additional steady stress Sm on this.

Sm < 0

Sm = 0

If Sm<0 (i.e., Compr)

: Max Tens Stress
and N . The curve
shifts to right.

If Sm>0 (i.e., tensile)

: Max Tens Stress
Sm > 0
and N . The curve
shifts to left.
Life, Cycles, N

Goodman Relation

Su

Sa/Sa0

Constant Life, N

Stress Amplitude, Sa

m=1

m>1

m<1

Sa0

Sm = 0

Sm > 0

Life, Cycles, N

Sm/Su

=1

In general, m ~ 0.6 2
For most calculations
we assume m=1

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Mean Stress Effect: Goodman & Others

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/~/pmoze/esdep/master/wg12/l0200.htm

Goodman, Gerber, Soderberg Lines

Failure envelopes

Gerber Parabola
(m = 2)

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Goodman Diagram : Constant Life Lines

Constructing failure
envelopes using
Goodman Diagram

Constant Life Lines

Constant Load Lines

http://neilwimer.weebly.com/basic-fatigue-analysis.html

A= Sa/Sm

WADC TECHNICAL REPORT 52-307, PART 1, FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS AT VARIOUS DIRECT STRESS RATIOS, ADS0007610, 1955

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80

Effect of
R-ratio

R= Smin/Smax
+0.60

Smax, ksi

60

73 ksi = UTS

+0.50

+0.40

+0.25

40

+0.10
0
-0.30

Al Alloy
2024 T3
Axial
Loading

20

-1.0

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

Ref: Fatiue of Aircraft Structures, NAVAIR 01-1A-13, 1966

Questions?

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Numerical Example 1

In a Tension-Compression (R=-1) fatigue test with an alloy

following mean fatigue lives were found for various stress
levels:
Smax (MPa)
138
N
12589250

172
1273500

207
199526

276
15850

345
1778

380
1060

The ultimate strength of the alloy was found to be 462

MPa.
(i) Plot the Sa-N curve
(ii) Check whether this obeys Basquin relation. Find
Basquin exponent
(iii) Using Goodman relation, derive the Sa- N curve for
R=0

Solution

Since R=-1, Sa=Smax

Sa vs N

400

log Sa vs log N

2.5

300

200

1.5
1

100

0
1.0E+02

Basquin Exponent : -0.107

Sf = 102.892 = 780 MPa

0.5

1.0E+04

=1

1.0E+06

1.0E+08

WE take m=1. For R=0, Sm=Sa so that the eqn is

= 1 =

1
+
0

Substituting values of Sa0 we get Sa for each value of N. Then we can plot

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Solution continued

N
12589250
Smax (MPa)
138
Sa0 (R=-1)
138
Sa (R=0)
106

1273500
172
172
125

199526
207
207
143

15850
276
276
173

1778
345
345
198

1060
380
380
209

400

Sa vs N

350
300

R = -1

250
200

R=0

150
100

50

0
1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E+08

Numerical Example 2

For an Aluminium Alloy, the S-N behaviour in tension

compression fatigue with zero mean stress is approximated
by the relation
= 480 0.12

(i) What would be the life of a structure made of this alloy

if it is subjected to cyclic stress of 80 MPa

(ii) What would be life if there is an additional steady stress

of +10 MPa?
(iii) What would be life if the additional steady stress in -10
MPa?

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Solution to Numerical Example 2

(i) This is direct substitution in the given stress-life curve equation.

We have Sa = 80 MPa. Therefore

80 = 480 0.12

This gives N = (480/80)^(1/0.12) = 3052065

(ii) With an additional steady stress of +10 MPa:
Here the mean stress is now Sm=10 MPa and Sa=80 MPa.
Since mean stress is not zero, we need to use Goodman relation to arrive
at the mean stress effect.
With mean stress zero:
0 =
Recall Goodman relation :

= 1 +

=1

In absence data, we take Su = Sf. Now we can just substitute for Sa(=80)
and Sm (=10) and Su=Sf = 480 with b= -0.12 and get N
Ans: N= 2560937
(iii) Similarly, with Sm = -10 we can repeat calculation.
Ans : 3624244

Stress Concentration

Hole in a large plate under uniaxial tension

smax
sns

Elliptic hole :
SCF = 1+ 2(b/a) = 1+2(a/)

Large plate: Max stress is 3 times the nominal stress

(applied stress, far-field stress)
Stress concentration Factor : Kt = Smax/Sn = 3

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Stress Concentration (contd)

Petersons
Original
compilation
updated and
enhanced

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Fatigue under Stress Concentration

S

Effective Stress Concentration for fatigue is

less than the Stress Concentration in Static
Fatigue Concentration Factor

=

Many types of
discontinuities
which act as
stress
concentrators:
Holes, cut-outs,
key-slots,
cracks, notches,
.

= 1 + 1
1
=
,
0<<1
1

s /K (K<Kt)
s /Kt

Notched

Un-notched

Fatigue notch sensitivity factor

Stress Concentration Factor
=

Fatigue Concentration Factor

1 < <

Fatigue Notch Sensitivity Factor, q

= 1 + 1 and
1
=
,
0<<1
1

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Estimates of All Empirical!!

Neubers Approx Formula (R=-1): =

(r = notch root radius, = material characteristic length)

For aluminium alloys:
Ult Strength: 150
300
600 MPa

2.0
0.6
0.4 mm
Petersons Approx Formula (R=-1): =

(r = notch root radius, = another mat characteristic

length)
For Steels: = 0.0254

2070

1.8

(Su in MPa, a in mm)

For Al-alloys: = 0.635

2.5

1.5
1

0.5
0

Neuber Parameter, (mm)

500
1000
Su, MPa

0.3

0.25

1500

Neuber Parameter, (mm)

Neuber Parameter,

2.5

0.2

Al-Alloys

1.5

0.5

500

Su, MPa

0.15

Steels

0.1

0.05
0

500

1000
Su, MPa

1500

Neuber
Parameter,

25

K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
5/19/2016

Sa

Goodman Diagram for notched fatigue

Rather simplistic
Does not
account for
variation of Kf
with mean stress
or life cycles

Sa

Accounting for means stress effect

Haig Diagrams

26

K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
5/19/2016

A= Sa/Sm

WADC TECHNICAL REPORT 52-307, PART 1, FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS AT VARIOUS DIRECT STRESS RATIOS, ADS0007610, 1955

More about notched fatigue..

Mean stress effect is more pronounced in

notched specimens than in smooth ones
Tensile mean stress accentuates the notch effect
in fatigue in fact, Kf can exceed Kt in some
cases. Need to be catered for, otherwise fatal in
fatigue loading!!
Compressive mean stress can be beneficial. It
significantly reduces the effect of stress
concentration and may in fact eliminate it
Residual stresses can contribute significantly to
the level of mean stress. This in turn may affect
the notched behaviour.

27

K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
K
T
I
I
M
D
P
6
1
0
2
O
R
E
A
5/19/2016

Questions?

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