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Binomial Nomenclature
Naming of animals with a scientific name is called nomenclature.
Binomial nomenclature was popularized by a Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus.
Linnaeus described binomial nomenclature in the 10th edition of his book Systema
Naturae
In recent times, it is referred to as binominal nomenclature.
ICZN
In 1895, the Third International Congress of Zoology (ICZ) appointed a committee to
draw up the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature.
These were adopted by the Fifth International Congress of Zoology in 1901, as the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).
The Code established a permanent International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature that is vested with the power to interpret, amend, or suspend provisions of
the Code.
Rules of Binomial Nomenclature
Scientific name consists of two words called binomen.
Scientific names must be in Latin or latinised form.
They are printed in italic type.
First word in the scientific name refers to the genus.
Second word refers to the species.
Generic name is a noun and begins with a capital letter.
Specific name is an adjective and starts with a small letter.
Name of the taxonomist follows the scientific name either in full form or abbreviated
form.
e.g. Felis leo Linnaeus or Felis leo L.
Year of discovery is written after the name of the discoverer.
e.g. Felis leo Linnaeus, 1758.
If a species is changed to another genus, or if the generic name is changed, original
authors name and year should be written in parenthesis.
e.g. Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758)
Principle of Priority
The earliest of the two or more names published for the same organism is the senior
synonym, which is the correct name, and the later names are junior synonyms.
The earliest published of the two or more identical but independently proposed names for
different organisms of the same or different taxa is the senior homonym, where as the
other names are junior homonyms.
Statement of the principle of priority states that the valid name of a taxon is the oldest
available name applied to it, unless that name has been invalidated or another name is
given precedence by any provision of the Code or by any ruling of the Commission.
Tautonymy
The practice of naming the animals, in which generic and specific names are the same, is
called tautonymy.
Such a scientific name in which the generic name and the specific name are the same is
called tautonym.
Examples:
Axis axis spotted deer
Naja naja cobra
Trinomial Nomenclature
It is the extension of binominal nomenclature.
It permits designation of a subspecies with a three-word name called trinomen.
The first word is generic name. It should be started with capital letter.
The second word is the specific name. It should be started with small letter.
The third word refers to the sub-species. It should be started with small letter.
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All the three are Latin or latinised words and should be printed in italics.
Examples:
Homo sapiens sapiens - Man
Corvus splendens splendens crow in India and Pakistan
Corvus splendens insolens crow in Myanmar
Corvus splendens protegatus crow in Sri Lanka
SYSTEMATIC HIERARCHY OR LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION
Linnaeus was the first taxonomist to establish a hierarchy of taxa.
Linnaeus first established a hierarchy of taxa like kingdom, class, order, genus and
species.
Haeckel introduced the taxon phylum.
Taxonomic hierarchy includes seven obligate categories:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Sub-kingdom, grade, division, sub-division, subphylum, superclass, subclass, superorder,
suborder, superfamily, subfamily, subspecies etc. are intermediate categories.
1. Kingdom
It is the highest taxonomic category.
It is a group of related phyla.
Kingdom Animalia includes all the multicellular animal phyla
2. Phylum
It includes one or more related classes.
Phylum Chordata includes the classes Ostracodermi, Cyclostomata, Placodermii,
Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia along with
protochordates.
3. Class
It includes one or more related orders.
Class Mammalia includes the orders Rodentia (rats) Chiroptera (bats), Cetacea (whales),
Carnivora (dogs), Primates (apes, man) etc.
4. Order
It includes one or more related families.
Order Carnivora includes families Felidae (cat, lion, tiger), Canidae (dog, fox, wolf),
Ursidae (bear), Hyaenidae (Hyaena).
5. Family
It includes one or more related genera.
Genus of cat (Felis) and genus of leopard (Panthera) are included in the family Felidae.
Name of the family is coined by adding the suffix -idae to the type generic name
E.g. Hominidae
Name of the sub-family is coined by adding the suffix -inae to the type generic name
E.g. Homininae
Name of the super-family is coined by adding the suffix -oidea to the type generic
name
E.g. Hominoidea
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6. Genus:
It includes one or more related species.
The following species belong to the genus Panthera:
Panthera leo lion
Panthera tigris tiger
Panthera pardus leopard
7. Species:
It is the basic unit of classification in the hierarchal taxonomic system.
Species is a group of similar organisms sharing a common gene pool and interbreeding
freely producing fertile offspring.
A species occurs in the form of many interbreeding groups called populations.
Two or more species which are morphologically similar but reproductively isolated are
called sibling species.
8. Subspecies
A species sometimes may include subspecies, which show some morphological variations
(intraspecific variations).
Subspecies is a geographically isolated population of a species.
A subspecies shows some minor variations from the parent population, but are capable of
interbreeding with the individuals of other subspecies and parent species.
They are probably new species in the making.
Geographically the crows present in India, Pakistan, Myanmar and Sri Lanka are isolated
and evolved into different subspecies.
Corvus splendens splendens is the subspecies in India and Pakistan,
Corvus splendens insolens is the subspecies in Myanmar
Corvus splendens protegatus is the subspecies in Sri Lanka.
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF MAN
Kingdom
: Animalia
Sub-Kingdom : Eumetazoa
Grade
: Bilateria
Division
: Deuterostomia
Subdivision : Enterocoelomata
Phylum
: Chordata
Sub-phylum : Vertebrata
Super-Class : Gnathostomata
Class
: Mammalia
Sub-Class : Theria
Infra-Class : Eutheria
Order
: Primates
Sub-order : Anthropoidea
Superfamily : Hominoidea
Family
: Hominidae
Sub-family : Homininae
Genus
: Homo
Species
: sapiens

SPECIES CONCEPT

Species is the basic unit of classification.

It is below the level of a genus or subgenus and above the level of a subspecies or variety.
Species is a Latin word meaning kind or appearance.

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John Ray in his book, Historia Generalis Plantarum, used the term species.
He described it as a group of morphologically similar organisms.
He defined the species on the basis of common descent.
Linnaeus believed that a species never changes (static).
Definition of Species
Species is a group of animals or plants which possess in common one or more distinctive
characters, and interbreed and transfer their characters to their offspring.
Alfred Emerson defined species as an evolved or evolving, genetically distinctive,
reproductively isolated, natural population.
Lindsey defined species as an aggregation of individuals which may resemble each other
within some range of variation and always arises from a common reproductive sequence.
According to Earnst Mayr species are groups of potentially interbreeding natural
populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
Dobzhansky has proposed species as Mendelian populations, or reproductive
communities among them gene exchange is prevented by reproductive isolating
mechanisms.
A Mendelian population is a group of sexually reproducing individuals of a species
within which mating takes place.
Biological Concept of Species
Buffon, in his book Natural History, proposed the idea of evolution of species which is a
foundation for the biological concept of evolution.
This biological concept of species (dynamic nature of species) became more popular with
Darwins publication The Origin of Species.
Populations of a species inhabiting different geographical areas are in a continuous
process of adapting to the conditions of their surrounding environments.
This leads to the evolution of new species in course of time.
So species is dynamic unit of members.
The biological concept of a species explains that species is an interbreeding group of
similar individuals, producing fertile offspring, sharing a common gene pool.
Species as Different Units
Species is as a group of individuals which Sharing the same ecological niche (ecological
unit).
Species is as a group of individuals which show similarity in the karyotype (genetic unit).
Species is as a group of individuals which have similar structure and functional
characteristics (evolutionary unit).
Species is as a group of individuals which are reproductively isolated from the individuals
of other species (breeding unit).
Members of a species show assortative (preferential) mating.
Sometimes closely related species of a genus can interbreed, but they generally give rise
to sterile offspring.
A cross between a female horse and a male donkey gives rise to the sterile offspring
called mule (hybrid).

OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF THE KINGDOM ANIMALIA

I. Basic Bauplans (body plans) of Animals
i. Bauplan: Number of Primary Germ Layers in the Embryo

ii.

The embryos of diploblastic animals have two cell layers: an outer ectoderm and an inner
endoderm.
The embryos of triploblastic animals have a third layer, the mesoderm.
Bauplan: Division of Labour
In cellular grade of organization, the specific body functions are performed by cells.
In tissue grade of organization the specific body functions are performed by tissues.

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In organ and organ-system grade of organization the specific body functions in the
body are performed by organs or organ systems.
iii. Bauplan: Body Cavities
Acoelomates lack body cavity or coelom. The space between the gut and body wall is
mesenchyme.
E.g. Phylum Platyhelminthes.
Pseudocoelomates have a pseudocoelom, a liquid filled space in which organs are
suspended. Pseudocelom is not lined with peritoneal layers.
E.g. Phylum Nematoda.
Coelomates have a coelom that develops within the mesoderm. It is lined with the
peritoneum and enclosed on the inside and outside by muscles.
E.g. Phylum Annelida to Chordata.
iv. Bauplan: Symmetry
In bilateral symmetry, antimeres are cut in bilaterians in only one plane i.e. midsagittal
plane.
Bilateral symmetry is often associated with cephalization.
Cephalization is the presence of a head bearing sensory organs and the brain at the
anterior end of the animal.
Bilateral symmetry and cephalization are common in animals that move freely.
Radial symmetry is primitive to the bilateral symmetry.
In radial symmetry antimeres are cut in any plane through oro-aboral axis.
v. Bauplan: Fate of Blastopore
Protostomes are the organisms in which blastopore develops into mouth (Gr.
protostomes= mouth first).
Cleavages in protostomes are spiral and determinate.
In spiral cleavage, cleavage spindles planes are oblique to the polar axis of the zygote.
In determinate cleavage, the fate of blastomeres is fixed early in the development.
Deuterostomes are the organisms in which blastopore develops into anus, mouth is
formed later (Gr: deuterostomes = second mouth).
Cleavages in deuterostomes are radial and indeterminate.
In radial cleavage, cleavage spindles or planes are at right angles to the polar axis of the
zygote.
In indeterminate cleavage, the fate of blastomeres is fixed relatively late in the
development.
vi. Bauplan: Gut
The gut is the digestive tract. It enables the animal to digest food outside the cells
(extracellular digestion).
In animals without a digestive tract, food is brought into the cell for digestion
(intracellular digestion).
A sac like gut has only one opening called the mouth. Food enters and leaves through the
same opening.
A complete gut has two openings, a mouth and an anus. It is sometimes referred to as a
tube-within-a-tube.
vii. Bauplan: Circulation of Blood
Blood is circulating in the open cavities called sinuses - open type of circulation
Blood is circulating only in the blood vessels - closed type of circulation.
II. Classification of the Kingdom Animalia

Kingdom Animalia is divided into two subkingdoms based on the organization of cells
into tissues.

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i. Parazoa
These are multicellular animals without the formation of well-defined tissues. The only
phylum included in this group is Porifera.
ii. Eumetazoa
These are multicellular animals with well defined tissues in the body. This group
includes two grades.
1. Radiata or Diploblastica
These are eumetazoans with primary radial symmetry and diploblastic body. The Phylum:
Cnidaria is included in this grade.
2. Bilateria or Triploblastica
These are eumetazoans with bilateral symmetry and triploblastic body. This includes two
divisions.
A. Protostomia (Proto = first; Stomium = mouth)
These are eumetazoans in which blastopore develops into mouth. This includes three
subdivisions. In most protostomes cleavage pattern is spiral and determinate.
a. Acoelomata:
These are eumetazoans without body cavity or coelom. Phylum: Platyhelminthes is
included in this subdivision.
b. Pseudocoelomata:
A body cavity is present between the body wall and the alimentary canal, but it is not a
true coelom as it is not lined with peritoneal layers. Phylum: Nematoda is included in this
subdivision.
c. Schizocoelomata:
They have a true coelom, which is a schizocoel. It is formed by splitting of mesoderm.
Phyla Annelida, Arthropoda and Mollusca are included in this subdivision.
B. Deuterostomia (Deutero = secondary; Stomium = mouth)
These are eucoelomates in which anus is formed from or near the blastopore. Mouth is
formed later away from the blastopore at the opposite end. In deuterostomes cleavage
pattern is radial and indeterminate. It includes only one subdivision, the
Enterocoelomata.
1. Enterocoelomata:
They have a true coelom, which is an enterocoel. It is formed from the archenteron.
Phyla Echinodermata and Chordata are included in this subdivision.
Schizocoelomates and enterocoelomates are together called eucoelomates.
Very Short Answer Questions
1.1 Nature and scope of Zoology
1.
A student is interested in the study of origin of life and the descent of complex living
forms from simple forms. He/she is also interested in studying the interrelationships
of organisms and their relation with the surroundings. What are the branches of
zoology he/she is required to refer?
Ans. Evolution and Ecology
2. Distinguish between Anatomy and Histology.
Anatomy
Histology
It is the study of the internal It is the study of microscopic structure
arrangement of different organs or of different tissues.
organ systems in an organism as
observed with the naked eye.
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3.

4.

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Distinguish between Cytology and Cell Biology.

Cytology

Cell Biology

It deals with the study of form and

structure of cells and cell organelles.

It deals with the study of the cell as a

structural and functional unit of living
organisms.

Define Genetics and Evolution.

Ans. Genetics is the study of inheritance of characters from one generation to the next. It
deals with heredity and variations. Evolution is the study of origin of life and
continuous genetic adaptations of organisms to the environment. It also deals with the
gradual changes that occur in the living organisms through the geological time.

1.2 RELATION BETWEEN ZOOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES

1.

Define Biotechnology and write its applications.

Ans. Biotechnology deals with the use of microorganisms and certain cellular components
for beneficial purposes. Biotechnology has applications in pollution control,
pharmacology, production of transgenic animals and public health.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Distinguish between eugenics and euphenics.

Eugenics

Euphenics

It is the branch of genetics that deals with

the application of knowledge of genetics
to human welfare.

It is the branch of genetics that deals with

the the practice of phenotypic
improvement of humans after birth. It
involves symptomatic treatment of
genetic disorders.

Distinguish between biometry and biostatistics.

Biometry

Biostatistics

It is the application of mathematics to

biology

It deals with the application of statistical

methods for the computation and analysis
of biological data.

Distinguish between biophysics and biochemistry.

Biophysics

Biochemistry

It is the branch that deals with the

application of physics to living
organisms.

It is the knowledge of chemistry related

to biology

Physics is applicable to designing

instruments that aid in observing the
living organisms and understanding the
physical principles underlying the
morphological form of the animals and
their adaptations to different
environments.

It is important to understand the chemical

phenomena like diffusion, osmosis,
biomembrane transport, structure of
biomolecules etc. in living organisms.

Differntiate Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering.

Biotechnology

Genetic Engineering

It is the branch of biology that deals with

the use of biological agents, such as
microorganisms and certain cellular
components, for beneficial purposes.

It is the scientific alteration of the

structure of genetic material in a living
organism
It is a part of Biotechnology.

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1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

5. What is law of priority with reference to binominal nomenclature?
Ans. Statement of the principle of priority states that the valid name of a taxon is the oldest
available name applied to it, unless that name has been invalidated or another name is
given precedence by any provision of the Code or by any ruling of the Commission.
6. What is tautonymy? Give one example.
Ans. The practice of naming the animals, in which generic and specific names are the
same, is called tautonymy. Such a name is called tautonym. E.g. Naja naja (cobra),
Axis axis (spotted deer).
7. Explain the concept of dynamic nature of species.
Ans. Populations of a species inhabiting different geographical areas are in a continuous
process of adapting to the conditions of their surrounding environments. This leads to
the evolution of new species in course of time. So species is dynamic unit of
members.
8. Define the term species.
Ans. Species is the basic unit of classification in the hierarchical taxonomic system.
Species is a group of similar organisms sharing a common gene pool and
interbreeding freely producing fertile offspring.
9. Distinguish between protostomes and deuterostomes.
Protostomes
Deutertstomes
In these organisms blastopore develops In these organisms blastopore develops
into mouth, so mouth is formed first.
into anus, mouth is formed later.
Cleavages are spiral (cleavage spindles or Cleavages are radial (cleavage spindles or
planes are oblique to the polar axis of the planes are at right angles to the polar axis
zygote).
of the zygote).
Cleavages are determinate (the fate of Cleavages are indeterminate (the fate of
blastomeres is fixed early in the blastomeres is fixed relatively late in the
development).
development).
6. Distinguish between radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry.
Radial Symmetry
Bilateral Symmetry
This is exhibited by the animals that This is exhibited by the animals that
belong to Diploblastica.
belong to Triploblastica.
Antimeres are cut in any plane through Antimeres are cut in in only one plane i.e.
oro-aboral axis.
midsagittal plane.
Bilateral symmetry is often associated
Cephalization is absent.
with cephalization i.e. the presence of a
head bearing sensory organs and the brain
at the anterior end of the animal.
7. Distinguish between sac like gut and tube with in tube like gut.
Sac-like Gut
Tube-like Gut (tube-within-a-tube)
It has only one opening called the mouth. It has two openings, a mouth and an anus.
Food enters and leaves through the same Food enters through the mouth and leaves
opening.
through the anus.
8. Distinguish between open and closed vascular systems.
Open Vascular System
Closed Vascular System
Blood circulates in the open cavities Blood circulates only in the blood
called sinuses.
vessels.
9. What is the taxonomic position of Parazoa? Name the kingdom of the Five kingdom
classification to which it belongs.
Ans. Parazoa is a sub-kingdom. It belongs to the kingdom Animalia.
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10. Distinguish between schizocoelomata and enterocoelomata.

Schizocoelomata
Enterocoelomata
They have a true coelom, which is a They have a true coelom, which is
schizocoel.
enterocoel.
Coelom is formed by splitting of Coelom is formed from the archenteron.
mesoderm.
It includes the phyla Annelida, It includes the phyla Echinodermata and
Arthropoda and Mollusca.
Chordata.
11. Distinguish between diploblastica and triploblastica.
Diploblastica
Triploblastica
These are triploblastic
These are triploblastic
The embryos of these animals have two The embryos of these animals have three
cell layers: an outer ectoderm and an cell layers: an outer ectoderm, an inner
inner endoderm
endoderm and a middle mesoderm.
They have primary radial symmetry.
They have bilateral symmetry.
12. Distinguish between phenetic classification and cladistic classification.
Phenetic Classification
Cladistic Classification
This system is based on many characters It is an evolutionary classification based
called Operational Taxonomic Units on how a common ancestry was shared.
(OTU).
Quantitative data for the degree of Homologous characters and analogous
similarity at each level of classification characters are followed.
come from comparison.
This system does not consider phylogeny It considers phylogeny.
for the organisms to be classified.
13. Distinguish between spiral cleavage and radial cleavage.
Spiral Cleavage
Radial Cleavage
The cleavage spindles or planes are The cleavage spindles or planes are at
oblique to the polar axis of the zygote.
right angles to the polar axis of the
zygote.
This occurs in protostomes
This occurs in deuterostomes.
14. Distinguish between determinate and indeterminate cleavages.
Determinate Cleavages
Indeterminate Cleavages
The fate of blastomeres is fixed early in The fate of blastomeres is fixed relatively
the development.
late in the development.
The embryo is a mosaic embryo.
The embryo is a regulative embryo.
15. What are junior synonyms and junior homonyms?
Ans. The earliest published of the two or more identical but independently proposed names
for different organisms of the same or different taxa is the senior homonym, where as
the other names are junior homonyms.
16. All body cavities are not true coeloms. Justify the statement.
Ans. The body cavity lined by mesodermal peritoneum is called true coelom.
Schizocoelom and enterocoelom are true coeloms because they are lined by
mesodermal peritoneum. Pseudocoelom is the body cavity of nematodes. It is not
lined by mesodermal peritoneum. It is derived from remnant blastocoel. Hence it is
not true coelom.

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17. What is the system of trinominal nomenclature?

Ans. It is system of designation of subspecies with a three-worded name called trinomen.
the first word is the generic name, the second word is the specific name and the third
word denotes the name of the subspecies. It also begins with a small letter and it is
also a latinised word, printed in italics. e.g. Homo sapiens sapiens.
18. Distinguish between artificial and natural classifications.
Artificial Classification
Natural Classification
It is grouping of like with like without It is based on the natural relationships of
considering interrelationships.
organisms
Followed
before
evolution
was Followed after evolution is understood
understood
Quite unrelated animals are grouped Related animals are grouped under one
under one category.
category.
19. Distinguish between Monera and Protista.
Monera
Protista
These are prokaryotes
These are eukaryotes.
Nuclear envelope is absent.
Nuclear envelope is present.
Flagella, if present, are single stranded.
Flagella, if present, show 9+2 structure.
It includes protozoans and unicellular
It includes bacteria and archaebacteria.
algae.
20. List out the obligatory taxa.
Ans. Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
21. Distinguish between Genus and Species.
Genus
Species
It is a group of related species, It is a group of similar organisms sharing
resembling one another in certain a common gene pool and interbreeding
characters.
freely producing fertile offspring.
22. Distinguish between Species and Subspecies.
Species
Subspecies
It is a group of similar organisms sharing Subspecies is a geographically isolated
a common gene pool and interbreeding population of a species,
freely producing fertile offspring.
A subspecies shows some minor
Members of a species are similar.
variations from the parent population.
Short Answer Questions
1. How is Zoology related to other branches of pure science?
2. Write the classification hierarchy of Homo sapiens.
Long Answer Questions
1
Write an essay on nomenclature of organisms.
2.
Describe any eight branches of zoology.
3.
Discuss the concept of species.
4.
Describe the body plans and classification of the kingdom Animalia.

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