Attachment Theory

Attachment theory is meant to describe and explain people's enduring patterns

of relationships from birth to death. This domain overlaps considerably with
that of Interpersonal Theory. Because attachment is thought to have an
evolutionary basis, attachment theory is also related to Evolutionary
Psychology.

Attachment Styles: An Evolving Taxonomy of

Evolutionarily Adaptive and Maladaptive
Affectional Bonds
The above model (taken from Bartholomew, 1990) is one representation of attachment
styles, or ways of dealing with attachment, separation, and loss in close personal
relationships. Attachment was first studied in non-human animals, then in human infants,
and later in human adults.

Basic research on animal behavior, if it is to apply to humans, must assume that there is
homology between the animal and human processes. Homology means that anatomical or
behavioral structures in different species share a common function and common
underlying mechanisms due to the fact that the species evolved from a common ancestor.
Ethological studies on imprinting might appear relevant to human attachment research,
since imprinting appears to be a variety of parent-offspring attachment. But as one author
says, "The charming tales of geese and cranes that court their keepers (to whom they
were imprinted as hatchlings) have beguiled us all" (Klopfer, 1984, p. 157). While
imprinting may appear similar to human parent-offspring bonding, imprinting in geese,
cranes, ducks, etc. probably does not meet the homology requirement, since birds and
mammals both evolved from lizards, and present-day lizards show no evidence of parent-
offspring bonding (Crnic, Reite, & Shucard, 1982).

Research shows that attachment does not occur in rats, dogs, or goats, but does occur in
monkeys (Crnic et al., 1982). A line of animal research that might be relevant to human
attachment is Harlow's experiments showing that infant monkeys prefer a soft terry
cloth mother surrogate to a wire one, even when only the wire one dispenses milk. Also,
severely deprived infant monkeys often come to behave differently from their normally
reared peers (Novak & Harlow, 1975).

When a human or non-human primate infant is separated from its parent, the infant goes
through a series of three stages of emotional reactions. First is protest, in which the
infant cries and refuses to be consoled by others. Second is despair, in which the infant is
sad and passive. Third is detachment, in which the infant actively disregards and avoids
the parent if the parent returns (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).

The fundamental assumption in attachment research on human infants is that sensitive

responding by the parent to the infant's needs results in an infant who demonstrates
secure attachment, while lack of such sensitive responding results in insecure attachment
(Lamb, Thompson, Gardner, Charnov, & Estes, 1984). Theorists have postulated several
varieties of insecure attachment. Ainsworth originally proposed two: avoidant, and
resistant (also called ambivalent; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). This
triarchic taxonomy of secure, avoidant, and resistant attachment was developed as a way
of classifying infant behavior in the "strange situation."

Secure infants either seek proximity or contact or else greet the parent at a distance with
a smile or wave.
Avoidant infants avoid the parent.
Resistant / ambivalent infants either passively or actively show hostility toward the
parent.

Attachment theory provides not only a framework for understanding emotional reactions
in infants, but also a framework for understanding love, loneliness, and grief in adults.
Attachment styles in adults are thought to stem directly from the working models (or
mental models) of oneself and others that were developed during infancy and childhood.
Ainsworth's three-fold taxonomy of attachment styles has been translated into terms of
adult romantic relationships as follows (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).

Secure adults find it relatively easy to get close to others and are comfortable depending
on others and having others depend on them. Secure adults don't often worry about being
abandoned or about someone getting too close to them.
Avoidant adults are somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; they find it difficult
to trust others completely, difficult to allow themselves to depend on others. Avoidant
adults are nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, love partners want them to be
more intimate than they feel comfortable being.
Anxious / ambivalent adults find that others are reluctant to get as close as they would
like. Anxious / ambivalent adults often worry that their partner doesn't really love them or
won't want to stay with them. Anxious / ambivalent adults want to merge completely with
another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away.

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References
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of
attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.

Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of intimacy: An attachment perspective. Journal of

Social and Personal Relationships, 7, 147-178.

Crnic, L. S., Reite, M. L., & Shucard, D. W. (1982). Animal models of human behavior:
Their application to the study of attachment. In R. N. Emde & R. J. Harmon (Eds.), The
development of attachment and affiliative systems (pp. 31-42). New York: Plenum.

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.

Klopfer, P. H. (1984). Caveats on the use of evolutionary concepts. The Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 7, 156-157.

Lamb, M. E., Thompson, R. A., Gardner, W. P., Charnov, E. L, & Estes, D. (1984).
Security of infantile attachment as assessed in the "strange situation": Its study and
biological interpretation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 127-171.

Novak, M. A., & Harlow, H. F. (1975). Social recovery of monkeys isolated for the first
years of life. Developmental Psychology, 11, 453-465.

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Attachment Theory Links

Attachment Theory: Student Papers in This Website
"Ethological Attachment Theory: A Great Idea in Personality?"
This paper presents a critical review and evaluation of the (primarily infant) attachment
literature. Despite methodological shortcomings in early attachment research, ethological
attachment theory is said to eclipse its nearest rivals. By Patricia Pendry.
"Intimate Relationships: Personality Development Through Interaction During
Early Life"
This paper presents a stage theory of human development from infancy through early
adulthood. By Maren Cardillo.
Attachment Theory: Websites Elsewhere
Attachment Research Center
This website links to a number of papers on attachment theory. By Juan Carlos Garelli.
EXPERSIM Project
Here you can read about imprinting, and design controlled experiments on the
phenomenon. By Gary H. McClelland.
Stonybrook Attachment Theory and Research Website
This website contains much useful material. By Judith Crowell and Everett Bell Waters.
Attachment Theory: Reference Source
Suggested Readings
A list of suggested readings on this topic is also available. By G. Scott Acton.

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Last modified May 1998

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