Digital Transmission Technology An Overview

Digital Transmission System(DTS)
Digital Transmission System-an overview
EETP/BSNL
SILVER CERTIFICATION
COURSE
DIGITAL TRANSMISIION
SYSTEM
VERSION 1 JUNE 2013
EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

For Restricted Circulation
Page 1 of 43
Contents
Sl. No. Name of Topic
Page No.
INTRODUCTION
BUILDING BLOCK OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
EVOLUTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS
10
TYPES OF MULTIPLEXING
16
PULSE CODE MODULATION
19
EVOLUTION OF DIGITAL MULTIPLEXING
21
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORT NETWORK BY

GEOGRAPHY
25
TRANSPORT NETWORK AND THE ROAD ANALOGY
27
10
COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSION NETWORK
27
11
DEVICES USED IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
30
12
GENERAL INSTALLATION PRACTICE FOR TRANSMISSION

EQUIPMENT
39
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
SUMMARY
40
13
14
41

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1 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM-AN OVERVIEW

STRUCTURE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
1.2
OBJECTIVE
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORT NETWORK BY GEOGRAPHY
1.10
TRANSPORT NETWORK AND THE ROAD ANALOGY
1.11
COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSION NETWORK
1.12
DEVICES USED IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
1.13 GENERAL INSTALLATION PRACTICE FOR TRANSMISSION

EQUIPMENT
1.14
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
1.15
SUMMARY
1.16
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.17
REFERENCES
1.1
INTRODUCTION
In earlier times, communication may have involved the use of smoke signals,
drums, semaphore, flags, homing pigeons etc. In the Middle Ages, chains of beacons
were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains
suffered the drawback that they could only pass a single bit of information, so the
meaning of the message such as "the enemy has been sighted" had to be agreed upon
in advance. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, when a
beacon chain relayed a signal from Plymouth to London. The conventional telephone
was invented independently by Alexander Bell in 1876.

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In 1792, Claude, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy
system (or semaphore line) between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered
from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty
kilometers (six to nineteen miles). As a result of competition from the electrical
telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. The first commercial
telephone services were set-up in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of the Atlantic in the
cities of New York and London.
Samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph
that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
The first transatlantic telegraph cable was successfully completed on 27 July
1866, allowing transatlantic telecommunication for the first time
Fig : 1 Advances in phone telephony
Fig : 2 Typical diagram of a Telecom Network

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Telecommunication is the assisted transmission of signals over a distance for

the purpose of communication. It is the technology of transferring information over a
distance.
Information can be of several type:
Audio Telephone
Text - Telegraph, email, SMS
Pictures Picture attachments
Video Clipping over internet
Data ATM to bank.
The same telecom technology/service cannot communicate all the types of

information.
Telecommunications transport networks are the largely unseen infrastructure
that provides local, regional, and international connections for voice, data, and video
signals. In fact, most private networks are implemented by leased connections
through the public transport network infrastructure. Telecommunications and data
communications transport networks are changing rapidly with the introduction of new
technologies that address the need for new value-added services, high availability, and
integration. Equipment vendors and network providers have made considerable effort
to bridge and unify previously dedicated networks to serve the data and
telecommunications market. With the introduction of digital transmission technology,
the most appropriate multiplexing technology was Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM). Digital TDM was used both on copper cable systems and on microwave
radio.
Fig : 3 Simplified communication model

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1.2
OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
1.3
Understand the basics of telecommunication and building blocks of telecom

network.
Understand the different multiplexing techniques
Describe the different types of Transport Network
Differentiate the different components of transmission network.
The most general form of communication system consists of the following

components:
Fig : 4 Communication System Generic Block Diagram
1.3.1
TRANSMITTER:
The upper portion of the channel as a whole is called transmitter.
1.3.1.1 Information Source:

The information provided to a communication system is called baseband.
One may define as any information signal is known as baseband signal".
1.3.1.2 Processing Unit:
The baseband signal is passed through some processing unit where necessary
operations are performed. These operations may include filtering, sampling etc.
This is helpful in separating unwanted information from baseband.
1.3.1.3 Modulation:
The process of modulation is required to make the baseband signal ready for
transmission. The modulator produces a varying signal at its output which is
proportional in some way to the signal appearing across its input terminal
(baseband signal). For example, a sinusoidal modulator may vary the amplitude,
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frequency or phase of a sinusoidal signal in direct proportion to the input baseband.

1.3.1.4 Antenna:
For wireless communication, antenna is used to send modulated information
into the channel or medium.
1.3.1.5 Channel:
The transmission medium or channel is vital link between the systems.
Without it there would be no communication problem. The transmission medium
may include wired transmission line, atmosphere (wireless) which may include the
ionosphere, the troposphere, free space etc.
It causes noise (unwanted addition to baseband signal), attenuation and
distortion in the form of electrical signal. This results in interference with our
error-free reception at receiving end.
1.3.2
RECEIVER:
The portion below the channel as whole called receiver.
1.3.2.1 Demodulation:
The demodulator performs the inverse process of modulator to recover the
information signal in its original form.
1.3.2.2 RF Amplifier:
The RF amplifier is used to tune the receive to frequency of the transmitted
bandwidth.
1.3.2.3 Display Unit:
This shows us the received signal in the form by which we are familiar.
1.4
Transmission systems interconnect communication devices by guiding signal

energy in a particular direction or directions through a transmission medium such as
copper, air, or glass. Described are the key types of transmission systems used in
modern telecommunications networks. This includes multiplexed signals on twisted
wire pairs, coax cable, fiber optic cable and radio. Several technical aspects of
transmission systems are covered including: analog transmission, digital transmission,
and transmission medium limitations
1.
OPEN WIRE SYSTEM
The long distance voice communication till 1950s was almost entirely
transported over Open Wire Carrier system. The voice signals for these systems were
modulated to a higher frequency and carried through open wire systems. These open
wire systems are capable of carrying traffic of three to twelve subscribers at a time.

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Fig : 5 Open Wire Carrier system

2.
COAXIAL SYSTEM
Coaxial Cable (often called coax for short) is high-capacity cable widely used
for high-frequency transmission of telephone, television, and digital audio signals.
The cable is very effective at carrying many analog signals at high frequencies.
Coaxial cables have become an essential component of our information
superhighway. They are found in a wide variety of residential, commercial and
industrial installations. From broadcast, community antenna television (CATV), local
area network (LAN), closed circuit television (CCTV) to many other applications,
coax has laid the foundation for a simple, cost effective communications
infrastructure.
With the introduction of symmetrical pair cable carrier system which was
followed by the Coxial Cable system, greatly enhanced, by the decade end, the
simultaneous voice channel carrying capacity to 960 voice channels. The first Coaxial
Cable System was commissioned between Agra and Delhi in the year 1959. Over the
years this system was improved and developed to carry 2,700 simultaneous voice
channels
Fig : 6 Co-axial cable

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3.
MICROWAVE SYSTEM
Close on the heel of coaxial systems, in the mid of 60s wireless microwave
systems were developed and inducted in the network. The first Microwave system
was installed between Calcutta and Asansole. Microwave systems with 60, 300 and
1800 voice channels capacity were inducted into the telecom network subsequently.
These systems were mostly developed and manufactured with in the country.
Fig : 7 Microwave system

4.
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
By mid of 1980s Digital TAX exchanges were introduced in the network with
the aim to improve STD services. Till 1989 Coaxial cable and UHF transmission
medias were used to provide connectivity. Induction of Digital Transmission Systems
which were mainly Digital UHF, Digital Microwave, Digital Coaxial and Optical
Fiber Systems, started during 1989-90. Under ground coaxial cable was initially used
for the connectivity of large and medium cities and however, later on, it was also used
for connecting small towns. Media diversity is provided through Radio Relay (UHF
and Microwave) Systems. These Radio relay systems were very reliable and
beneficial particularly for connecting hilly and backward areas where laying and
maintenance of underground cable is extremely difficult.
5.
OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM
Introduction of Optical Fiber Cable Systems started in 1989-90. These systems

are capable of carrying large no voice channels compared to the existing technologies
that were available at that time and offer the circuit at low cost per kilometer of
circuit. Department deployed these OFC system in big way for connectivity right upto
the level of Tehsils. By the year 2000 a huge network of optical fiber cable was in
place and a large number of PDH technology (Plesiocronus Digital Hierarchy) OFC
were deployed for providing backbone connectivity to switching network.

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Fig : 8 Typical Optical Fiber System

6.
SATELLITE SYSTEM
Work for connecting far flung, inaccessible area and island community started
in late seventies by Department of Telecommunication. The first Domestic Satellite
Network was established by connecting Port-Blair and Car-Nicobar in Andaman &
Nicobar islands, Kavaratti in Lakshadweep islands, Leh in Ladakh region and Aizwal
in North Eastern region. These station were simultaneously linked to the gateway at
Delhi and Chennai. This satellite network was commissioned in November 1980
through International Telecommunication Satellite. Satellite Communication capacity
increased with lauanch INSAT 1 and INSAT 2 series satellites.
Fig : 9 A Typical Satellite system
1.5
The study of transmission units has a unique importance for communication

engineer who has to maintain and install telecommunication equipment achieving the
standards set up by international consultation committees.
In order to control the quality of wanted signal in the presence of many
undesired signals, we should be able to specify the amount of wanted and unwanted
signals at a point in the telecommunications network.

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1.5.1
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
With analog transmission systems using copper cable there are three major
categories of impairments. They are attenuation, noise, and distortion.
1. Attenuation: There are two commonly used processes to compensate (overcome)
for attenuation or loss:
(a) Repeaters are the most commonly used devices to compensate for "Loss."
However, repeaters amplify the noise along with the signal resulting in a poor
signal to noise ratio.
(b) Signal to Noise Ratio: The ratio of the average signal power (strength) to
the average noise power (strength) at any point in a transmission path.
2. Noise: Any random disturbance or unwanted signal on a transmission facility that
obscures the original signal. Noise is generally caused by the environment in
which the system is operating.
3. Distortion: Inaccurate reproduction of a signal caused by changes in the signal's
waveform, either amplitude or frequency, to compensate for distortion equalizers
may be used. One type of equalizer used in the analog environment is the load
coil. Load coils are used to flatten the frequency response.
Note: Generally the higher the frequency the greater the distortion. That is, the higher
voice frequencies attenuate at a higher rate than the lower voice frequencies.
Noise and distortion on a carrier facility can be separated into two types:
(a) Predictable impairments that are almost always present on our facilities.
(b) Unpredictable impairments those are transient in nature and difficult to overcome.
1.5.2
THE DECIBEL
Historically speaking attenuation was first of all defined in terms of the

attenuation produced by a standard reference cable known as mile of standard
cable. It consists of 88 ohms series impedance and 0.54 F as shunt impedance.
The fundamental objection to this unit was the fact that the attenuation of the
standard cable varied with frequency. With the introduction of systems operating over
different frequency ranges, it became necessary to define a unit which was
independent of frequency .The unit which represents the useful and convenient
concepts in connection with the transmission of signals over telephone lines has been
named and defined as Bel(which comes from the name Alexander Graham Bell -the
inventor of Telephone). In practice, however, a smaller and more convenient unit
called decibel (abbreviated as dB) is used.
1.5.2.1 Decibel (dB)
One tenth of the common logarithm of the ratio of relative powers, equal to
0.1 B (bel). The decibel is the conventional relative power ratio, rather than the bel,
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for expressing relative powers because the decibel is smaller and therefore more
convenient than the bel. The ratio in dB is given by
X = log P2/P1 B
i.e. = 10 log P2/P1 dB
where P 1 and P 2 are the actual powers. Power ratios may be expressed in terms of
voltage and impedance, E and Z, or current and impedance, I and Z. Thus dB is also
given by;
X = 20 log V2/ V1 dB.
(when Z 1 = Z 2 )
Note: The dB is used rather than arithmetic ratios or percentages because when
circuits are connected in tandem, expressions of power level, in dB, may be
arithmetically added and subtracted. For example, in an optical link if a known
amount of optical power, in dBm, is launched into a fiber, and the losses, in dB, of
each component (e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fiber) are known, the overall
link loss may be quickly calculated with simple addition and subtraction.
Example 1
Let us look at the following network:
1W
Net Work
2W
The input is 1W and its output 2W, therefore,

Gain
= 10 log (output)/(input) dB.

= 10 log 2/1 dB= 10 (0.3010) dB=3.101 dB
= 3dB approximately
1.5.3
dBm
Till now decibel has referred to ratios or relative units. We cannot say that the
output of an amplifier is 33 dB. We can say that an amplifier has a gain of 33 dB or
that a certain attenuator has a 6 dB loss. These figures or units don't give any idea
whatsoever of absolute level. Whereas, several derived decibels units do.
Perhaps the dBm is the most common of these. By definition dBm is a power level
related to 1 mw. The most important relationship to remember is:
0 dBm = 1mW.
The dBm formula may then be written as:
Power (in dBm) = 10 log Power (mW)/(1mW)
Example
An amplifier has an output of 20 W; what is its output in dBm?
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Power (dBm) = 10 log 20 W/1 mW = 10 log 20x103 mW/1mW = +43 dBm.

(The plus sign indicates that the quantity is above the level of reference, 0 dBm.)
1.5.4
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
In Analogue Transmission system, the quality of communication is mainly

assessed by the value of Signal to noise ratio.
It is popularly known as SNR. SNR is the ratio of signal power to the noise
power at any point in a circuit. This ratio is usually expressed in Decibels (dB). For
satisfactory operation of a channel the value of SNR should be sufficiently high i.e.,
the signal power should be sufficiently higher than the noise power.
SNR at any point in a circuit is given as SNR = S/N = Signal Power / Noise Power
Both powers are expressed in watts.
Expressing dBs: SNR = 10 log10 (S/N) dB.
Example: Signal voltage Vs = 0.923 V; Noise voltage Vn = 0.267 V, then
calculate the signal-to-noise ratio.
S/N = Vs2 / Vn2 = 0.923/0.267)2 = 11.95
In decibels,
1.5.5
S/N = 10 log10 (11.95) = 10.77 dB.
DIGITAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
In Digital Transmission system, the quality of communication is mainly

assessed by two factors.
1. BER (Bit Error Ratio)
2. Jitter
These two factors can be taken as Quality Factors as they are used for judging the
quality of Digital Transmission.
1.5.5.1 BIT ERRORS
In the digital transmission, the bits transmitted at the transmitting end (1 or 0 )
are not always detected as 1 or 0 at the receiving end. When the transmitted bit 1 or 0
is not identified as 1 or 0 at the receiver, the bit is counted as an error bit.
For assessing the real error performance, the bit error ratio (BER) is to be
calculated instead of actual error bits.
1.5.5.2 Bit Error Rate (BER)
The BER is the measure of error bits with respect to the total number of bits
transmitted in a given time. The total number of bits transmitted can be known from
the bit rate of the digital signal. The bit rate is the number of bits transmitted in one
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second and is specified for each transmission system. Hence, the total number of bits
transmitted in a given time can be counted. In the measurement of BER, generally the
measuring instrument measures the number of bits transmitted in a given time.
The time setting can be from a few seconds to a few hours, depending on the
feasibility. The standards are set by ITU (International Telecommunication Union).
The time set for the measurement of BER, is called gating time. Larger the gating
time better is the assessment of BER. But for the measurement of BER, the Digital
Equipment has to be taken off-line.
Digital communication can just run with one error bit in one thousand bits
received. For more than one error bit, in one thousand bits received, communication
gets affected. For good quality communication, the requirement is, not more than one
error bit in one million bits.
1.5.5.3 Jitter
Abrupt and unwanted variations of one or more signal characteristics, such as
the interval between successive pulses, the amplitude of successive cycles, or the
frequency or phase of successive cycles. Jitter must be specified in qualitative terms
(e.g., amplitude, phase, pulse width or pulse position) and in quantitative terms (e.g.,
average, RMS, or peak-to-peak). The low-frequency cut-off for jitter is usually
specified at 1 Hz. Contrast with drift, wander.
Short term variations of the significant instances of a digital signal from their
reference position in time.( Short term frequency equal to or greater than 10 Hz.).
Long term variations of significant instances of a digital signal from their ideal
positions in time, are called wander. (Long-term variationsfrequency less than 10
Hz).
Jitter, like BER, is transmission impairment. It is not very significant in the
case of voice signal transmission but it has a great impact in the transmission of data
signals, especially with high-speed digital transmission. The present bit rates are as
high as 565 Mb/s and (140 x 16) Mb/s. Today Jitter is considered as a performance
parameter of any digital transmission system.
For example, Jitter due to unwanted phase change is called Phase Jitter. The
amount of change of phase, converted into time, is generally expressed in milliseconds or nano-seconds.
BER and Jitter are the unwanted by products of any transmission system and
they get associated with the transmission path and affect the quality of transmission.
Bit Errors beyond a limit, affect the communication and Jitter in the digital
transmission system, is a source of generation of errors.
Digital Transmission Analyzer (DTA) is used for the measurement of both BER and
Jitter.
1.5.5.4 Digital TRANSMISSION - Performance Criteria ( General)
1 in 106 (1X E 6)
Better

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1 in 105 (1XE 5)
Good
1 in 104 (1XE 4)
Reasonably good
1 in 103 (1XE 3)
Just Acceptable
More than 1 in 103
Unacceptable
Bit errors greatly affect data service.

For data channels 1 in 109 (1.OE 9) is normally realizable.
1.5.6
QUALITY PARAMETERS
To pin point the exact number of seconds or minutes, in which the bit errors
take place and up to what extent, the quality parameters are defined.
The quality parameters are:
1. Error Seconds (ES)
2. Severely Error Seconds (SES)
3. Non Severely Error Seconds (NSES)
4. Degraded Minutes (DM).
1.5.6.1 Error Seconds (ES): Number of one-second intervals with one or more
errors.
1.5.6.2 Severely Error Seconds (SES): Number of one-second intervals with an
error rate, worse than 1.OE-3
1.5.6.3 Non-Severely Error Seconds (NSES): Number of one-second intervals
with an error rate, better than or equal to 1.OE-3.
1.5.6.4 Degraded Minutes (DM): Number of one-second intervals with a bit error
rates worse than 1.OE-6.
1.5.6.5 Available and non-available time
A period of available time begins with a period of ten consecutive seconds
each of which has a BER better than 1.0E-3. These 10 seconds are considered to be
available time.
A period of unavailable time begins when the bit error rate in each second is
worse than 1.0E-3 for a period of 10 consecutive seconds. These 10 consecutive
seconds are considered to be unavailable time.

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1.6
In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (also known as

muxing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams
are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive
resource. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried
using one wire. Multiplexing originated in telegraphy, and is now widely applied in
communications. George Owen Squier is credited with the development of
multiplexing in 1910.
The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which
may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the
high-level communication channel into several low-level logical channels, one for
each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as
demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side.
A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a
device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX). Inverse
multiplexing (IMUX) has the opposite aim as multiplexing, namely to break one data
stream into several streams, transfer them simultaneously over several communication
channels, and recreate the original data stream.
Multiplexing technologies may be divided into several types, all of which have
significant variations: space-division multiplexing (SDM), frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and code division
multiplexing (CDM). Variable bit rate digital bit streams may be transferred
efficiently over a fixed bandwidth channel by means of statistical multiplexing, for
example packet mode communication. Packet mode communication is an
asynchronous mode time-domain multiplexing which resembles time-division
multiplexing.
Digital bit streams can be transferred over an analog channel by means of
code-division multiplexing (CDM) techniques such as frequency-hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS) and direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
In wireless communications, multiplexing can also be accomplished through
alternating polarization (horizontal/vertical or clockwise/counterclockwise) on each
adjacent channel and satellite, or through phased multi-antenna array combined with a
multiple-input multiple-output communications (MIMO) scheme.

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Fig : 10 General multiplex scheme: the input lines-channels are multiplexed into
a single fast line. The demultiplexer receives the multiplexed data stream and
extracts the original channels to be transferred.
1.6.1
SPACE-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
In wired communication, space-division multiplexing simply implies different

point-to-point wires for different channels. Examples include an analogue stereo
audio cable, with one pair of wires for the left channel and another for the right
channel, and a multipair telephone cable. Another example is a switched star network
such as the analog telephone access network (although inside the telephone exchange
or between the exchanges, other multiplexing techniques are typically employed) or a
switched Ethernet network. A third example is a mesh network. Wired space-division
multiplexing is typically not considered as multiplexing.
In wireless communication, space-division multiplexing is achieved by
multiple antenna elements forming a phased array antenna. Examples are multipleinput and multiple-output (MIMO), single-input and multiple-output (SIMO) and
multiple-input and single-output (MISO) multiplexing. For example, a IEEE 802.11n
wireless router with N antennas makes it possible to communicate with N multiplexed
channels, each with a peak bit rate of 54 Mbit/s, thus increasing the total peak bit rate
with a factor N. Different antennas would give different multi-path propagation (echo)
signatures, making it possible for digital signal processing techniques to separate
different signals from each other. These techniques may also be utilized for space
diversity (improved robustness to fading) or beam forming (improved selectivity)
rather than multiplexing.

Page 17 of 43
Fig : 11
1.6.2
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): The spectrum of each input

signal is shifted to a distinct frequency range.
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): The spectrum of each input signal is

shifted to a distinct frequency range.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology.
FDM achieves the combining of several digital signals into one medium by sending
signals in several distinct frequency ranges over that medium.
One of FDM's most common applications is cable television. Only one cable
reaches a customer's home but the service provider can send multiple television
channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers. Receivers must
tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal.[1]
A variant technology, called wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is used
in optical communications.
1.6.3
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital (or in rare cases, analog)

technology. TDM involves sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each
individual input stream, one after the other, and in such a way that they can be
associated with the appropriate receiver. If done sufficiently quickly, the receiving
devices will not detect that some of the circuit time was used to serve another logical
communication path.
Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a central
computer. Each terminal communicated at 2400 bit/s, so rather than acquire four
individual circuits to carry such a low-speed transmission, the airline has installed a
pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 bit/s modems and one dedicated analog
communications circuit from the airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are
also installed.

Page 18 of 43
Fig : 12
1.6.4
Time-division multiplexing (TDM).
CODE-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Code division multiplexing (CDM) or spread spectrum is a class of techniques

where several channels simultaneously share the same frequency spectrum, and this
spectral bandwidth is much higher than the bit rate or symbol rate. One form is
frequency hopping, another is direct sequence spread spectrum. In the latter case, each
channel transmits its bits as a coded channel-specific sequence of pulses called chips.
Number of chips per bit, or chips per symbol, is the spreading factor. This coded
transmission typically is accomplished by transmitting a unique time-dependent series
of short pulses, which are placed within chip times within the larger bit time. All
channels, each with a different code, can be transmitted on the same fiber or radio
channel or other medium, and asynchronously demultiplexed. Advantages over
conventional techniques are that variable bandwidth is possible (just as in statistical
multiplexing), that the wide bandwidth allows poor signal-to-noise ratio according to
Shannon-Hartley theorem, and that multi-path propagation in wireless communication
can be combated by rake receivers.
Code Division Multiplex techniques are used as an channel access scheme,
namely Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), e.g. for mobile phone service and in
wireless networks, with the advantage of spreading intercell interference among many
users. Confusingly, the generic term Code Division Multiple access sometimes refers
to a specific CDMA based cellular system defined by Qualcomm.
Another important application of CDMA is the Global Positioning System
(GPS).
1.7
It was only in 1938, Mr. A.M. Reaves (USA) developed a Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) system to transmit the spoken word in digital form. Since then
digital speech transmission has become an alternative to the analogue systems. Pulsecode modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog
signals. It is the standard form of digital audio in computers, Compact Discs, digital
telephony and other digital audio applications. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the
analog signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, and each sample is quantized
to the nearest value within a range of digital steps
To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following
processing steps are required
Filtering
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Sampling
Quantization
Encoding
Line Coding
Fig : 13
1.7.1
Basic operating steps in PCM
FILTERING
Filters are used to limit the speech signal to the frequency band 300-3400 Hz.
1.7.2
SAMPLING
The process of generating pulses of zero width and of amplitude equal to the
instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal. The no. of pulses per second is called
sampling rate.
1.7.3
QUANTIZATION
It is the process of dividing the maximum value of the analog signal into a
fixed no. of levels in order to convert the PAM into a Binary Code. The levels

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obtained are called quantization levels. The sample is quantified in 256 levels in 30
channel PCM.
A digital signal is described by its bit rate whereas analog signal is described
by its frequency range.
*Bit rate = sampling rate x no. of bits / sample.
1.7.4
ENCODING
Conversion of quantized analogue levels to binary signal is called encoding.

To represent 256 steps, 8 level code is required. The eight bit code is also called an
eight bit "word".
The 8 bit word appears in the form
P
ABC WXYZ
Polarity bit 1 Segment Code
Linear encoding
for + ve 'O' for - ve.
in the segment
The first bit gives the sign of the voltage to be coded. Next 3 bits gives the
segment number. There are 8 segments for the positive voltages and 8 for negative
voltages. Last 4 bits give the position in the segment. Each segment contains 16
positions. Referring to Fig.8, voltage Vc will be encoded as 1 111 0101.
Fig : 14
1.8
Encoding Curve with Compression 8 Bit Code
The evolution of transport technology with the increase in bandwidth demand

is shown in Figure.

Page 21 of 43
The analog voice was digitized and the Plesiochronous Digital (PDH)
techniques were discovered for the transportation of information. Though, these
techniques were popular in the old days, the increasing demand for bandwidth proved
that these techniques have many drawbacks. The highest data rate available in PDH is
140 Mbps and the hardware required for multiplexing and demultiplexing of the
signal is much more than that of in SDH/SONET due to the Plesiochronous signals.
All these drawbacks of the PDH techniques carved the way for todays SDH/SONET
techniques for information transportation over the telecom networks. Both SDH and
SONET techniques are widely used due to their efficiency and reliability. Todays
metro area networks (MANs) are built on legacy SONET/SDH ring infrastructure and
both the SDH & SONET are used to transmit data over voice-optimized SDH/SONET
network resulting in the wastage of bandwidth. The SDH/SONET networks lack the
dynamic functionality and rapid scalability needed to cope-up with the increasing
volumes and unpredictable bandwidth demands. Also, due to the rigid multiplexing
hierarchies in the SDH/SONET standards, the customer cannot avail the flexible data
rates and has to pay more. The next available bandwidth in a SDH network after 10
Gbps is 40 Gbps. e.g. - A customer, who requires, says 20 Mbps, actually has to
subscribe to a 45 Mbps service because of the rigidity in the multiplexing hierarchy,
resulting in the wastage of bandwidth and ending up paying bill for 45 Mbps link.
Fig : 15
Transport Technologies Evolution
Also, customer may demand extra bandwidth for a limited period of time and
may again switch back to a low bandwidth service. The service activation and service
provisioning in both the cases should be quick enough to satisfy the customers
demands. The ports of SDH/SONET network elements are not programmable and the
bandwidth offered by these ports cannot be changed dynamically. If a subscriber
changes his bandwidth demand, the port from which he is getting the service needs to
be changed physically. This is very time-consuming. e.g. An enterprise customer is
having a STM-4 connection initially and he needs to upgrade it to STM-16 for one
Page 22 of 43
month only. The service provisioning and service activation for this requirement
should be quick enough to fulfill the requirement of the customer in minimum time so
that his business is not affected and the customer enjoys the flexibility in the service.
Also, the time required to revert back to the original low bandwidth requirement
should be very less. Time required for designing, deploying and maintaining a
separate voice and data network is very high. To isolate and diagnose the faults
through a complex hierarchical network is a cumbersome task and the operational
expenses to maintain these separate voice and data networks are very high as it needs
a larger workforce.
Considering the limitations of SDH/SONET, what is needed are ways to
manage data-service bandwidth dynamically in small increments, to provide a range
of service guarantees, and to engineer traffic flows more efficiently. So to improve
SDH/SONET into a new generation, while keeping its essential virtues, the main
technological focus is on devising new client-service encapsulations and scrapping the
traditional multiplexing/mapping scheme, replacing it with a more flexible alternative
within the basic SDH/SONET framing.
1.8.1
PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL MULTIPLEXING
With the introduction of PCM technology in the 1960s, communications

networks were gradually converted to digital technology over the next few years. To
cope with the demand for ever higher bit rates, a multiplex hierarchy called the
Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) evolved. The bit rates start with the basic
multiplex rate of 2 Mbit/s with further stages of 8, 34 and 140 Mbit/s. In North
America and Japan, the primary rate is 1.5 Mbit/s. Hierarchy stages of 6 and 44
Mbit/s developed from this. Because of these very different developments, gateways
between one network and another were very difficult and expensive to realize. PCM
allows multiple use of a single line by means of digital time-domain multiplexing.
The analog telephone signal is sampled at a bandwidth of 3.1 kHz, quantized and
encoded and then transmitted at a bit rate of 64kbit/s. A transmission rate of 2048
kbit/s results, when 30 such coded channels are collected together into a frame along
with the necessary signaling information. This so-called primary rate is used
throughout the world. Only the USA, Canada and Japan use a primary rate of 1544
kbit/s, formed by combining 24 channels instead of 30. The growing demand for more
bandwidth meant that more stages of multiplexing were needed throughout the world.
A practically synchronous (or, to give it its proper name: plesiochronous) digital
hierarchy is the result. Slight differences in timing signals mean that justification or
stuffing is necessary when forming the multiplexed signals. Inserting or dropping an
individual 64 kbit/s channel to or from a higher digital hierarchy requires a
considerable amount of complex multiplexer equipment.
Traditionally, transmission systems have been asynchronous, with each
terminal in the network running on its own clock. In digital systems, clocking (timing)
is one of the most important considerations. Timing means using a series of repetitive
pulses to keep the bit rate of the data stream constant and to indicate where the ones
and zeros are located in a data stream. Because these clocks are free running and not
synchronized, large variations occur in the clock rate and thus the signal bit rate.

Page 23 of 43
Fig : 16
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchies (PDH)
The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) signals have the essential

characteristics of time scales or signals such that their corresponding significant
instants occur at nominally the same rate. The prefix plesio, which is of Greek origin,
means almost equal but not exactly, meaning that the higher levels in the CCITT
(ITU today) hierarchy are not an exact multiple of the lower level. Any variation in
rate is constrained within specified limits. The PDH systems belong to the first
generation of digital terrestrial telecommunication systems in commercial use.
Before SDH transmission networks were based on the PDH hierarchy. 2
Mbit/s service signals are multiplexed to 140 Mbit/s for transmission over optical
fiber or radio. Multiplexing of 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s requires two intermediate
multiplexing stages of 8 Mbit/s and 34 Mbit/s. Multiplexing of 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s
requires multiplex equipment known as 2nd, 3rd and 4th order multiplexer.
1.8.2
SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY
SDH is the international version of the standard published by the International

Telecommunications Union (ITU). The basic unit of framing in SDH is a STM-1
(Synchronous Transport Module, level 1), which operates at 155.520 megabits per
second (Mbit/s). Different SDH rates are given below:
STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s
STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s
STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s
STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
SDH in detail will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

Page 24 of 43
1.9
TRANSPORT
CLASSIFICATION
GEOGRAPHY
OF
NETWORK
BY
One traditional approach to classifying transport networks is in relation to

their geographic scope. These classifications are illustrated in Figure. The access
network is that portion of the network that connects the end users (subscribers) to the
edge switching elements in the network. The metropolitan (metro) transport network
is the network that interconnects central offices (COs) within an urban/suburban
region. COs within a metro network are typically directly connected to both access
networks and core long distance networks. These metro COs are typically owned by
the same carrier, and in many cases either allow the carrier to centralize specialized
services (e.g. ISDN or Ethernet routing) in just one CO, or to use different COs for
back-up redundancy for each other (e.g., to take over switching functions in the event
of a failure of the primary CO for that subscriber). The span lengths between metro
COs are typically relatively short. The long distance core transport network provides
the interconnection between metro networks, smaller community COs, service
providers (e.g., Internet), and regional or international gateways. Higher bandwidth
technology typically sees its first deployment in the core network since the longer
facility lengths necessitate more efficient utilization of the facilities. The technology
used in the core networks, however, typically eventually finds its way into the metro
network as the cost of technology decreases and the bandwidth needs of metro
networks increase. From the management, craft training, and equipment inventory
perspectives, it is desirable to have as much commonality as possible between core
and metro networks when they exist within the same carrier. LECs typically have both
metro networks and core networks to provide interconnection within their region.
IECs also typically have both metro and core networks since they often deploy metro
networks in order to more efficiently reach their business/corporate subscribers.
As shown in Figure, both metro and core transport networks can consist of
ring and mesh topologies. Rings have become increasingly popular since they provide
inherent route diversity that can be exploited for protection switching. (See City 1 and
upper portion of the core network.) Rings have also become increasingly popular in
access networks (e.g., City 3). Traffic routing on rings is also more straightforward
than in arbitrary mesh networks.
Ring topologies are not always convenient, however, due to such constraints
as geography or having to use pre-existing right of ways. Arbitrary mesh networks are
constructed in order to use convenient cable routings or, in some cases, allow more
bandwidth-efficient protection schemes. Transport networks often consist of a mix of
ring and mesh sub-networks, including interconnected rings.

Page 25 of 43
Fig : 17
Illustrations of a telecommunications network
Traditionally, a sharp distinction was drawn between transmission and switching

equipment. For the purposes of this white paper, however, transmission and switching
are both considered as part of the transport network. The switches provide the
automatic routing of voice (or data) traffic, while the transmission equipment handled
the multiplexing and facility connections to carry the traffic between the switches. For
example, a voice switch is the equipment to which a subscribers telephone is
connected that does the digit collection when the subscriber dials, and routes the call
according to the number that was dialed. Typical transmission equipment includes
SONET/SDH terminals. The distinction between transmission and switching has
continued to blur over the past 20 years. Transmission networks have increasingly
deployed digital cross connect systems (DCSs) that switch subscribers traffic
between the various DCS interfaces according to a provisioned route. DCS-type
cross-connect capability has increasingly been integrated into add-drop multiplexers
(ADMs).

Page 26 of 43
1.10 TRANSPORT NETWORK AND THE ROAD ANALOGY

The transport network is analogous to any road network of a country as shown
in Figure. The national highway of a country has a greater capacity for vehicle traffic
than the state highway and the city roads. The state highway has less vehicle trafficcarrying capacity than the city road network. Analogous to this, the access part of a
transport network has less capacity than the metro network and the metro part has less
capacity than the core part of the transport network. The transport networks are
deployed using different technologies in the different parts of the network. DSL is a
popular technology deployed in the access network today. SDH/SONET technologies
are widely being used for the deployment of the Metro network and DWDM is used
for the core network.
Fig : 18
Transport Network and Road Analogy
1.11 COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSION NETWORK

1.11.1 DIGITAL DISTRIBUTION FRAME
A Digital Distribution Frame (DDF) is the interface when coaxial cable has to
be terminated, organized or cross-connected in long-distant transport networks, or in
access networks close to subscribers.
In fixed networks, a DDF is installed between the exchange and transmission
equipment, to mention one example. In mobile networks, DDFs can also serve as the
interface between an MSC (Mobile Services Switching Centre) or BSC (Base Station
Controller) and the transmission equipment.
75 ohm Digital Distribution Frames are used to terminate, cross-connect and
inter-connect 75 ohm coaxial cables, and to supervise digital transmission equipment.
In the DDF, signals can be extracted from the desired level to measure incoming and
outgoing signals, allowing the rearrangement or disconnection of traffic.
Page 27 of 43
Fig : 19
1.11.2
DDF
FIBER DISTRIBUTION FRAME
Fiber distribution frame (FDF) provides efficient cable connections between

outside plant cable and equipment in the buildings and communication facilities. FDF
integrates fiber splicing, storage, and cable connections together in single unit.
Fig : 20
FDF

Page 28 of 43
1.11.3
TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENTS
Varieties of transmission equipment are used for connecting the exchanges

(switches), routers etc. in telecom network. It includes
Transmission lines
Optical fiber, Co-axial cable etc.
Microwave stations
Multiplexers
Communications satellites
1.11.4
CONNECTORS
Connectors are vital elements in the Fibre Optics Technology. Connectors can
be defined as a remittable means of arranging transfer of optical energy from one fibre
optic component to another in an optical fibre system. The connector is a mechanical
device mounted on the end of a fiber optic cable, light source, receiver, or housing. It
allows it to be mated to a similar device. The transmitter provides the informationbearing light to the fiber optic cable through a connector. The receiver gets the
information-bearing light from the fiber optic cable through a connector. The
connector must direct light and collect light. It must also be easily attached and
detached from equipment.
There are many different connector types. Table 1 illustrates some types of
optical connectors and lists some specifications. Each connector type has strong
points. For example, ST connectors are a good choice for easy field installations; the
FC connector has a floating ferrule that provides good mechanical isolation; the SC
connector offers excellent packing density, and its push-pull design resists fiber end
face contact damage during unmating and remating cycles.
Table 1: Common Types of Fiber Optic Connectors
Connector
Insertion Loss
Fiber
Type
Applications
0.5--1.0 dB
SM, MM
Datacom, telecom
0.15 db (SM)
0.10 dB (MM)
SM, MM
High-density
interconnection, datacom,
telecom
0.3-1.0 dB
SM, MM
High-density
interconnection
FC
LC
MT Array

Page 29 of 43
0.2-0.45 dB
SM, MM
Datacom, telecom
Type. 0.4 dB
(SM)
Type. 0.5 dB
(MM)
SM, MM
Inter-/intra-building,
security
SC
ST
1.12 DEVICES USED IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

1.12.1 FILTERS
It is sometimes desirable to have circuits capable of selectively filtering one
frequency or range of frequencies out of a mix of different frequencies in a circuit.
Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance
wanted ones, or both.
A circuit designed to perform this frequency selection is called a filter circuit,
or simply a filter. Different types of filters by technology are as given below:
1.12.1.1 Passive Filters
Passive filters are based on combinations of resistors (R), inductors (L) and
capacitors (C) and they do not depend upon an external power supply and/or
they do not contain active components (amplifying elements) such as transistors,
operational amplifiers etc.).
Since they are not restricted by the bandwidth limitations of op amps, they can
work well at very high frequencies. They can be used in applications involving
larger current or voltage levels than can be handled by active devices.
Since they use no active elements, they cannot provide signal gain.
With respect of passed frequency in the filter, we have four categories of filters:
1.12.1.1.1 Low Pass Filter
By definition, a low-pass filter is a circuit offering easy passage to low-frequency
signals and difficult passage to high-frequency signals.
One use of Low Pass Filters (LPF) is to reduce high-frequency noise on signals.
The LPF is also used in the audio amplifiers to limit the maximum input
frequency, usually to 20 kHz.

Page 30 of 43
1.12.1.1.2 High-pass filters

A high-pass filter's task is just the opposite of a low-pass filter: to offer easy
passage of a high-frequency signal and difficult passage to a low-frequency signal.
High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to
non-zero average voltages or RF devices; another use is to set the lowest usable
input signal for amplifiers, which is often 20 Hz for audio amps. They can also be
used in conjunction with a low-pass filter to make a band-pass filter.
1.12.1.1.3 Band-pass filter

There are applications where a particular band, or spread, or frequencies need to
be filtered from a wider range of mixed signals.
Filter circuits can be designed to accomplish this task by combining the properties
of low-pass and high-pass into a single filter. The result is called a band-pass
filter. Creating a band-pass filter from a low-pass and high-pass filter can be
illustrated using block diagrams:
It has got application in Microwave Systems, Microwave duplexers etc.

1.12.1.1.4 Notch or band-reject filter (Wien-Robinson bridge)
A filter with effectively the opposite function of the band-pass is the bandreject or notch filter. Notch filters are used to remove an unwanted frequency
from a signal, while affecting all other frequencies as little as possible.
Band reject filters have been widely used in many microwave circuits and
systems.

Page 31 of 43
1.12.1.2 Active Filter

Active filters use amplifying elements, especially op amps, with resistors and
capacitors in their feedback loops, to synthesize the desired filter characteristics.
Active filters can have high input impedance, low output impedance, and virtually any
arbitrary gain.
Performance at high frequencies is limited by the gain-bandwidth product of
the amplifying elements, but within the amplifier's operating frequency range, the op
amp-based active filter can achieve very good accuracy, provided that low-tolerance
resistors and capacitors are used.
Active filters will generate noise due to the amplifying circuitry, but this can
be minimized by the use of low-noise amplifiers and careful circuit design.
1.12.1.3 Digital filters
A digital filter is programmable, i.e. its operation is determined by a program
stored in the processor's memory. This means the digital filter can easily be
changed without affecting the circuitry (hardware). An analog filter can only
be changed by redesigning the filter circuit.
All digital filters utilize one or more previous inputs and/or outputs.
The current output is the average of the current input and the previous input.
A moving average filter, it has a low pass characteristic and a Finite
Impulse Response
The characteristics of analog filter circuits (particularly those containing active
components) are subject to drift and are dependent on temperature. Digital
filters do not suffer from these problems, and so are extremely stable with
respect both to time and temperature.
Unlike their analog counterparts, digital filters can handle low frequency
signals accurately. As the speed of DSP technology continues to increase,
digital filters are being applied to high frequency signals in the RF (radio
frequency) domain, which in the past was the exclusive preserve of analog
technology.
Digital filters are very much more versatile in their ability to process signals in
a variety of ways; this includes the ability of some types of digital filter to
adapt to changes in the characteristics of the signal.
1.12.1.4 Quartz filters and piezoelectrics

The biggest advantage of quartz is that it is piezoelectric. This means that quartz
resonators can directly convert their own mechanical motion into electrical
signals.

Page 32 of 43
Quartz also has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion which means that
quartz resonators can produce stable frequencies over a wide temperature range.
Quartz crystal filters have much higher quality factors than LCR filters.
1.12.1.5 SAW filters

SAW (surface acoustic wave) filters are electromechanical devices commonly
used in radio frequency applications.
Electrical signals are converted to a mechanical wave in a device constructed of a
piezoelectric crystal or ceramic; this wave is delayed as it propagates across the
device, before being converted back to an electrical signal by further electrodes.
SAW filters are limited to frequencies up to 3 GHz.
1.12.1.6 BAW filters
BAW (Bulk Acoustic Wave) filters are electromechanical devices. BAW filters
can implement ladder or lattice filters.
BAW filters typically operate at frequencies from around 2 to around 16 GHz.
1.12.1.7 Atomic filters
For even higher frequencies and greater precision, the vibrations of atoms must be
used.
Atomic clocks use cesium masers as ultra-high Q filters to stabilize their primary
oscillators.
1.12.1.8 Optical filters
Optical filters selectively transmit light in a particular range of wavelengths, that
is, colors, while blocking the remainder.
They can usually pass long wavelengths only (long-pass), short wavelengths only
(short-pass), or a band of wavelengths, blocking both longer and shorter
wavelengths (band-pass). The pass-band may be narrower or wider; the transition
or cutoff between maximal and minimal transmission can be sharp or gradual.
These types of filters are used in Optical Communication systems for narrowing
down the LASER.
1.12.2
WAVEGUIDES AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Wave guide and transmission line is important, not only for its loss
characteristics, which enter into the path loss calculation, but also for the degree of
impedance matching attainable, because of the effect on echo distortion noise. The
later becomes important with high-density systems having long waveguide runs.
1.12.2.1 Coaxial Transmission Lines
In bands up to 2 GHz, coaxial cable is usually used, and except for very short
runs, it is usually of the air dielectric type.
Typical sizes are: 2.2 cm. diameter.
Cables are flexible enough to provide direct connection at the rear of the antenna
provided that the mount allows direct access in horizontal plane. If the vertical run
of the coaxial cable is down the side of the tower away from the antenna, this can
be easily accomplished.

Page 33 of 43
1.12.2.2 Wave guides

Bands higher than 2 GHz require the use of waveguides almost exclusively and
one of three basic types may be used rigid rectangular, rigid circular, and flexible
elliptical. The latter is of continuous construction, having the advantages of
minimizing the number of flange connection usually of two, one at the antenna
end, one at the equipment end.
1.12.2.3 Rectangular Guide
Rigid rectangular waveguide is the most commonly used, with oxygen-free, high
conductivity copper (OFHC), the recommended material. The types and
approximate characteristics are as follows:
4 GHz band: WR 229 is standard for most installations. It has a loss
of approximately 2.79 dB per 100 meters.
6 GHz band: WR 137 is normally used. It has a loss of approximately
6.6 dB per 100 meters. In cases where, due to high towers, a reduced
transmission loss is required, transitions can be supplied for use with
WR 159, which has a loss of about 4.6 dB per 100 meters.
7-8 GHz: WR 112 is normally used. Attenuation is approximately 8.8
dB per 100 meters.
11 GHz: WR 90 is normally used. Attenuation is approximately 11.5
dB per 100 meters.
12-13 Ghz: WR 75 is normally used. Attenuation is approximately
14.7 dB per 100 meters.
This wave guide is recommended, where extremely low VSWR is required.
1.12.2.4 Circular Guide
Circular waveguide has the lowest loss of all, and in addition, it can support
two orthogonal polarizations within the single guide.
It is also capable of carrying more than one frequency band in the same guide.
For example, WC 281 circular, guide is normally used with horn reflector
antennas to provide two polarizations at 6 GHz.
But circular guide has certain disadvantages. It is practical only for straight
runs, requires rather complicated and extremely critical networks to make the
transitions from rectangular to circular and can have significant moding
problems, when the guide is large enough to support more than one mode for
the frequency range in use.
1.12.2.5 Elliptical Guide
Semi-flexible elliptical waveguide is available in sizes comparable to most of
the standard rectangular guides, with attenuations differing very little from the
rectangular equivalents.
The distinctive features of elliptical guide are that it can be provided and
installed as a single continuous run, with no intermediate flanges. When
carefully transported and installed it can provide good VSWR performance but
relatively small deformations can introduce enough impedance mismatch to
produce severe echo distortion noise. However, usually the effect of small
deformations can be 'tuned' out.
The most commonly used types and their approximate characteristics are as follows:
Page 34 of 43
4
GHz band : EW - 37
Approximately
6
GHz band : EW 56
Approximately
7-8
GHz band : EW 71
Approximately
11
GHz band : EW 107
Approximately
12-13 GHz band : EW 122
Approximately
All attenuation figures given at mid band.
1.12.3
2.8
5.7
8.2
12.1
14.7
dB per 100 meters

dB per 100 meters
dB per 100 meters
dB per 100 meters
dB per 100 meters
ANTENNAS:
The words antenna (plural: antennas) and aerial are used interchangeably; but
usually a rigid metallic structure is termed an antenna and a wire format is called an
aerial. Antennas have practical uses for the transmission and reception of radio
frequency signals such as radio and television. In air, those signals travel very quickly
and with a very low transmission loss. The signals are absorbed when moving through
more conductive materials, such as concrete walls or rock. When encountering an
interface, the waves are partially reflected and partially transmitted through. Different
types of antenna and their application are as given in table:
Sl.
No.
Type of Antenna
Applications
1.
Monopole antennas used for Broadcasting, car

radio and mobile communications commonly rely
on the body of the vehicle to provide the ground
plane.
2.
A common example of a dipole is the "rabbit ears"

television antenna found on broadcast television
sets
3.
Loop antennas are frequently used for receiving

applications such as pagers, radio direction finding
and as field strength probes used in wireless
measurements.

Page 35 of 43
4.
This antenna is suitable for vehicular

communication when the antenna is deployed on
the roof top of the vehicle and as a RFID (Radiofrequency identification) tag antenna.
5.
The helix antenna is a travelling wave antenna,

which means the current travels along the antenna
and the phase varies continuously. It has a wide
bandwidth. The antenna produces radio waves
with circular polarisation. In the axial mode, the
helix dimensions are at or above the wavelength of
operation. It is suitable for applications in
broadband satellite communications.
The radiation field of this mode is elliptically
polarized in all directions. The normal mode or
broadside helix, the dimensions of the helix (the
diameter and the pitch) are small compared with
the wavelength. It is used for GPS.
6.
7.
The horn antenna is used in the transmission and

reception of RF microwave signals, and the
antenna is normally used in conjunction with
waveguide feeds. One particular use of horn
antennas themselves is for short range radar
systems.
8.
A Yagi-Uda array, commonly known simply as a

Yagi antenna, is a directional antenna. A Yagi-Uda
antenna is familiar as the commonest kind of
terrestrial TV antenna to be found on the rooftops
of houses. It is usually used at frequencies between
about 30MHz and 3GHz.
9.
Parabolic antennas are used as high-gain antennas

for point-to-point communications, in applications
such as microwave relay links that carry telephone
and television signals between nearby cities,
wireless
WAN/LAN
links
for
data
communications, satellite communications and
spacecraft communication antennas.

Page 36 of 43

10.
1.12.4

Cassegrain: In this antenna the feed is located on
or behind the dish. Advantage of this configuration
is that the feed, with its and front end electronic
does not have to be suspended in front of this, so it
is used for antenna with bulky feed such as large
satellite communication antenna and radio
telescope. Aperture efficiency is on the order of
65-70%.
Gregorian: Similar to the Cassesgrain design
except that the secondary reflector is concave in
the shape. Extensive terrestrial microwave links,
such as those between cell phone base stations,
and wireless WAN/LAN applications have also
proliferated this antenna type. Earlier applications
included ground-based and airborne radar and
radio astronomy. The aperture efficiency over 70%
can be achieved.
AMPLIFIERS
An electronic amplifier, amplifier, or (informally) amp is an electronic device

that increases the power of a signal. It does this by taking energy from a power supply
and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with larger amplitude.
In this sense, an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply.
There are many types of electronic amplifiers, commonly used in radio and
television transmitters and receivers, high-fidelity ("hi-fi") stereo equipment,
microcomputers and other electronic digital equipment, and guitar and other
instrument amplifiers. Critical components include active devices, such as vacuum
tubes or transistors. A brief introduction to the many types of electronic amplifier
follows.
1.12.4.1 Valve amplifier
According to Symons, while semiconductor amplifiers have largely displaced
valve amplifiers for low power applications, valve amplifiers are much more cost
effective in high power applications such as "radar, countermeasures equipment, or
communications equipment". Many microwave amplifiers are specially designed
valves, such as the klystron, traveling wave tube, and these microwave valves provide
much greater single-device power output at microwave frequencies than solid-state
devices
1.12.4.2 Transistor amplifiers
The essential role of this active element is to magnify an input signal to yield a
significantly larger output signal. The amount of magnification (the "forward gain") is
determined by the external circuit design as well as the active device. Many common
active devices in transistor amplifiers are bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and metal
oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). Applications are numerous;
some common examples are audio amplifiers in a home stereo or PA system, RF high
power generation for semiconductor equipment, to RF and Microwave applications
such as radio transmitters.

Page 37 of 43
1.12.4.3 Operational amplifiers (op-amps)

An operational amplifier is an amplifier circuit with very high open loop gain
and differential inputs that employs external feedback to control its transfer function,
or gain. Though the term today commonly applies to integrated circuits, the original
operational amplifier design used valves.
1.12.4.4 Fully differential amplifiers
A fully differential amplifier is a solid state integrated circuit amplifier that
uses external feedback to control of its transfer function or gain. It is similar to the
operational amplifier, but also has differential output pins. These are usually
constructed using BJTs or FETs.
1.12.4.5 Video amplifiers
These deal with video signals and have varying bandwidths depending on
whether the video signal is for SDTV, EDTV, HDTV 720p or 1080i/p etc.. The
specification of the bandwidth itself depends on what kind of filter is usedand at
which point (-1 dB or -3 dB for example) the bandwidth is measured. Certain
requirements for step response and overshoot are necessary for an acceptable TV
image.
1.12.4.6 Oscilloscope vertical amplifiers
These deal with video signals that drive an oscilloscope display tube, and can
have bandwidths of about 500 MHz. The specifications on step response, rise time,
overshoot, and aberrations can make designing these amplifiers difficult. One of the
pioneers in high bandwidth vertical amplifiers was the Tektronix Company.
1.12.4.7 Distributed amplifiers
These use transmission lines to temporally split the signal and amplify each
portion separately to achieve higher bandwidth than possible from a single amplifier.
The outputs of each stage are combined in the output transmission line. This type of
amplifier was commonly used on oscilloscopes as the final vertical amplifier. The
transmission lines were often housed inside the display tube glass envelope.
1.12.4.8 Switched mode amplifiers
These nonlinear amplifiers have much higher efficiencies than linear amps,
and are used where the power saving justifies the extra complexity.
1.12.4.9 Microwave amplifiers
1.12.4.9.1 Travelling wave tube amplifiers
Traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) are used for high power
amplification at low microwave frequencies. They typically can amplify across a
broad spectrum of frequencies; however, they are usually not as tunable as klystrons.
1.12.4.9.2 Klystrons
Klystrons are are specialized linear-beam vacuum-devices, designed to
provide high power, widely tunable amplification of millimetre and sub-millimetre
waves. Klystrons are designed for large scale operations and despite having a
narrower bandwidth than TWTAs, they have the advantage of coherently amplifying a
Page 38 of 43
reference signal so its output may be precisely controlled in amplitude, frequency and
phase.
1.12.4.10
Musical instrument amplifiers
An audio power amplifier is usually used to amplify signals such as music or
speech. Several factors are especially important in the selection of musical instrument
amplifiers (such as guitar amplifiers) and other audio amplifiers (although the whole
of the sound system components such as microphones to loudspeakers.
1.12.4.11
Optical Amplifier
An optical amplifier is a device which amplifies the optical signal directly
without ever changing it to electricity. The light itself is amplified. There are various
types of optical amplifiers are used in optical communication:
1.12.4.11.1
Semiconductor optical amplifiers
Semiconductor optical amplifiers are similar in construction to semiconductor
lasers. Optical gain occurs as excited electrons in the semiconductor material are
stimulated by incoming light signals. The gain is usually sufficient for single channel
operation but in a WDM system you usually want up to a few mW per channel.
1.12.4.11.2
Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA)
Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) most common commercially available
optical amplifier since the early 1990s and works best in the range 1530 to 1565 nm
And the gain is up to 30dB.
Amplification is achieved by stimulated emission of photons from dopant ions
in the doped fibre.
1.12.4.11.3
Raman amplifier
In a Raman amplifier, the signal is intensified by Raman amplification. Unlike
the EDFA and SOA the amplification effect is achieved by a nonlinear interaction
between the signal and a pump laser within an optical fibre. There are two types of
Raman amplifier: distributed and lumped. A distributed Raman amplifier is one in
which the transmission fibre is utilised as the gain medium by multiplexing a pump
wavelength with signal wavelength, while a lumped Raman amplifier utilises a
dedicated, shorter length of fibre to provide amplification.
1.12.5
SOURCES AND DETECTORS
In optical communication sources are used at the transmitter end to convert

electrical signal to optical and the detectors are used to convert optical signal to
optical signal at the receiving end of optical fiber system. Typical sources are LED
and LASER diode. APD and PIN diodes are used as a detector.
1.13 GENERAL
INSTALLATION
TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
PRACTICE
FOR
The following chronological order is generally used for installation of any equipment
work.
1. Receipt of equipment and safety keeping in stores.
2. Opening of packing cases and check of items as per packing list.
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3. Safety transportation of equipment to each site and with proper equipment

configuration.
4. Physical installation of steel iron structure as per approved lay out plan
(Location, Alignment & Rigidity). The distance between two suits may taken
1.5 meter. Keep the proper distance from wall to handle the eqpt. and to keep
testing instruments/LCT near eqpt. The equipment room should be provided
with antistatic facilities and the floor supports properly grounded, with the
grounding resistance and antistatic facilities meeting relevant requirements.
Make sure that the grounding cables are laid as designed, the air-conditioner
has been installed and is in good condition, and the corridors of the
equipment room are clean.
5. The room should have sufficient space for the equipment and its maintenance
paths. There should be more than 800mm space between two rows of racks
and between wall and racks for operators to open the racks.
6. Main earthing work along runways, Main DC box and suit DC box
installation.
7. Physical installation of FDF, Eqpt racks, DDF.
8. Mounting of Power supply S/R, Equipment Subrack.
9. Earthing and station DC power supply cabling to each Rack and Subrack.
10. Insertion of modules/ cards in Proper slots/ positions with proper tool.
11. EOW installation and its cabling.
12. Station Alarm wiring to Main Alarm Panel.
13. External Clock wiring for synchronization of Equipment.
14. 2 Mbps Signal from Equipment subrack 2 mb interface to DDF rack 120
ohms.
15. Powering of equipment.
16. Configuration/ provisioning of equipment.( Node name, Node IP/NSAP
address, modules configuration, cross connections, Synchronization, Node
map, Protection etc.)
17. Local and through testing.
18. Offering for A/T.
19. Loading of Traffic.
1.14 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

Initiatives to be taken by maintenance personnel in the best interest of the
systems health
1.14.1
ROLE OF MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL
Keeping a watch on the system's health, trouble fixing and programming

periodic routining strategy in advance form the major functions to be performed by
the maintenance personnel. In addition to above, following functions also require
human attention:
1. Co-ordination with remote station for trunk testing.
2. Providing the necessary feedback to the support centre.
3. Day to day logging of important observations and maintenance actions.
1.14.2
WATCH ON SYSTEM'S HEALTH
This involves ensuring periodic dump of desired information, scanning

reports generated by the system and verifying systems integrity with a view to

Page 40 of 43
uncover any abnormalities in system's behavior, and being vigilant towards the
audio-visual alarms raised by the system
System, on its own initiative, keeps generating various reports regarding
systems health as and when significant events take place. Maintenance personnel too
can programme the system in advance, for generating various periodic reports
including the following. Such reports are to be scanned daily to enable them to track
system's health on a day-to-day basis.
Scanning Spontaneously Generated Reports
Verifying System's Integrity
Trouble-Fixing
Periodic Routining
Deciding a Schedule
Conveying the Schedule to System
Scanning Routining Reports
1.14.3
LOGS TO MAINTAIN
1.14.3.1 GENERAL
All observations and maintenance actions are to be logged in a sequential
manner. From this log, a daily report can then be prepared which provides useful
information in a structured manner. Daily reports help in compiling information
regarding system's performance which is of interest to external agencies such as the
support center.
History Register
System Log Book
In this log book, faults description of every type is written. Any activity related to
system is to be noted down in log book.
Spare Card inventory Register- A register is kept to record the spare parts.
.
1.15 SUMMARY
A communications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and
communications channels that send messages to one another. Some digital
communications networks contain one or more digital exchanges that work together
to transmit information to the correct user. An analog communications network
consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between two or more
users. For both types of network, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate
the signal when it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat
attenuation that can render the signal indistinguishable from the noise. Another
advantage of digital systems over analog is that their output is easier to store in
memory i.e. two voltage states (high and low) are easier to store than a continuous
range of states.
Digital transmission is started with the evolution of Pulse code Modulation
(PCM) in 1938 by Mr. A.M. Reaves (USA). Afterward PDH came in effect with
different level of multiplexing. The early fiber optic systems were built on the existing
PDH multiplexing approach, with each vendor typically using its own proprietary
multiplexing frame format for the higher rate signals. Hence, there were few
economies of scale and almost no cases where different vendors equipment could
inter-work. This meant that at a carrier-to-carrier interface, both carriers would have
Page 41 of 43
to agree to a common equipment vendor if they wanted an optical interconnection.

The desire for a standard hierarchy for fiber optic signals was one of the primary
drivers for the development of the SONET and SDH standards.
1.16 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. The PDH signals 2.048 Mbit/s signal carries voice channels.
2. .. are the most commonly used devices to compensate for "Loss."
3. The ratio of the average signal power (strength) to the average noise power
(strength) at any point in a .. path.
4. are used to flatten the frequency response.
5. Doubling the power means a dB gain.
6. The is the measure of error bits with respect to the total number of
bits transmitted in a given time.
7. Digital Transmission Analyzer (DTA) is used for the measurement of both
.. and Jitter.
8. Long term variations of significant instances of a digital signal from their
ideal positions in time, are called...
9. are used to limit the speech signal to the frequency band 3003400 Hz in PCM
10. The is that portion of the network that connects the end users
(subscribers) to the edge switching elements in the network.
11. The transport network is analogous to .. of a country
12. SDH/SONET technologies are widely being used for the deployment of
the Metro network and DWDM is used for the.
13. The information provided to a communication system is called...
14. The process of is required to make the baseband signal ready for
transmission.
15. In Analogue Transmission system, the quality of communication is mainly
assessed by the value of.
16. In telecommunications, is a method by which multiple analog
message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a
shared medium.
17. . is the process of dividing the maximum value of the analog signal into
a fixed no. of levels in order to convert the PAM into a Binary Code.
18. PDH stands for
19. In fixed networks, a DDF is installed between the exchange and .
Equipment.
20. Fiber distribution frame (FDF) provides efficient cable connections
between .. cable and equipment in the buildings and
communication facilities.
21. connector offers excellent packing density.
22. The is a mechanical device mounted on the end of a fiber optic
cable, light source, receiver, or housing.
23. .. are electronic circuits which perform signal processing
functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from
the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.

Page 42 of 43
24. Unlike their analog counterparts, . can handle low frequency

signals accurately.
25. A .. is programmable, i.e. its operation is determined by a program
stored in the processor's memory.
26. Bands higher than 2 GHz require the use of .
27. have practical uses for the transmission and reception of radio
frequency signals such as radio and television.
28. antennas are used as high-gain antennas for point-to-point
communications, in applications such as microwave relay links.
29. . are used for high power amplification at low microwave
frequencies.
30. An is a device which amplifies the optical signal directly without
ever changing it to electricity.
31. . help in compiling information regarding system's
performance which is of interest to external agencies such as the support
center.
Answer: 30, Repeaters, transmission, Load coils, 3 dB, BER, BER, wander,
Filters, International Telecommunication Union, access network, any road
network, core network, baseband, modulation, Signal to noise ratio, multiplexing,
Quantization, Plesiochronous digital hierarchy, transmission, outside plant, SC,
connector, Electronic filters, digital filters, digital filter, waveguides, Antennas,
Parabolic, Traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs), optical amplifier, Daily
reports
1.17 REFERENCES
www.cs.uccs.edu
faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/
http://asupport.com/help/network_types.htm
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation
www.telemetry-products.com/sites/default/files/PCM_Tutorial.pdf
M. Elanti, S. Gorshe, L. Raman, and W. Grover, Next Generation Transport

Networks Data, Management, and Control Plane Technologies, Springer, 2005.
www.telecomabc.com/a/astn.html
S. Gorshe, A Tutorial on SONET/SDH Technology White Paper, PMC-Sierra,
www.cisco.com/en
www.springer.com

Page 43 of 43

Digital Transmission Technology An Overview

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Digital Transmission Technology An Overview

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Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

BUILDING BLOCK OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

EVOLUTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

PULSE CODE MODULATION

EVOLUTION OF DIGITAL MULTIPLEXING

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORT NETWORK BY

TRANSPORT NETWORK AND THE ROAD ANALOGY

COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSION NETWORK

DEVICES USED IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

GENERAL INSTALLATION PRACTICE FOR TRANSMISSION

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

1 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM-AN OVERVIEW

BUILDING BLOCK OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

EVOLUTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

PULSE CODE MODULATION

EVOLUTION OF DIGITAL MULTIPLEXING

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORT NETWORK BY GEOGRAPHY

TRANSPORT NETWORK AND THE ROAD ANALOGY

COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSION NETWORK

DEVICES USED IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

1.13 GENERAL INSTALLATION PRACTICE FOR TRANSMISSION

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

Fig : 1 Advances in phone telephony

Fig : 2 Typical diagram of a Telecom Network

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

Telecommunication is the assisted transmission of signals over a distance for

The same telecom technology/service cannot communicate all the types of

Fig : 3 Simplified communication model

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

After reading this unit, you should be able to:

Understand the basics of telecommunication and building blocks of telecom

BUILDING BLOCK OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The most general form of communication system consists of the following

Fig : 4 Communication System Generic Block Diagram

1.3.1.1 Information Source:

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

frequency or phase of a sinusoidal signal in direct proportion to the input baseband.

EVOLUTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Transmission systems interconnect communication devices by guiding signal

OPEN WIRE SYSTEM

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

Fig : 5 Open Wire Carrier system

Fig : 6 Co-axial cable

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Digital Transmission System-an overview

Fig : 7 Microwave system

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM