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THIRTY-SECOND CONFERENCE

FABRICATION OF STEEL PIPEWORK


By J. H. BECKLEY
Introduction
The sugar industry is to some extent dependent upon steel tube
for production, and failure of a pipe installation could result in costly
delays. I t is important therefore, that the engineers associated with
the industry should have a sound knowledge of the various codes that
have been developed to cover the design and fabrication of pipework.
This paper briefly describes the more important aspects of these codes,
and outlines the various methods used to fabricate steel tube.

Calculating Tube Wall Thickness for Pressure Purposes


British Standard No. 806-"Ferrous Pipes and Piping Installations
for and in connection with Land Boilers" has been endorsed as Australian
Standard No. B.65. This code covers most aspects of the design of steam
and feed pipework and serves as a basis for the design of other pipework
used for pressure purposes. The formula for calculating tube wall thickness
PD
has been derived from the well-known Barlow's formula of t c= 2s
where t = the wall thickness, P =: the design pressure, D == the diameter
of the tube, and S = the allowable stress.
PL)
The formula given in Clause 63 Part 5 of AS.B65 is t =
2 (se YP)
and the allowable stress ( S ) at the design temperature, the efficiency of
the longitudinal joint (e) for the various types of tube and the various
values for 'y' are all clearly set out. The code requires the value of 't'
to be multiplied by 1.125 if the tube is to be bent and depending upon
the size and wall thickness of tube, an extra percentage must be allowed
to ensure that ii the tube as ordered is rolled to the minimum wall thickness as allowed by the manufacturing code, then the final thickness
is suitable for the working conditions.

Branch Design
Where a branch is required on a main, allowance must be made
for the weakening effect of the hole which is cut in the main to form
the branch. The method of calculating the strength of a branch pipe is
set out in AS.B66 Clause 79 and where two or more branches are fitted
in close proximity, allowance must also be made for the effect of one
branch upon the other.
As an example of the weakening effect a branch exerts on a main,
a pipe with a 90" unreinforced equal branch has a safe working pressure
of only 70 per cent of the safe working pressure of the straight pipe.
Reinforcement to compensate for the metal cut out of the main to form
the branch can be added (a) by fitting compensating rings, (b) by a
technique developed by Stewarts and Lloyds Limited, known as "Triform
Reinforcement".

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TH I RTY-SECOND CONFERENCE

Fig. l-Triform

reinforced Tee piece.

Typical details of the latter method using three horseshoe shaped


reinforcing sections welded around the branch axe shown in Figure 1.
The fitting of reinforcement to a branch pipe is costly and can often be
avoided by slightly thickening the main and branch pipes.
the design of steam or other hot product mains
is sufficientlyflexible to absorb its own expansion
without exerting undue force on equipment to which it connects, or
developing stresses in excess of the allowable maximum in the pipe
itself. Expansion can be absorbed by the use of expansion bends, bellows
and joints, all of these methods requiring special guides and anchors.
If possible, these special devices should be avoided and the route of the
main selected to allow sufficient flexibility to give trouble free service.
The expansion allowance per 100 feet of pipeline is set out in Table
6 of AS.B65. Stresses and thrusts due to expansion are reduced by prestressing or applying "cold-draw" to steam mains and other hot product
lines. The minimum amount of cold draw which should be allowed is
50 per cent of the total expansion, but modern practice is to pre-stress
the main to the maximum allowable stress in the cold condition, thus
substantially relieving the stress on the pipework and connecting equipment .in the hot condition.
Several methods are available for the computation of the stresses,
thrusts and bending moments of a main operating at a high temperature.
The method used by Stcwarts and Lloyds is that set out in a paper by
Thyer [l]. This method has been further developed by this company
and has now been incorporated in a computor programme which can
be used to ascertain stresses, thrusts, moments and movements in three
planes in mains having up to six anchor points.
Ben
Both hot and cold processes are used to form bends in tube. AS.1365
lists the permissible minimum radii to which the various sizes of tube
may be bent, making allowance for the reduction in wall thickness as
covered by the Code. Tubes can be bent to a smaller radius, but additional
wall thickness must be provided to allow for the greater thinning which
takes place in a tight radius bend.
For hot bending the pipes are tightly packed with sand or river
gravel, which supports the pipe wall during the bending process and
thus prevents collapse or deformation of the tube. The arc length of the

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TW IRTY-SECOND CONFERENCE

Fig. 2--Cross-section

of typical pipe heating furnace.

bend is determined and in a special oil fired furnace in which the heat
length can be adjusted, a length slightly longer than that required for
the arc of the bend is heated to a temperature of approximately L,LooC
maximum. A typical cross section of the type of furnace used is shown
in Figure 2.
The bending table consists of a number of heavy caqt iron blocks.
One end of the tube is securely anchored, whilst the heated section is
pulled around a former, the shape of the bend having been first marked
offon the table to obtain the bending angle. A typical diagrammatic
layout of the bending table etc., is shown in Figure 3. Cold bending
can be carried out with bending machines employing either "compression"
or "tension" principles of bending.

I
Fig. 3-Typical

FalmAG

set up

for bending.

In compression bending the tube is forced around a shaped former


of the required radius by means of a rotating arm fitted with a roller.
Deformation of the tube is prevented by the circular shape in which the
tube is held during the bending operation. This system of bending is
&own diagrammatically in Figure 4. Very good bends can be obtained
with un-packed tubes bent to a minimum radius of four to five times
the bore diameter. This type of machine is extensively used for the
manipulation of boiler tubes.
Tension bending is carried out using a rotat
former to which the
tube is clamped. Rotation of the former pulls the tube into the shaped

THIRTY-SECOND CONFERENCE

1965

STATIONARY
FORMER

Fig. 4---Compression bending.

groove. To resist the side thrust a shaped slipper is used and as with
compression bending, deformation is prevented by the circular shape
in which the tube is held. For small radii bends down to one and a half
to two times the bore diameter, additional support is required and a
mandrel is held in the bore of the tube located so that it supports the
outer surface of the bend and maintains the circular cross section through
the bend. Tight radius bends for superheaters are bent on this type of
machine and they are also used for the manufacture of tubular furniture.
e 5 shows general details of this system of bending.
ROTAT I
BENDING FORM

Fig. 5-Tension

bending.

Bends can also be formed using either the fully gussetted technique
or the cut and shut type bend. In the fully gussetted type angular segmental sections are cut and welded together to form a bend of the required
angle. The minimum requirements are that the angle between adjacent
segments does not exceed 30" and the width of the throat of each segment
is not less than one and a half inches. This type of bend is used
for large diameter rolled and welded pipes and care should be taken
to ensure that the location of the longitudinal weld in the various segments
is staggered to avoid the formation of crucifix welds. The cut and shut
process gives a better form to the bend and typical details of the preparation of the pipe are given in Figure 6.
Gussetted bends are permitted by the Pipe Welding Code CB.15
for pressures up to 250 pounds per square inch, but at this pressure
great care would have to be taken to ensure that complete penetration
of the weld between the segments is obtained and the requirements
of the Code in regard to circumferential buttwelds must be observed
in welding this type of bend. Bends of this type are normally used for
low pressure systems. Gussetted and cut and shut type bends are avoided

TH IRTY-SECOND CONFERENCE

95

@-POINTS AT WHICH HWT IS APPJ~Q


MbXlMUM

CHANGE OF-

LINE AT EACH CUT

- 30

bPPWX

SUITABLE HOLE DRILLED AT THE END Cf C-l?

VIEW AFTFH BENOIMii

Fig. 6---Cut and shut bend.

in high pressure pipework where small radii can be obtained by the use
of hot forged long or short radius elbows manufactured in accordance
with BS.1640.
Buttwelding elbows formed to this standard are manufactured
with a radius equal to the bore for short radius elbows and one and a
half times the bore for long radius elbows. These bends are formed by
a process which avoids thinning on the back of the bend and are suitable
for pressures equal to straight pipe of similar dimensions.

Methods of Joining Pipes


Various methods of joining pipes are adopted, the three most common
being by screwed connection, flanges or by welding. Other types of
joints such as Victaulic and Viking Johnson joints using rubber rings
for the sealing medium are also employed, various grades of rubber
being used for different purposes.
Screwed joints are usually adopted for low pressvres and temperatures but flanges and welding can be used for all conditions for which
the tube or flange is designed. BS.10, which is now entitled "Flanges
and Bolting for Pipes, Valves and Fittings", and gives dimensions of all
standard flanges, has recently been extensively revised and has been
endorsed as Australian Standard B.52.
This code now includes a flange rating table whereby the allowable
pressure for all flange tables decreases as the temperature increases and
vice versa. For example, Table 'H' flanges are now suitable for 250
pounds per square inch at 80QF, but the allowable pressure drops to
115 pounds per square inch at 900F, and rises again to 500 pounds
per square inch for temperatures up to 450F.
Welded on flanges are now widely used and the methods of welding
the flange to the tube are given in Clause 77, of AS.B65. The four main
methods being :-Type l. Welding neck type flange where the flange is secured to
the pipe by circumferential weld. The end of the flange
is machined to match the pipe bore and outside diameter.
Type 2. Face and back welded on flanges.
Type 3. Bore and back welded on flanges.
These three types of flanges are suitable for all design and pressure
conditions.

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IRTY-SECOND CONFERENCE

Type 6. Bore and rear fillet welds--(slip on type flanges)-These


flanges are suitable for all d
and pressure conditions
covered by British Standard Flange Tables up to and
including 750 pounds per square inch and Table 'H'.
Figure 7 shows the above types of flanges.

TrP ~ I

~JLE-2

Fig. 7-Types

TLPE~

of welded flanges.

Five other variations of these welding preparations are also given


in AS.B05 and show the welding preparation for positional welds, and
for limited temperature and pressure conditions. Normally the faces of
flanges Tables 'E' to 'F' inclusive are machined with a flat surface, but
for flanges over Table 'F', a raised face with a gramophone finish is
employed.

Oxy-acetylene welding and manual metallic arc welding are now


used' for pipework for all operating pressures and temperatures. A welded
joint gives maintenance free service and is adopted in major power
stations operating at pressures of up to 2,450 pounds per square inch
at temperatures of 1,050F. Entire steam mains including the connections
to valves, boilers and turbines are all welded.
Acceptable methods for preparing pipe ends for welding and the
special requirements for all welding of pressure pipework are given in
Australian Standard No. CB.15. A plain buttweld is used for most low
pressure installations, but buttwelding using a backing ring is preferred
for higher pressures and temperatures. A straight 35" bevel with & inch
toe, is used for pipes up to approximately 2 inch thickness, but
a 'J' shape welding preparation is employed for thicker pipes to reduce
the amount of weld metal which is to be deposited. Figure 8
of some of the various types of welding preparations. Whilst the backing

Fig. 8--Tube

end preparation for butt weld.

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THIRTY-SECOND CONFERENCE

97

ring is not essential for high pressure welds, it helps to ensure that complete
root penetration is achieved, guarantees alignment of the pipe bores,
and minimizes the possibility of cracking of the base run of weld.
A requirement of the Code for Pipe Welding, CB.15 is that the
bores of adjacent pipes should match exactly. The permissible variations
are shown in Table 1.
TABLE I--Permissible variations in bores of adjacent pipes for welding
".-

Nominal bore
inches

..

U p t o and including 4
Over 4 up t o and including 1 6 '
Over 10 up t o and including 24

:. :.

.
.
p

Maximum permissible
difference in internal
Maximum out of
diameter
alignment at the bore
inches
inches

Manufacturing tolerances generally allow a greater bore variation


than that given above and it is usually necessary to match the bores
of adjoining pipes either by machining or expanding.

Branch Welds
In a branch, welds must conform to the requirements of the
Australian Code for pipe welding, CB.15. For high pressure work, two
methods of attaching are adopted, a. 'set on', b. 'set in'. Sectional views
of these two types of welding are shown in Figure 9. The root gap and
the angle of bevel are designed to enable full penetration to be achieved,
but where possible an internal sealing run should be applied. The 'set on'
type of welding also allows the weld to be carried out using a temporary
backing ring which can be machined out after welding, thus ensuring
complete penetration of the branch weld.
For low pressure pipework, the end of the branch may be cut to
follow the profile of the main pipe and square to the centre-line, a bevelled
weld preparation not being required. An internal sealing weld is particularly desirable in this type of branch welding preparation.

Fig. 9---Weld

preparations for branches.

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98

Prior to any welding being carried out, preheat as shown in Tables.


I1 and I11 should be applied.
Il-Preheating
I

temperatures for gas welding


I

Thickness
U p t o and including 11/16" . .
Over 11/16" up t o & including 718"
Over 718"
.. .

..

Ill-Preheating

..
..
..

l1-

---

Minimum preheating temperature


-

Carbon steels
100C (211F)
200C (392F)
300C (572F)

-..

Alloy steels
200C (392F)
200C (392F)
300C (572F)

temperatures for metal-arc welding


I
T-TPreheating temp.
(minimum)
Thickness

Parent metal
Carbon steel (up t o 0.26%)

..

Carbon steel (0.26-0.40x) . .


Chromium-molybdenum steel

..

up t o and including
3 14"
Over 314"
all thicknesses
all thicknesses

Following welding, stress relieving is carried out at the following


temperatures :
For carboa steels-within the range of 600-650C.
For alloy steels-within the range of 630-660C.
These temperatures are maintained for approximately one hour per
inch of pipe thickness with a minimum of half an hour.
Pipework 44 inches outside diameter or less may be normalized if
conditions of access make stress relieving impossible. Normalizing temperatures are :
carbon steels--within the range of 900-950C.
alloy steels-within the range of 925-975C.
This temperature is maintained for not less than two minutes, and
can be measured by means of one or more thermocouples, an optical
pyrometer, or temperature responsive crayons. The width of the zone
heat treated at the specified temperature extends at least half an inch
on either side of the weld. Immediately after normalizing, the joint is
covered with a suitable
or asbestos cloth to ensure slow and even
cooling. Full details of
heat treatment with specific requirements
are given in Clause 330 of the Pipe Welding Code CR.15.
Pressures and temperatures of steam generating equipment used
in the sugar industry are not generally sufficiently high to require the
use of alloy tube. The codes we have referred to for most of the foregoing
data also contain full information to cover the fabrication of high tensile
carbon tube as well as the various types of alloy material. The welding
preparation for welding flanges to alloy tube is slightly different to that
required for carbon steel, a greater depth of welding being required,
but for branch and buttwelds, welding preparation is similar to that
used for carbon steel. The pre-and post-heat treatment of the high carbon
and alloy steels is most important and the requirements of the code
must be rigidly followed when fabricating these materials.

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99

Testing
On completion of fabrication, the individual items of a pipework
system should be tested in accordance with the requirements of AS.B65
Clause 87. The test pressure 'H' is derived from the formulastress at 550F
H = 1.5P X
stress at design temperat&
Fabricated pipes need not be tested if the straight pipe from which
they are fabricated has been tested during manufacture to the required
test pressure and if the work of fabrication has involved only :l. Bending to radii not less than that nominated in Table 2 of
AS.B65.
2. Welding of minor attachments such as bosses and small branches
etc.
3. Welding of flanges similar to types 2 to 7 inclusive as given in
Clause 77 of AS.B65.
Following erection, a flanged line does not have to be hydraulically
tested, working conditions being sufficient to prove the soundness of
the flanged joints. Welded lines are required to be tested to twice the
design pressure where this does not exceed 500 pounds per square inch
and one and a half times the working pressure where this is greater
than 500 pounds per square inch. The hydrostatic test on a welded line
may be waived if the soundness of the weld can be proved to be satisfactory.
X-ray and ultra-sonic examinations are acceptable methods of
testing welds in high pressure pipework. For low pressure pipework
this type of testing is not normally required providing the welder is
fully qualified in accordance with the requirements of AS. No. CB.14,
Parts I1 and 111--"Certification in Boiler Welding-Oxy-Acetylene and
Arc Welding of Pressure Pipes."
Corrosion Protection
Many processes require carbon steel tube to be protected against
corrosion, the most common method being by hot dip galvanizing.
Bitumen or cement lining is also extensively used for lining water mains.
Bitumen is difficult to apply to bent or branched pipes and is usually
only applied to straights, but cement has a wider application. Care must
be taken to ensure that the bores of fabricated bends and branched
pipes are accessible for lining, the determining factor being the length
of a man's arm, as all cement must be hand placed. I t is sometimes an
advantage to have the straight pipe cement lined and although the
various fabrication processes partially destroy the lining, the damaged
sections can be repaired by hand. Bending either hot or cold cannot of
course be carried out on a pipe which is cement lined. Extensive use is
also made of rubber of various grades for lining pipework subject to
corrosion. Bent or branched pipes must be kept short to allow access
for the coating process, but straights can be lined in lengths to suit the
bore, 10 feet for up to two inches, 15 feet for two to three inches, and
20 feet for three inch bore and upwards. Care must be taken to
ensure that the fabricated pipes do not contain any pockets which would
entrap air and cause formation of blisters or bubbles in the rubber, any
lumps, such as welding spatter or sharp corners must also be removed.
I t is usual to radius all internal flange welds and the corners of all branches.
As the whole success of rubber lining depends on the bond obtained

TH IRTY-SECOND CONFERENCE

100

1965

between the rubber and the steel, it is also usual to sand blast the bore
to remove all rust or mill scale immediately, prior to the application of
the adhesive solution to the pipe bore.

Personnel engaged in the design of pipework will agree that one of the
most diacult aspects of this work is to arrange for adequate simple
supports. Hot product lines are subject to expansion and allowance
must be made for movement in arranging the length of hanger rods,
where vertical expansion will take place, springs must be provided.
Where movements greater than two inches are anticipated "constant
load" supports can be obtained which are designed to give an even
supporting efIort over a range of movement of up to approximately
18 inches.
Anchors in a main subject to expansion should generally be welded
to the pipework and take the form of special brackets which can be
bolted to the building steelwork. Use of 'U' bolts is not always satisfactory
as they have a tendency to slip. Pipe clips should be made from substantial flat sections and fully designed to carry the required load and
hanger rods should include a means for adjustment of length and also
be fitted with spherical washers to obtain even support when angularly
displaced due to expansion. Holes in supporting structures should be
large enough to accommodate angular movement of hanger rods.

The foregoing remarks are intended as a guide to those responsible


for pipework installations. The relevant Australian and British codes
cover all aspects of this work and provided the full requirements of these
codes are followed, no trouble should be experienced in the fabrication
and installation of industrial pipework.

of the Standards Association of Australia to print


extracts from the Australian Codes B.65-"Ferrous
Pipes & Piping
Installations for and ifi connection with Land Boilers", and CB.15"Pipe Welding", is atefully acknowledged.

[l] Thyer, A. M.: 1938. Trans. Inst. Eng. Aust., Vol. XIX.

Stewarts and Lloyds (Australia)Pty. Ltd.,


Sydney,
N.S. W .

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