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Branch Design
Where a branch is required on a main, allowance must be made
for the weakening effect of the hole which is cut in the main to form
the branch. The method of calculating the strength of a branch pipe is
set out in AS.B66 Clause 79 and where two or more branches are fitted
in close proximity, allowance must also be made for the effect of one
branch upon the other.
As an example of the weakening effect a branch exerts on a main,
a pipe with a 90" unreinforced equal branch has a safe working pressure
of only 70 per cent of the safe working pressure of the straight pipe.
Reinforcement to compensate for the metal cut out of the main to form
the branch can be added (a) by fitting compensating rings, (b) by a
technique developed by Stewarts and Lloyds Limited, known as "Triform
Reinforcement".
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Fig. l-Triform
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Fig. 2--Cross-section
bend is determined and in a special oil fired furnace in which the heat
length can be adjusted, a length slightly longer than that required for
the arc of the bend is heated to a temperature of approximately L,LooC
maximum. A typical cross section of the type of furnace used is shown
in Figure 2.
The bending table consists of a number of heavy caqt iron blocks.
One end of the tube is securely anchored, whilst the heated section is
pulled around a former, the shape of the bend having been first marked
offon the table to obtain the bending angle. A typical diagrammatic
layout of the bending table etc., is shown in Figure 3. Cold bending
can be carried out with bending machines employing either "compression"
or "tension" principles of bending.
I
Fig. 3-Typical
FalmAG
set up
for bending.
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STATIONARY
FORMER
groove. To resist the side thrust a shaped slipper is used and as with
compression bending, deformation is prevented by the circular shape
in which the tube is held. For small radii bends down to one and a half
to two times the bore diameter, additional support is required and a
mandrel is held in the bore of the tube located so that it supports the
outer surface of the bend and maintains the circular cross section through
the bend. Tight radius bends for superheaters are bent on this type of
machine and they are also used for the manufacture of tubular furniture.
e 5 shows general details of this system of bending.
ROTAT I
BENDING FORM
Fig. 5-Tension
bending.
Bends can also be formed using either the fully gussetted technique
or the cut and shut type bend. In the fully gussetted type angular segmental sections are cut and welded together to form a bend of the required
angle. The minimum requirements are that the angle between adjacent
segments does not exceed 30" and the width of the throat of each segment
is not less than one and a half inches. This type of bend is used
for large diameter rolled and welded pipes and care should be taken
to ensure that the location of the longitudinal weld in the various segments
is staggered to avoid the formation of crucifix welds. The cut and shut
process gives a better form to the bend and typical details of the preparation of the pipe are given in Figure 6.
Gussetted bends are permitted by the Pipe Welding Code CB.15
for pressures up to 250 pounds per square inch, but at this pressure
great care would have to be taken to ensure that complete penetration
of the weld between the segments is obtained and the requirements
of the Code in regard to circumferential buttwelds must be observed
in welding this type of bend. Bends of this type are normally used for
low pressure systems. Gussetted and cut and shut type bends are avoided
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CHANGE OF-
- 30
bPPWX
in high pressure pipework where small radii can be obtained by the use
of hot forged long or short radius elbows manufactured in accordance
with BS.1640.
Buttwelding elbows formed to this standard are manufactured
with a radius equal to the bore for short radius elbows and one and a
half times the bore for long radius elbows. These bends are formed by
a process which avoids thinning on the back of the bend and are suitable
for pressures equal to straight pipe of similar dimensions.
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TrP ~ I
~JLE-2
Fig. 7-Types
TLPE~
of welded flanges.
Fig. 8--Tube
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ring is not essential for high pressure welds, it helps to ensure that complete
root penetration is achieved, guarantees alignment of the pipe bores,
and minimizes the possibility of cracking of the base run of weld.
A requirement of the Code for Pipe Welding, CB.15 is that the
bores of adjacent pipes should match exactly. The permissible variations
are shown in Table 1.
TABLE I--Permissible variations in bores of adjacent pipes for welding
".-
Nominal bore
inches
..
U p t o and including 4
Over 4 up t o and including 1 6 '
Over 10 up t o and including 24
:. :.
.
.
p
Maximum permissible
difference in internal
Maximum out of
diameter
alignment at the bore
inches
inches
Branch Welds
In a branch, welds must conform to the requirements of the
Australian Code for pipe welding, CB.15. For high pressure work, two
methods of attaching are adopted, a. 'set on', b. 'set in'. Sectional views
of these two types of welding are shown in Figure 9. The root gap and
the angle of bevel are designed to enable full penetration to be achieved,
but where possible an internal sealing run should be applied. The 'set on'
type of welding also allows the weld to be carried out using a temporary
backing ring which can be machined out after welding, thus ensuring
complete penetration of the branch weld.
For low pressure pipework, the end of the branch may be cut to
follow the profile of the main pipe and square to the centre-line, a bevelled
weld preparation not being required. An internal sealing weld is particularly desirable in this type of branch welding preparation.
Fig. 9---Weld
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Thickness
U p t o and including 11/16" . .
Over 11/16" up t o & including 718"
Over 718"
.. .
..
Ill-Preheating
..
..
..
l1-
---
Carbon steels
100C (211F)
200C (392F)
300C (572F)
-..
Alloy steels
200C (392F)
200C (392F)
300C (572F)
Parent metal
Carbon steel (up t o 0.26%)
..
..
up t o and including
3 14"
Over 314"
all thicknesses
all thicknesses
3 965
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Testing
On completion of fabrication, the individual items of a pipework
system should be tested in accordance with the requirements of AS.B65
Clause 87. The test pressure 'H' is derived from the formulastress at 550F
H = 1.5P X
stress at design temperat&
Fabricated pipes need not be tested if the straight pipe from which
they are fabricated has been tested during manufacture to the required
test pressure and if the work of fabrication has involved only :l. Bending to radii not less than that nominated in Table 2 of
AS.B65.
2. Welding of minor attachments such as bosses and small branches
etc.
3. Welding of flanges similar to types 2 to 7 inclusive as given in
Clause 77 of AS.B65.
Following erection, a flanged line does not have to be hydraulically
tested, working conditions being sufficient to prove the soundness of
the flanged joints. Welded lines are required to be tested to twice the
design pressure where this does not exceed 500 pounds per square inch
and one and a half times the working pressure where this is greater
than 500 pounds per square inch. The hydrostatic test on a welded line
may be waived if the soundness of the weld can be proved to be satisfactory.
X-ray and ultra-sonic examinations are acceptable methods of
testing welds in high pressure pipework. For low pressure pipework
this type of testing is not normally required providing the welder is
fully qualified in accordance with the requirements of AS. No. CB.14,
Parts I1 and 111--"Certification in Boiler Welding-Oxy-Acetylene and
Arc Welding of Pressure Pipes."
Corrosion Protection
Many processes require carbon steel tube to be protected against
corrosion, the most common method being by hot dip galvanizing.
Bitumen or cement lining is also extensively used for lining water mains.
Bitumen is difficult to apply to bent or branched pipes and is usually
only applied to straights, but cement has a wider application. Care must
be taken to ensure that the bores of fabricated bends and branched
pipes are accessible for lining, the determining factor being the length
of a man's arm, as all cement must be hand placed. I t is sometimes an
advantage to have the straight pipe cement lined and although the
various fabrication processes partially destroy the lining, the damaged
sections can be repaired by hand. Bending either hot or cold cannot of
course be carried out on a pipe which is cement lined. Extensive use is
also made of rubber of various grades for lining pipework subject to
corrosion. Bent or branched pipes must be kept short to allow access
for the coating process, but straights can be lined in lengths to suit the
bore, 10 feet for up to two inches, 15 feet for two to three inches, and
20 feet for three inch bore and upwards. Care must be taken to
ensure that the fabricated pipes do not contain any pockets which would
entrap air and cause formation of blisters or bubbles in the rubber, any
lumps, such as welding spatter or sharp corners must also be removed.
I t is usual to radius all internal flange welds and the corners of all branches.
As the whole success of rubber lining depends on the bond obtained
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between the rubber and the steel, it is also usual to sand blast the bore
to remove all rust or mill scale immediately, prior to the application of
the adhesive solution to the pipe bore.
Personnel engaged in the design of pipework will agree that one of the
most diacult aspects of this work is to arrange for adequate simple
supports. Hot product lines are subject to expansion and allowance
must be made for movement in arranging the length of hanger rods,
where vertical expansion will take place, springs must be provided.
Where movements greater than two inches are anticipated "constant
load" supports can be obtained which are designed to give an even
supporting efIort over a range of movement of up to approximately
18 inches.
Anchors in a main subject to expansion should generally be welded
to the pipework and take the form of special brackets which can be
bolted to the building steelwork. Use of 'U' bolts is not always satisfactory
as they have a tendency to slip. Pipe clips should be made from substantial flat sections and fully designed to carry the required load and
hanger rods should include a means for adjustment of length and also
be fitted with spherical washers to obtain even support when angularly
displaced due to expansion. Holes in supporting structures should be
large enough to accommodate angular movement of hanger rods.
[l] Thyer, A. M.: 1938. Trans. Inst. Eng. Aust., Vol. XIX.