1288

IEEE

TRANSACTIONS ON

to suggest that coils having poor tip-up values may be prone to turnto-turn failures.
While the authors' service record appears to be good, they have
not indicated the number of in-service failures that they have experienced even with such a complete preventive maintenance
program. Our own history of generator coil failures has been entirely
satisfactory to date and our forced outage rates for hydraulic machines are well within acceptable industry statistics.
Once again we would like to express our appreciation to the
authors for publishing the maintenance practices of their company.

Mead Warren, Jr., and Chester I. Butterworth: As a result of seasonal

variations in stream flow, storage regulation, and coordination with

interconnected system operations, there are periods when units can
be released from service for preventive maintenance. This is not to
say that the time is unlimited. However, as a basic premise of the
philosophy of preventive maintenance, we would make the outage

Mianuscript received September 7, 1966.

POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL.

PAS-87,

NO.

5,

MAY

1968

time available. This then becomes a debatable question of frequency

of outage time and extent of maintenance.
It is gratifying to know that there are units which can operate for
15 years or longer without major overhaul, but our experience has
not been so good. As a matter of fact, the average winding life of our
units was not this long until a preventive maintenance program was
established. We have only one unit with an original winding over
15 years old.
Each preventive maintenance period reveals some defect or condition which could lead to failure before the next maintenance
period. Consequently, we do not dare to extend the length of this
period.
We are located in an area of both high lightning incident and
lightning severity. We have reason to expect that our units will be
subjected to surges of nearly double voltage; consequently, we insist
that the unit withstand the established test voltage. We would not
accept a lower test voltage in spite of a warning of breakdown. We
prefer a test breakdown to the possibility of an "in service" failure.
It is true that we neglected to indicate the number of "in service"
failures. This was an oversight. We have had only one "in service"
failure in the last 15 years, and this one occurred last year during a
lightning storm.
We appreciate the interest of those commenting on this paper.

Design Philosophy
of Solid-State Exciters

Considerations Affecting the

PETER A. B. WOOLDRIDGE, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE, AND ALLAN L. BLYTHE, MEMBER,

Abstract-The application of thyristor converters to the excitation

of large generators as shunt connected solid-state exciters is described. Considerations important during the planning stage are
discussed and some important exciter design details are given.
The importance of the topic, control of power system stability by
adjustment of generator excitation, is highlighted by reference to
many other papers.
Part I of the paper comments on the subject of thyristors, types of
rectifier circuits, harmonics, exciter ceiling voltage, overvoltages,
and overcurrents. Part II describes exciter design with reference to a
particular design concept, including provisions to cover some wellknown and some less familiar abnormal modes of operation. Special
emphasis is given to protection against overvoltages and overcurrents.

IEEE

While the use of rectifiers as exciters for large generators is well

established in a number of forms, the application of the controllable solid-state rectifier, both as a competitive form of exciter
and for reasons of generator and system stability, is recent.
The type of exciter considered results from experience with the
excitation of water wheel generators. The type is equally well
suited to the larger turbine generators, with obvious minor
modifications.
This paper relates the particularly important analytical work
which has been done on system stability with the other considerations which have influenced the design of a modern competitive shunt-connected solid-state exciter for large synchronous
generators.
The paper is organized to provide a conceptual link between
INTRODUCITION
system planning considerations and the design of the latest type
THE LAST DECADE has seen a great increase in the anal- of generator excitation hardware in the form of a shunt-connected
ysis of power system stability, in particular the contribution solid-state exciter.
of generator excitation to the damping of system and generator
Part I deals with those points in system planning which affect
oscillation.
exciter design or are affected by particular characteristics of solidstate equipment.
Part II deals with the methods and philosophies behind a solid
TP
and
the
recommended
Power
Paper 31
67464,
approved by
Generation Committee of the IEEE Power Group for presentation exciter design to meet the requirements of synchronous generator
at the IEEE Summer Power Meeting, Portland, Ore., July 9-14, excitation.
1967. Manuscript received April 12, 1967; made available for printing
Much emphasis has recently been placed on the relationship
May 5, 1967.
P. A. B. Wooldridge is with Canadian Westinghouse, Ltd., Ham- between system stability and controllable rectifier exciters apilton, Ont., Canada.
A. L. Blythe, deceased, was with Canadian Westinghouse, Ltd., plied to water wheel generators. The impression has been created
that the two seem to go irrevocably together. This notion is unHamilton, Ont., Canada.

WOOLDRIDGE AND BLYTHE:

DESIGN OF SOLID-STATE EXCITERS

necessarily restrictive to the range of possible applications of

solid-state exciters, even though the majority of application experience gained so far has been prompted by system stability requirements.
It is not too early to record that the shunt-connected solidstate exciter is becoming competitive with all other types of
exciters for large synchronous generators. This type of exciter is
obviously adaptable to turbine generators, with the sole exception that it requires use of collector rings and brushgear. Brushless rotating alternator/rectifier excitation systems are available
with only slightly inferior transient performance capability
compared with the shunt-connected solid-state exciter, but at a
distinct cost premium. This premium must be evaluated against
the desirability of eliminating collector rings.
For this reason, therefore, this paper makes no further direct
mention of the special case of the water wheel generator, except
as implied from past experience in the form of the published
references, and from mention of exciter design practices and
considerations which are obviously more suited to a hydroelectric
situation.
PA RT I:
SYSTEM STUDIES
The transient relationship between the excitation of a generator
and the production of damping torques in the interests of generator and system stability has been under study for decades. The
classical treatment of a generator connected to an infinite bus
through a transmission line illustrates the basic principles of
stable system operation.tft The classical treatment can no longer
readily handle modern complex systems without the uncertainty
introduced by major simplifying assumptions.
The class of practical systems which has received so much intensive study recently is the system with one or several major
generating stations relatively remote from the main svstem and
load center. Recent examples of this class are the British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority system associated with the
Peace River Project.[2] The Hydro Quebec system, with the
Manicouagan and Churchill Falls project,t31 belongs in the same
class.
In a different category of the same problem is the interconnection of separately stiff and independently stable systems bv
means of a long tie. The interconnection of the Pacific Northwest
and the Pacific Southwest systems is a good example. [4] Another
is the interconnection of the Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Western Ontario power systems.t51 Other examples of this type have
been reported or are under investigation at the moment.
Based on the experience of studies like the examples just given,
it is in the last three or four years that high-speed digital computer programs have incorporated refined representations of
machine, governor and excitation, coupled with an extensive
representation of the system as a whole, free from the more
dubious approximations.16t [7] These programs now permit exhaustive exploration of alternative solutions with rapidity and
low additional cost, suitable for making reliable economic com-

parisons.
It is becoming apparent that these programs can and will be
used to confirm not only the parameters for the design of newly
installed capacity, but also the desirability of upgrading or replacing existing conventional exciters.
It is out of this type of work that the practical form of rectifier
exciter has become confirmed and recognized as a vital building
block for the control of system stability through excitation

1289

control. But it is of still greater significance that the depth of all

this system study work has revealed and confirmed the type
of feedback required for obtaining near optimum performance
from these exciters.
SYSTEM STABILIZING SIGNAL
The reports of numerous investigators, several of which appear
in the references, show that if generator field voltage can be controlled in a manner proportional to the instantaneous generator
speed error, then considerable damping torques can be produced
towards improvement in both transient and dynamic stability
(including so-called "steady-state" stability).
Two methods of producing the required system stabilizing
signal have recently been reported, one a direct electromechanical
measurement of speed error against an arbitrarily fixed reference,t81 and the other derived purely electrically from power
measurements made at the generator terminals. t91
The generator speed error referred to should be the error with
respect to the average speed of the system. The system may not,
in the steady state, be operating at exactly the nominal frequency and, after a severe transient, will certainly deviate from
nominal frequency for some time. It is the governors alone which
control the system frequency. The generator excitation can only
be expected to influence generator speed with respect to the
average system speed at the time.
The speed error type of stabilizing feedback may readily be
applied to any exciter having a claim to fast response and some
forcing capability. Applied to a conventional rotating exciter
with time constants as high as two seconds, improvement in
dynamic stability can be realized. In these cases the exciter behaves roughly like an integrator, so that the stabilizing must
be made proportional approximately to generator acceleration.
When the stabilizing signal is applied to a separate controlled
rectifier exciter, which may be regarded as having instantaneous
response, true speed error feedback action results. Reliable
limiting of the first generator/system swing following a fault
is assured, using the economically obtainable high ceiling voltages
which separate controllable rectifiers are capable of.

RECTIFIER ExCITERS
Forms of rectifier exciters have been applied to large generators for decades. The economic and practical limitations of
shaft-coupled dc main exciters for large high-speed turbinegenerators had encouraged the use of mercury arc rectifiers primarily as the only practical alternative source of the necessary
direct current.
When it became evident that the full range controllable rectifier favored the use of excitation control to assist in system
stability, the mercury arc controllable rectifiertlOl was applied as
the only suitable form at the time. A few examples of exciters of
this type are in operation in North America. ]3[, I'll
The experience obtained with mercury arc rectifiers had not
led to solutions to some of the long known, though tolerated,
limitations of the mercury arc. The cost of precautions required
to minimize the effects of random arc back, and the high maintenance and tube replacement cost, has kept mercury arc in an
unfavorable competitive position in many applications for which
it would otherwise be suitable.
The demise of the mercury are device has been brought about
by the development of the power thyristor, and the competitive
forms of solid-state power supplies now making use of the device.

IEER TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY 1968

1290

A
(a)

A
(b)

Fig. 1. Various types of power thyristors. Top left: air cooled with
integral heat exchanger. Top right: water cooled with integral heat
exchanger. Bottom left: stud mounted for air or water cooling.
Bottom right: hockey puck device without heat exchanger.

L.X

(c)
r-

THYRISTORS

The common noun "thyristor" is generic, as is "diode" for

example, and has no proprietary origin. It is, in fact, the name
approved by the International Electrotechnical Commission for
a defined class of four-layer bistable solid-state devices, of which
(in context) the device popularly misnamed SCR is the most
prominent member.
The thyristor performs precisely the same functions as the
anode, cathode, and grid or igniter system of a mercury arc device. Its mode operation is, of course, utterly different. Fig. 1
shows examples of modern power thyristors.
The reason the thyristor has ousted the mercury arc device needs some clarification. Fundamentally the performance
characteristics of a thyristor (as for most solid-state devices) can
be precisely defined within its operating limits. Within these
limits there is no consumable feature or deterioration of the device whatsoever. The statistical chance of failure in service
within its specified operating limits is low, due to the exhaustive
step by step testing which forms an essential part of economic
manufacture. The lifetime guarantee of thyristors is no commercial gimmick. It is a statement of confidence in the inherent reliability of the device.
Therefore, the thyristor provides exceptionally high inherent
reliability which the mercury arc device cannot claim without
significant additional research. This is demonstrated in many
MVA of installed industrial capacity in North America.
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Before considering an exciter design itself, some characteristics
of rectifier circuits should be reviewed in the light of exciter application. Of all the possible but not exhaustive listing of rectifier circuits and associated transformer connections summarized
in ASA C34.1 1958, only a very few need to be considered for
use in solid-state exciters.
Fig. 2 shows simplified diagrams of three rectifier circuits with
typical transformer connections, which merit consideration for
use in solid-state exciters. In contrast is added a fourth circuit,
Fig. 2(d), various versions of which proved economical for use
with single tank multi-anode mercury arc rectifiers. While a solidstate rectifier could replace the mercury arc tank in such a circuit,

-17, - 7

Ir

(d)

Fig. 2. Rectifier circuits for exciters. (a) Uniconverter bridge. (b)

Semiconverter bridge. (c) Three-phase one-way circuit.(d) Sixphase double-wye circuit.
the other circuits are more economical and advantageous for use
with thyristors.

Three-Phase Bridge Circuits

The circuits of Fig. 2(a) and (b) are members of the rectifier
circuit, common to the group in ASA C34.1 1958, numbered 23
through 35, which are called "double way." The circuit is more
popularly known as the "bridge" circuit.
The application of thyristors to the bridge circuit, for the
purpose of dc voltage control, yields the two rectifier circuits of
Fig. 2(a) and (b) which have different characteristics. The names
uniconverter and semiconverter have grown up to distinguish between the two.
The three-phase bridge circuit behaves like a six-phase rectifier
and has the advantage of the highest utilization of the rectifier
transformer of all rectifier circuits.
The main reason the bridge became favored for thyristors
was the early low blocking voltage capability of thyristors. The
bridge circuit imposes the least peak-forward and peak-reverse
voltage of all circuits, on the thyristors, for a given dc ceiling
voltage.
The main difference in action between the uniconverter and
semiconverter bridge circuits is that the uniconverter can be
controlled to produce a reversal of dc voltage at its terminals
while load current is continuous, namely it can invert. The semiconverter cannot invert under any conditions.
While the semiconverter is obviously more economical than
the uniconverter, it is unable to discharge the energy stored in an
inductive load at a greater rate than is governed by the natural
time constant of the load circuit. The uniconverter can force the

WOOLDRIDGE AND BLYTHE:

DESIGN OF

SOLID-STATE

1291

EXCITERS

load current to zero rapidly by inversion, which makes it the

choice of circuit for exciters where the field current must be increased and decreased rapidly. If decay of the field current according to the natural time constant of the field circuit is satisfactory,
then the semiconverter circuit is the more economical choice.
Other details of the operation of the semiconverter circuit are
discussed later in this paper.

Other Rectifier Circuits

The simple three-phase single-way circuits, of which Fig. 2(c)
is one example, merit consideration. These circuits, whieh can
invert, impose a high blocking voltage requirement on the
thyristors. The interesting possibilities of apparent lower costs
in this circuit are presently limited to shunt exciter applications
where the ceiling voltage does not exceed roughly 350 volts.
As thyristors having higher blocking capabilities become available
this type of circuit will find more widespread application in solidstate excitation.

Telephone Influence Factor (TIF) [12]

The choice of rectifier circuit may be influenced by stringent
TIF requirements. The harmonics in a rectifier exciter dc output
usually lead to a negligible increase["] in the inherent TIF of the
generator, due to the smoothing effect of the inductive field
winding.
In a shunt exciter, the rectifier primary current may be looked
upon as being drawn partly from the generator and partly from
the system. The harmonics in the exciter primary current are
fixed by fundamental considerations, as is made clear in the next
section. If a prediction of the increase in generator TIF is required, the impedance to harmonics of the two sources must be
made available. Otherwise, experience gained from field measurements["]1 is the only other source of information on this effect
at present.
Primary AC Harmonicst131
For the case of an inductive load, the theoretical harmonic content of the primary ac line current to a rectifier transformer may
be expressed in terms of its fundamental as follows.

applied

a-ca = 750

=00

Eddc4\1\4\M\i\N\RA\
A

Al A11 I

11 I

Arr

1T
I

II

average voltage

Edc

X/

Ir

I'
-1 cycle_

del

,,, /

lay <3 r-ns

Edc= 1 -35 E,rscosa

--.- - 1-1- -1
a = angle
of delay of

firing pulse

Fig. 3. Uniconverter dc voltage waveform showing response to

step change in firing angle for inductive load. Effects of commutation omitted.

strated the usefulness, in one instance,[2] of a ceiling voltage of

ten per unit towards improving system stability, though this
level proved to be uneconomical with the thyristors available at
that time.

Rectifier DC Voltage Response

Assuming a modern solid-state firing circuit with essentially
delayless reponse to an input signal, a controlled rectifier connected to a 60-Hz ac source responds with a step output, to a
step change in input pattern signal, in a maximum period equal
to approximately
q X 60 seconds

where q is the number of pulses or number of de winding phases

in the rectifier.
This amounts to a few milliseconds. Fig. 3 illustrates the basic
reason in a simplified diagram which omits a number of minor
variable factors. This important result is independent of the
step magnitude and applies from negative ceiling to positive
ceiling and vice versa.
Compared with generator field time constants the three-millisecond response delay of a controlled six-phase rectifier is negligible. Rectifier voltage response may therefore be regarded as instantaneous. Inevitably, other inherent or deliberate exciter control delays cause a total delay of up to 50 milliseconds between
a step change in generator average voltage and exciter output

Harmonics present, m = nq i 1
Magnitude of harmonic a, = 1/m per unit of fundamental
where n is any positive integer and q is the number of pulses or voltage change.
the number of dc winding phases:
Influence of Ceiling Voltage on Cost Level
For three-phase bridges [Fig. 2(a) and (b) ] q = 6
The ceiling voltage level is a major contributor to exciter cost.
For simple three-phase single-way circuits q = 3
the cost of the rectifier transformer is aimost directly reWhile
For the six-phase circuit of Fig. 2(d) q = 6.
lated to the ceiling voltage, this is not true of the rectifier.
In the uniconverter of Fig. 2(a), each of the six rectifier legs
Distortion of these sets of harmonics is caused by commutation in the rectifier. The effect is to increase the higher harmonies is shown with one thyristor. A maximum dc output voltage can
be assigned to the bridge depending on the highest available
to a minor extent.
blocking voltage capability of the thyristors.
FIELD FORCING VOLTAGE
Fig. 4(a) and (b) illustrates how dc output voltages higher than
Returning to factors to be considered at the system planning the capability of one thyristor per leg may be handled by series
stage, the subject of field forcing voltage, or voltage excursions operation of thyristors or bridges. The cost of thyristors, mounttowards ceiling voltage and its response, needs 'some detailed ing, interconnecting, cooling, protecting, firing, and accommodating are nearly doubled. This fact can represent a significant
review.
step increase in exciter cost.

Ceiling Voltage Amplitude

OVERVOLTAGES
With a rectifier exciter there is no practical limit to the ceiling
The actual blocking voltage of the thyristors for shunt exciters
voltage attainable. Any field forcing voltage dictated by the
favorable solutions to the system transient behavior, subject to must be much higher than the exciter ceiling voltage would reeconomic considerations, may be obtained. Studies have demon- quire, due to system overvoltages.

12!92

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND

SYSTEMS,

MAY

1968

It is apparent that generator performance is unaffected by increased field current beyond a certain point, regardless of the
magnitude of the field forcing voltage. It is therefore good economy to provide a hard current output limit as this point.
REPEATED EACH PHASE
Further rationalization suggests that control system malfunction, which may leave the exciter indefinitely at current limit,
should not be cause to trip the generator until the operator has
had an opportunity to restore normal excitation manually. This
(a)
leads to the philosophy of rating the exciter to handle current
limit continuously.
There are no accepted rules for arriving at an exciter current
limit. Its magnitude is a matter of judgment of the benefits
SA
to system transient behavior.
The continuous current limit philosophy leads to the provision
of a purposeful surplus of rectifier rating for all normal load and
transient forcing requirements.
Currents of substantial magnitude are induced in the field circuit by ac system faults. Three-phase faults represent the worst
case. For reasons to be described later, these currents must
flow
through the rectifier, and their magnitude and duration be(b)
come
part of the rectifier rating. Reclose into a fault will conFig. 4. Series operation of thyristors. (a) Series devices per leg.
stitute
a repetition of the overcurrent. This duty exceeds twice
(b) Series bridges.
the duty of a single fault due to field forcing occurring in the
interval before reclosure.
The shunt exciter will experience all overvoltages which appear
That part of the rating of the exciter required to handle the
at the generator terminals for any reason. Dynamic overvoltage fault duty cycle can be wholly or largely supplied by the excess
due to load rejection, followed by overspeeding, can be controlled capacity represented by the continuous current limit rating
by regulator action and be held to a reasonable level. Overvoltage philosophy.
occurring due to a self-excitation situation is more serious,
since no amount of excitation control will be effective towards rePART II:
storing normal generator terminal voltage. A reasonable limit
SOLID-STATE EXCITER
must be fixed and specified, at which point the unit breaker or line
breaker may have to be opened.
Fig. a illustrates the primary features of a design of a solidLine switching operations can impress on the generator ter- state exciter.
minals transient voltages in the region of three per unit, lasting
The term "solid state" is applicable to everything except the
for several cycles. [14' The magnitude of these transients is field breaker and the thyristor cooling fans. The function of the
governed by the detailed configuration of the power system, and field circuit breaker can be fulfilled by solid-state devices, but at
the precise magnitude of switching surges is difficult to predict by a cost premium and to no overriding operating advantage.
hand calculation methods.
The method by which switching transients should be combined General Considerations
with dynamic overvoltages had not yet been demonstrated. A
Cooling: Present practice favors forced convection air cooling,
statement of the amplitude of dynamic overvoltage to be exthe mechanical fan appears to be accepted in favor of the
and
pected is useful in an exciter specification for other reasons than
cost of natural convection air cooling. Any failure of
higher
assessing total overvoltages. However, recognition of its effect on
forced
cooling
generally dictates a rapid shutdown of the exciter
total overvoltage improves the specification for an exciter, if some
thermal time constant of the thyristors.
of
the
low
because
indication of the way it is to be combined with related switching
can
be given to using whatever natural convecConsideration
transients is included. Independent statement of dynamic and
rectifier may have, to continue excitation at
a
tion
thyristor
rating
since
to
transient overvoltage are open variable interpretation,
but
reduced
some
level, following fan failure. This inacceptable
it is rare that switching transients alone must be read as deterexcess
volves
capacity to the exciter in a
adding
appreciable
mining the design provisions against overvoltages.
back-up protective role. Duplication of the cooling fans with a
changeover contactor scheme is a more economical measure.
EXCITER CURRENT RATING AND OVERCURRENTS
This method is indicated in Fig. 5.
Reliable detection of fan failure is mandatory. Use of overThis is another important point in which the economy and
design of a solid-state exciter should be considered at the system temperature of the thyristors is slow and uncertain unless a deplanning stage. It must be recognized that thyristors have a tector is placed on every device. Sensing of loss of static air
relatively short thermal time constant. Any load current which pressure has been found to be a sensitive method. This also
must be sustained for more than approximately 100 seconds must should be duplicated for reliability.
Water cooling, in the interests of improved reliability, has not
be regarded as continuous.
Generator steady-state operation requires no short time yet been appraised in exciter service except in some ignitron
exciter overloading within a duration of 100 seconds or so. rectifier applications. It is a method of cooling which is particHowever, field forcing and ac system fault induced field currents ularly appropriate to large generator excitation. Since a power
both represent transient overload conditions for which sufficient plant does not exist without an assured supply of clean water
under pressure, the reliability of the supply of water is not in
thermal margin must be provided in the exciter rectifier.
DYNAMIC VOLTAGE

WOOLDRIDGE AND BLYTHE:

1293

DESIGN OF SOLID-STATE EXCITERS

TO SYNCHRON.
IZING & 24V
POWER
SUPPLY

WS = WIND SWITCH
45E =OVERCURRENT RELAY
32 = REVERSE CURRENT
CONTACTOR
64 = FIELO GROUND RELAY
VT = VOLTAGE TRANSDUCER
CT = CURRENT TRANSFORMER
50/51 =OVERCURRENT RELAY
V =VOLTMETER
A

TO REMOTE
METERING

FLASNING

CONTROL

STATION
BATTERY

=AMMETER

TO REMOTE
MTRN
MTRN

Fig. 5. Solid-state exciter circuit.

dispute. In Fig. 1 is included mention of water cooling of the
devices illustrated.
There is no doubt that an improvement in reliability would
result from properly applied water cooling.["] Evidence from
experience with water-cooled electrochemical rectifiers indicates
that this reliability is available at no cost premium and it may
even lead to savings.
Packaging: The most suitable form of packaging for solid-state
exciters is probably not yet settled.
Two packaging philosophies are applicable: 1) assemblies with
removable modules and 2) assemblies with fixed modules.
The bridge constitutes the most desirable modular unit in a
rectifier.
The removable bridge module is available only at a noticeable
cost premium. This premium is justifiable if it leads to measurable reduced down time in case of trouble. The bridges should
therefore be withdrawable on load. An example of an on-load
withdrawable bridge module is given in Fig. 6. Withdrawability
on load is available at no extra cost over the inherent cost
premium of bridge modules removable only after shutdown.
Fig. 6. Bridge module withdrawable on load.
The removable module philosophy arose primarily in recognition of the desire of users to have optimum access to the thyristors
and components, while they gained confidence in the inherent
The continued stress on optimum accessibility, even in fixed
reliability of solid-state equipment.
module assemblies, is evidence that full user confidence in the
Assemblies with fixed modules can and have been designed exceptionally high reliability of solid-state equipment has yet to
with excellent accessibility to all vital components, at reduced be gained. However, there are now in service many installations
cost for the same output. A slight increase in assembly size is which could have been sealed in a tank for all they have deusual, to provide the desired accessibility.
pended on access for normal operation, and there are others that

1294

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND

SYSTEMS, MAY 1968

needed service because they were not!

Meanwhile, the on-load withdrawable bridge module is offered
as the optimum in reduced down time and accessibility while
If
user can still justify the premium.
\ V\V
Exciter Location: Solid-state power equipment lends itself to
time
front-access-only packaging designs. This, along with the inherent light floor loading (with the exception of the transformer),
(a)
allows the exciter to be placed anywhere in a power plant where
CROWBAR
the input and output connections can conveniently reach it.
This is a very important potential saving in installation cost over
FIELD
that of shaft-mounted excitation systems in turbine generator
plants. This is an advantage also when considering replacing
existing conventional exciters in station buildings which do not
TO GENERATOR TO FIRI NG
PULSE
SHUT-DOWN
include much surplus floor space.
SUPPRESSION
Detailed Design Features
(b)
Provision of Ceiling Voltage: The exciter diagram of Fig. 5 includes the provision for an exciter ceiling voltage higher than the
capability of one three-phase bridge by using two uniconverter
tVARI STOR
[EILD
@ REVERSE
bridges in series, as indicated in Fig. 4(b). Several advantages
yCURRENT RELAY
EXCITER
attend this choice, of which the most important is the ability,
in most cases, to continue generation with half the exciter in case
(C)
of trouble.
Fig. 7. Induced field currenits on pull-out. (a) Pull-out field current
No expenditure is recommended to provide isolating switches
waveform. (b) Thyristor crowbar circuit, conducts at instant field
current reverses. (c) Varistor, conducts reverse current when voltfor this purpose. Extremely simple bus links and facilities to
age rises sufficiently.
reconnect cables can be provided to meet the need quickly and
effectively. The series bridge rectifier offers valuable extra security against types of fault which could lead to considerable revenue loss.
A further advantage of series bridges is that series devices per
leg [Fig. 4(a)] dictate some voltage derating of the precious
blocking voltage capability of the thyristors, however carefully
the practical types of voltage balancing networks may be set up.
No such voltage derating is needed in the series bridge alterna-

\1\A A

tive.
Reverse Induced Currents: Pull-out conditions lead to an increasing frequency ac induced current in the field circuit. The
magnitude of the induced alternating current is sufficient to
cause reversal of the direction of the current flowing in the field
circuit. Fig. 7(a) illustrates the type of field current waveform to
be expected.
It is a matter of operating practice whether the operator be
permitted the chance to resynchronize, or whether pole slip beyond any chance of recovery be made a cause for instantaneous
tripout of the generator.
In any case, since the exciter rectifier is unable to conduct
reverse current, a path must be provided for reverse current flow
during pull-out. This path must remain closed-circuit under all
conditions, otherwise high induced field voltage will undoubtedly
lead to destruction of the exciter rectifier.
Two solid-state methods are in use. These are illustrated in Fig.
7(b) and (c). The thyristor crowbar circuit of Fig. 7(b) is an
efficient method. Good practice suggests providing additional
rating to withstand prolonged pole slip, as back-up against field
breaker trip malfunction. This is costly to provide with the
thyristor crowbar. Entirely reliable firing of the crowbar is vital,
as is provision for suppression of the firing of the exciter rectifier,
to prevent the crowbar from becoming a dead short circuit to the
rectifier. These features are, of course, technically available, but
at considerable additional complexity and cost of control. The
crowbar thyristors are unfused since there must be no thought
of trying to save them in case of trouble.
The use of varistors shown in Fig. 7 (c) is a less efficient method,
nisofar as there is a continuous small loss at normal excitation

Fig. 8. Induced field currents on pull-in.

voltages. However, the method allows the economical installation

of ample capacity for prolonged pole slip. This method is preferred in spite of the losses because it is effective, simple, rugged,
and reliable.
It will be noted that in the diagram of an exciter in Fig. 5,
each series section is provided with its own varistor. This assures
the same protection against reverse currents for each section
individually as is available for the two in series, in keeping with
the feature of operating on half the exciter.
Self-Synchronizing: If the main generator breaker is closed onto
an unexcited generator, running at close to synchronous speed,
the machine will tend to pull in to synchronism on reluctance
torque. When the field is applied there is no assurance that it will
be correctly polarized and a pole slip may ensue. With a solidstate exciter the field breaker can be initially closed. Rapid buildup of the field under full ceiling voltage will ensure correct synchronizing of the generator.
Self-synchronizing can lead to simplified synchronizing procedures, provided the system can stand it.
The self-synchronizing operation causes an induced field current, which generally takes the form shown in Fig. 8. To handle
the reverse current, a field discharge varistor may be used, in
conjunction with a reverse current contactor. This system is
shown in Fig. 5.

[w-Q~9 9!

WOOLDRIDGE AND BLYTHE:

I2

'

TEST POINTS

os

Fig. 9. Diagram of uniconverter bridge showing protective features.

Transient Overvoltages: This matter was discussed earlier as

system-planning consideration. The philosophy of practical
handling of overvoltages must entertain the following considerations.
Three major causes of overvoltage are recognized:
1) repetitive low-energy high-amplitude transients due to
commutating action within the rectifier itself,
2) dvnamic overvoltages, combined with
3) generally high-energy high-amplitude transients due to system switching and other system disturbances.
Item 2 is listed only to stress its importance in combination
with item 3. Dynamic overvoltages usually do not prove to be
a limiting case on their own.
Dealing first with low-energy transients, Fig. 9 is a schematic
of a uniconverter bridge embodying the familiar RC network
method of supressing low-energy voltage transients. The resistor
in series with each capacitor is there only to limit di/dt caused by
the capacitor discharge into the thyristors at the instant they are
fired.
Thyristors will turn on inappropriately in the presence of high
dv/dt when forward biased. The reactors shown in Fig. 8 are one
of several ways of limiting dv/dt.The reactors must be fully rated
to carry load current, and are therefore bulky. The reactors also
assist in providing good current balance between bridges in
parallel, and are a preferred method of handling dv/dt for this

reason.

1295

DESIGN OF SOLID-STATE EXCITERS

The fuses shown in Fig. 9 serve only to isolate a short-circuited

thyristor when in parallel with others, permitting continued
operation with the remainder. It is fortuitous if useful thyristor
protection can also be afforded by the fuse.
High-energy system transients are not conveniently suppressed
within the reactifier. Utilities are understandably reluctant to
guarantee that a specified level of overvoltage will not be
exceeded. It is therefore prudent practice, for the time being, to

=LA

(a)

(b)
Fig. 10. System overvoltage suppression methods. (a) Tertiary
winding method. (b) Low-voltage arrestor method.

provide sufficient transient blocking voltage capability in the

thyristors to meet the specified expected maximum transient
overvoltages.
It remains, therefore, to provide additional back-up surge
suppression external to the rectifier, to deal with transients of
higher amplitude than specified. Fig. 10 illustrates two approaches to this problem. In exciters which may have two or three
series sections, the single tertiary winding in the transformer
provides common suppression as shown in Fig. 10(a). Lightning
arresters having calibrated gaps and built-in interrupting ability
may be used, the short time rated tertiary winding being wound
to suit the arrester precisely. Ample energy-handling capacity, between 4000-6000 joules per kilovolt, is available by this method.
The delta-connected primary is necessary in this case to ensure
the arresters relate to primary phase-to-phase voltages.
In single section rectifiers, the tertiary winding method tends
to be uneconomical.
Low-voltage arresters of suitable design are becoming available
and may be applied as in Fig. 10(b). The relatively lower energy
handling ability available in low-voltage arresters prompts the
connection shown in the figure, where the diodes provide a full
half-cycle of recovery time for the gap in each direction.
Current Limit: This subject was also discussed earlier as a
system planning consideration in the interests of economy.
Provision of a continuous current rating of the rectifier, equal
to an assigned current limit level, introduces some complication. While the solution of this is more a matter of exciter control,
which is not covered extensively in this paper, the effect of the
control on the operation of the exciter is of interest.
Plainly it is of no value to apply current limit while ac faultinduced field currents are flowing. Therefore, to avoid unnecessary and large excursions of thyristor firing phase control in the
least useful direction during this period, current limit is deliberately suppressed for a finite time.
Internal exciter faults which generally yield rectifier currents
substantially higher than any other overcurrent should be subject to current limit instantaneously. This action opposes the
the voltage regulator action which would otherwise force excitation to ceiling. If some arc voltage exists, current limit will help to
reduce the severity of the fault on the rectifier.
Current Feedback: To ensure instantaneous detection of exciter
current, and to provide proper isolation between the exciter
main circuit and the low level noise-free exciter control, the current feedback system shown in Fig. 5 is desirable. This circuit

1296

1296

is ripple free and suffers in response only from the negligible delay
inherent in the current transformers.
This type of current feedback is preferred over current transducer types, which have inherent delay, produce ripple, and require a reliable ac power source which must remain unaffected by
system voltage depressions. Elaboration of transducers to meet
more exacting response requirements proves costly.
Loss of Conduction in Thyristors: Provisions known as 'fuse
failure detection, or some such term, concentrate on thyristor
fuse operation only. Loss of conduction in any thyristor for any
reason means loss of rectifier capacity, and should be annunciated.
Failure to conduct in a thyristor can be caused by a number of
reasons. For instance, failure of the firing pulse to reach the
thyristor is equally as likely as fuse operation. Fuse failure detection alone is inadequate as annunciation of loss of capacity.
The method of providing a signal to annunciate failure to
conduct is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 9. Small saturating cores
surround the phase leads to each bridge. Normal bridge operation produces alternating pulses of current to reset the cores from
one saturation extreme to the other, and a voltage is induced in
the windings. Any failure to conduct, of any thyristor in the
bridge, will leave one or more cores in unidirectional saturation,
due to loss of one half of the alternating phase current pulses.
This fail-safe loss of signal voltage may then be used to activate
a counting type of detector for annunciation, alarm or trip as
progressive loss of capacity affects operation. The method automatically annunciates withdrawal of a bridge for maintenance.
AC Fault-Induced Field Currents
Appreciation of the manner in which this effect constitutes an
overload to a rectifier exciter is useful. Fig. 1 1(a) shows a typical
form of induced field current associated with a three-phase system fault, close to the generator unit transformer, as indicated
in the system block diagram of Fig. 11(b). This may be considered a worst case condition.
The amplitude of the fault-induced field current is proportional
to the initial excitation level, and comprises initially equal 60Hz ac and dc components which have different decay rates.
At first sight, it may seem a useful economy in rating of the
rectifier to relieve it of the need to sustain fault-induced field
currents. This proves to be complicated in the case of a uniconverter and is generally not economical.
The extra reliability of simply ensuring that the rectifier can
withstand the induced current is probably worth a premium, if
the continuous current limit philosophy does not already provide
the margin of rating needed.
To ensure that the induced field current is shared by all the
thyristors in the exciter, it is necessary only to apply sufficient
ac voltage input to the rectifier to preserve normal commutation
throughout the fault period.
Because of the relatively high impedance of the unit transformer compared with the transient reactance of the machine,
adequate generator terminal voltage is assured during fault,
to sustain at least rated excitation, and probably some forcing.
The current waveform of Fig. 11(a) appears as load current,
which presents each umiconverter leg with a different amplitude
of current pulse. This is shown in the diagram of Fig. I11(c), where
one of the legs will conduct a pulse amplitude containing the ac
crest, synchronously throughout the fault period. This must be
regarded as the worst case basis for rating. A rating calculation
method of the type["]1 which does not involve risky simplifying
assumptions should be used in view of the peaky nattire of the
overcurrent waveform.

TRANSACTIONS
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IEEE

ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY

1968

(a)
Xt =012

WWFAUULT
FIGURES ARE TYPICAL
PER UNIT VALUES
PER UNIT FIELD
VOLTAGE CEILING

=03n

(b)
Worst

conduction
for bridge

case

period

devicel1

"First two crests

/
~
I~~~1

1120'

120"'

1 CYCLE

120''e

timet

(c)
Fig. 11. Induced field current on three-phase system fault.

Fig. 12. Semiconverter with free-wheel diode.

SEMICONVERTER BRIDGE CIRCUIT

Some features of the operation of this circuit deserve mention.

At firing phase delay angles greater than 60' (subject to the
effects of the commutation angle) the instantaneous dc output
voltage becomes zero for a period of time. This is caused by the
stored energy in the load, which forces the current to "free-wheel"
through a path comprising the load, the thyristor conducting at
the instant the dc voltage reached zero, and the diode connected
"below" it. This path does not include the transformer windings.
If the exciter ceiling voltage exceeds roughly three per unit, normal excitation will require firing phase delays greater than 600.
Under these conditions, the bridge will be ineffectively circulating
a portion of the field current representing discharge of energy in
the field inductance. Rectifier rating efficiency is impaired.
Fig. 12 shows a semiconverter with a free-wheel diode.["61, [171
This provides an alternative, more efficient free-wheel path in
which the current will flow preferentially because of the lower
forward volt drop of the diode path. During the dc voltage zero
period, therefore, no current passes through the bridge, allowing
all thyristors to turn off. Further conduction through the bridge
must then be intiated by a firing pulse. To turn off the rectifier
the firing pulses are simnply removed.
The free-wheel diode path can be used to relieve the rectifier of
all forward overcurrents with obvious economies in bridge

rating.

WOOLDRIDGE AND BLYTHE:

1297

DESIGN OF SOLID-STATE EXCITERS

NAME
SYMBOL
CURRENT FEEDBACK UNIT
CF
PRESETTER UNIT
PS
BALANCE INDICATOR
BI
VOLTAGE ERROR DETECTOR
VED
VA&RWS VOLTAGE ADJUST & RANGE WIDTH
SETTER
C
CONTROL SWITCH
VAR EQUALIZING CONTROL
VEC
CURRENT LIMITER UNIT
CL
MINIMUM EXCITATION LIMITER
MEL
SYSTEM STABILIZING FEEDBACK
SSF
MIX-AMPLIFY-SELECT UNIT
MAS
MANUAL CONTROL UNIT
MC
FOLLOW UP CONTROLLER
FU
BACK UP INVERTER
INV
DEVICE OPERATION MONITOR
DO-1
DEVICE OPERATION MONITOR
DD-1
DETECTOR
FlU-1 FLAG INDICATOR UNIT

DD-1

I zLi

DO-i 1
A

VOLTAGE REGULATOR SIGNAL PATH

SYSTEM STABILIZING SIGNAL PATH

Don
B

Fig. 13. Control functions of typical solid-state exciter.

The disparity between the instantaneous ac input current and
the dc load current forbids the use of the current feedback circuit
of Fig. 5, except for average current measurements where response is of no consequence.
EXCITER CONTROL CIRCUITS
This subject will not be dealt with in this paper, except to
indicate the manner by which exciter voltage control is achieved.
Fig. 13 shows a block diagram of the control functions of a
typical solid-state exciter. Strictly speaking, the firing circuit is a
part of the rectifier, and therefore part of the exciter. However,
the circuit classifies itself more appropriately with the other low
level control circuitry in every respect.
Isolation of low level control circuits from all power circuits is
vital to avoid erratic behavior due to transient voltages and
damage due to insulation breakdown. It is not reasonable to
assume that access to any point in the circuit is available for
measurement and testing without extreme care to avoid improper ground. Similarly, long control wire runs to the control
room should be carefully shielded and buffered where necessary
to minimize unwanted voltage pickup.
These are well-known practices associated with high impedance
sensitive electronic circuitry, but the simple rules are so often
broken in practice that solid-state circuitry tends to give more
trouble than it should, due to stray noise pickup.

CONCLUSIONS
The shunt-connected solid-state exciter recommends itself
as the proper choice of excitation for large synchronous generators on nearly all points except where the elimination of collector
rings and brushgear is essential.
1) It is already, or is rapidly becoming, competitive with all
other forms of excitation systems.
2) Recognition of some of the peculiarities of solid-state excitation at the planning stage can materially assist in the proper
choice of exciter and optimum economy without sacrificing any
desirable features.
3) It possesses operating characteristics sought after for
decades, in its instantaneous response, ease of control, and flexibility in meeting the voltage and current requirements.
4) The promise of near zero maintenance associated with ideal
static equipment is realizable in large measure.
5) Demonstration of the exceptionally high inherent reliability
awaits proof from more exciter application experience. Meanwhile, the manner in which similar equipment has already proved
itself in many years of individual application is indicative of the
outcome.

[11

REFERENCES
L. J. Jacovides and B. Adkins,

"Effect of excitation regulation

on synchronous-machine stability," Proc. IEE (London), vol. 113,

pp. 1021-1034, June 1966.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY 1968

1298

[2] H. M. Ellis, J. E. Hardy, A. L. Blythe, and J. W. Skooglund,

"Dynamic stability of the Peace River transmission system," IEEE
Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-85, pp. 586-600,
June 1966.
[1] V. M. Wallingford, "Hydro-Quebec's Manicougan-Outardes
developments," presented at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting,
New York, N.Y., January 29-February 3, 1967.
[4] F. R. Schlief, H. D. Hunkins, G. E. Martin, and E. E. Hattan,
"Excitation control to improve powerline stability," presented at the
IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N.Y., January 27February 3, 1967.
15] 0. W. Hanson, C. J. Goodwin, and P. L. Dandeno, "Influence
of excitation and speed control parameters in stabilizing intersystem
oscillations," this issue, pp. 1306-1313.
16[ D. W. Olive, "New techniques for the calculation of dynamic
stability," Proc. PICA Conf., May 1965.
[7] H. E. Lokay and J. W. Skooglund, "Power system stabilitydigital analysis showing effect of generator representation, types of
voltage regulator and speed governor systems," Proc. PICA Conf.,
May 1965.
[8] P. L. Dandeno, A. N. Karas, K. R. McClymont, and W.
Watson, "Effect of high speed rectifier excitation systems on generator stability limits," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems,
vol. PAS-87, pp. 190-201, January 1968.
191 R. M. Shier and A. L. Blythe, "Field tests of dynamic stability
using a stabilizing signal and computer program verification," IEEE
Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-87, pp. 315-322,
February 1968.
[10] H. J. Bossi, "The use of mercury-arc converters to excite
synchronous machines," Brown Boveri Rev., no. 9/10, 1963.
[Ill K. R. McClymont, G. Manchur, R. J. Ross, and R. J. Wilson,
"Experience with high-speed rectifier excitation systems," presented at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N.Y.,
January 29-February 3, 1967.
[12] W. C. Ball and C. K. Poarch, "Telephone influence factor
(TIF) and its measurement," AIEE Trans. (Communication and
Electronics), vol. 79, pp. 659-664, 1960 (January 1961 sect.).
[131 J. Schaeffer, Rectifier Circuits Theory and Design. New York:
Wiley, 1965, ch. 17.
[14] I. B. Johnson and A. J. Schultz, "Switching surges on energizing a transformer-terminated line," AIEE Trans. (Power Apparatus
and Systems), vol. 79, pp. 241-245, June 1960.
[15] P. A. Wooldridge and P. C. J. Locke, "Parallel operation of
diodes and thrystor to a given duty cycle" (Abstract), 1965 IEEE
Internat'l Convention Rec., vol. 13, pt. 8, p. 120.
[16] D. L. Duff and A. Ludbrook, presented at the First Annual
Meeting of the Industry and General Applications Group, Chicago,
Ill., October 3-6, 1966.
[17] N. G. Hingorani, "Controlled rectifier circuit with an uncontrolled by-pass valve," Direct Current, May 1965.

Discussion
Eric T. B. Gross (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N.Y.):
The problem of excitation is always closely related to that of rapid
demagnetization. If a fault develops on any part of the system, all
breakers carrying current into the fault are quickly opened. In a
rotating machine, the breaker for the field side is really the excitation
system. When rotating exciters are used, quick demagnetization can
easily be achieved through a dynamic circuit which produces reversal
of the field current and thereby accelerates the field decay. [18],19]
It is suggested that the authors comment on static means which
will produce rapid demagnetization on occurrence of an internal
machine fault by speeding up field decay through reversal of the
rotor field current direction.
REFERENCES
Rudenberg, Transient Performance of Electric Power Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950.
[19] K. S. Raman and E. T. B. Gross, "Rapid demagnetization of
large synchronous machines," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and
Systems (Special Supplement), vol. 82, pp. 642-663, 1963.

118] R.

Manuscript received August 4, 1937.

R. W. Lye (Canadiant General Electric Co., Ltd., Peterborotugh,

Ont., Canada): The authors are to be commended for a well prepared
and informative paper on a subject about which too little has been
written. The following comments are put forth with a view to supplementing the information presented by the authors.
1) The terms "uniconverter" and "semiconverter" used by the
authors are not widely used and seem to us to fall short of the mark in
describing thyristor and thyristor-diode bridges. We think of
terms such as full-controlled bridge or half-conitrolled bridge as more
appropriate, but in any case it might be best to leave selection of
nomenclature to appropriate committees.
2) In connection with the three-phase single-way circuit, its popularity will be limited to some extent because it requires a larger transformer than a bridge circuit. The three-phase bridge VA = 1.047 Ed,
Id (secondary or primary) while in the three-phase single-way circuit
VA = 1.48 Ed, Id (secondary) and 1.21 Ed, Id (primary).
3) Our philosophy has been to rate the exciter for ceiling current
for a short time. This is against the possibility of a control malfunction which leaves the exciter at ceiling volts. If a current limit is to be
relied on, its circuits should be independent of the regulator; otherwise, a regulator circuit malfunction could cause failure of current
limit with corresponding ceiling voltage. Most current limit circuits
are part of the regulation circuit. Therefore, in addition to current
limit the exciter should have a short time, high-current rating to
allow relays to operate without damage to the exciter.
4) We agree with the authors that the removable bridge module
costs extra and was necessary only while confidence in the inherent
reliability of the thyristor device was gained by the user. We visualize
future designs with readily accessible but fixed mounted thyristors.
5) We concur with the authors' view that series bridges present
some advantages in case of a bridge failure and provide isolating
means. Comparing two series bridges with a bridge containing two
series thyristors per leg, we found the former more expensive because of the additional transformer winding, fuses, reactors, etc.,
required. Since the PRV rating of thyristors is steadily increasing, it
seems unlikely that series bridges will be used much in the future.
We have not found it necessary to derate PRV when using two
thyristors in series per leg. The large ratio of thyristor PRV capability to actual circuit inverse voltage is adequate for any small unbalance in series sharing.
6) We agree with the authors that varistors represent a simple,
reliable method of providing a reverse current path. If it is necessary
to switch varistors in and out of the field circuit it would tend to
introduce some of the same complexity necessary with a thyristor
field shorting circuit. We have used both, and the economies of each
usually determine which is used. In general a higher ratio of ceiling
volts to rated volts favors use of varistors. A combination of a small
thyrite plus a thyristor crowbar is a suitable compromise in some
cases. Also the higher the ratio of thyristor PRV rating to circuit
peak voltage, the more economical a varistor would be. We have
been using a 2.5 to 1 ratio for this since it is suitable to allow successful surge suppression and also is an established industry standard. We ask the authors what ratio they have used.

Manuscript- received July 28, 1967.

P. A. B. Wooldridge and A. L. Blythe: The authors wish to thank the

two authorities who have participated in the discussion of this paper
for their informed contribution to the state of the art.
Mr. Gross' searching comment touches on two important aspects of
solid-state excitation of large generators:
1) elimination of the main field breaker
2) how effectively solid-state exciters can perform as rapid field
suppressors, compared with the well demonstrated capability of
rotating exciters.
Our involvement in large generator excitation, so far, has been
where field breakers have been specified for rapid field discharge.

Manuscript received October 26, 1967.

WOOLDRIDGE AND BLYTHE:

DESIGN OF SOLID-STATE EXCITERS

However the solid-state exciter can be arranged to perform well in

this respect, and will outperform the rotating exciter in this service
because of the almost instantaneous availability of a high reverse
ceiling voltage.
Rapid field suppression is inherent in the uniconverter circuit, or
any rectifier circuit which can invert. If the applied ac voltage to the
uniconverter does not collapse, ceiling reverse field voltage is instantaneously available by simple application of the appropriate
control voltage to the firing circuit.
Thus a breakerless rapid field discharge system is readily available
with little adaptation of the system described in the paper. Safeguards against malfunction of the relatively complicated control and
firing circuitry in a breakerless solid-state exciter already exist for
other reasons in the system described. There may be users who may
not tolerate the complexity of circuitry in place of the relative simplicity of the field breaker. Further, some of the emergency safeguards referred to above involve field suppression performance inferior to that obtainable by use of a field breaker.
The foregoing brief outline of a rapid field suppression exciter
system presupposes noncollapse of the ac field power source during
the ac system fault. Plainly, a shunt-connected solid-state exciter
cannot meet this requirement for faults in the generator zone.
The trend in large thermal units provided with stationary rectifier
type excitation is to derive excitation power from the station
auxiliary power supply. These systems readily lend themselves to
elimination of the field breaker, and to near optimum field suppression usinig solid-state exciters.
In hydroelectric installations it is not usually necessary to provide
a station auxiliary power system of the high order of reliability
needed in a thermal station. It may therefore prove costly to employ
separate excitation in hydroelectric stations.
Mr. Lye's valuable comments are dealt with in the same order as
presented.
1) We certainly endorse the need for an approved standard
nomenclature for the various types of interconnection of power
semiconductors.
We feel our terms semi-, uni- and dualconverter also are apt in
context. These are as carefully defined when used as half- and fullcontrolled bridge must be to avoid confusion, pending an agreed
nomenclature.
2) The need for higher transformer VA rating in the case of the
three-phase single-way circuit is accepted. Reference to this circuit in
the paper was in the context of relative cost. While thyristors and their
auxiliary circuitry remainhigh-costitems, use of the three-phase singleway circuit can frequently be shown to be economical in spite of an
implied higher transformer cost. This circuit should not be overlooked.
3) High forcing ceiling voltages may be necessary for system
stabilization. Rating of the exciter for a proportional ceiling current,
even for a short period, can become costly and yields diminishing
returns in performance.
Current limit undoubtedly requires backup in the form of overcurrent relaying, whether the current limit is part of the regulator
circuit or not. It is agreed that the proper role of the current limit is
as a function independent of the exciter regulator. Additionally it
should be capable of overriding the regulator action. The current

1299

limit function referred to in the paper is just such an independent

function.
The emphasis we give to assigning and providing for current limit
is mainly one of economy of exciter rating to provide for all the
coincidental claims on the exciter thermal capacity. It is implied in
our paper that, in a system where the ceiling exciter voltage is
assigned for system stability reasons, the relationship between ceiling
voltage and the maximum useful field current is indirect. We therefore feel that it is misleading to relate the exciter current rating,
continuous or short time, to the exciter ceiling voltage in any way
whatsoever.
It is certainly possible that the per unit ceiling voltage may be low
enough to permit the per unit current to reach the same value for a
useful duration, without adding capacity to achieve this. We would
regard this as a special case where the need for current limit may
approach zero.
4) We agree with the comment, but it is probable that user value
will be given to means for removing devices without shutdown for
some time to come.
5) We concur with the observation that the rising blocking voltage
capabilities of thyristors will reduce the need for series operation.
Elimination of the need for series operation of thyristors, by any
method, is without doubt a most important saving in cost to strive
for.
Some part of the "large," ratio of thyristor blocking voltage to peak
applied ac voltage must be provided in recognition of an undenied
unbalance in voltage sharing between thyristors connected in series
per leg. Our remark in this context, made under Provision of Ceiling
Voltage, expresses the same need in terms of derating the blocking
voltage capability of thyristors.
6) Part of the virtue of permanently connected varistors is their
instantaneous response to overvoltages. There would be no thought
of switching varistors. Any switching method carries a high risk of
trouble in case of failure to switch properly. However, we recognize
that a form of thyristor crowbar may be difficult to avoid when the
ratio of exciter dc blocking voltage to rated field voltage is low.
While the ratio of the blocking capability of the thyristors to the
peak applied ac voltage is an important factor in the application of
varistors, the choice of this ratio is governed primarily by the magnitude of transient overvoltages from the ac system and the means
used for their suppression. The application of varistors is then governed by the resultant choice.
We are of the opinion that a ratio of 2.5 to 1 (and lower) is a
satisfactory figure for industrial applications, and this has normally
proved adequate without the use of transient surge suppression other
than capacitors. For utility generator excitation we have used ratios
higher than 2.5 to 1 depending on the margins allowed for method
of surge suppression and its performance and the expected magnitude
of dynamic overvoltage.
Depending on application, we feel that relieving the surge suppressors from the need for frequent operation is an important measure
of security and reliability, which can only be achieved by a high
ratio in question. We feel much operating experience and analysis has
yet to be furnished before reliable criteria can be laid down for the
choice of this ratio. Utilities themselves are at considerable variance
over the magnitude of system-generated surges.