Chapter 8 Magnetism and

Electromagnetism
Magnetism
The term magnetism describes the force of
repulsion and attraction between different
substances, such as iron and other metals.
In magnetism, the motion of charged particles is
ultimately responsible for the attraction or
repulsion between substances. It is produced as a
result of electrons spinning on their own axis
while rotating about the nucleus of the atoms. In
magnetic materials, the atoms are called domains
and are aligned so that most of the electrons spin
in the same direction.
A magnet has TWO poles, namely the NORTH and
SOUTH poles. A magnet can lose its magnetism by
heating or jarring.
If a magnet is broken into two or more pieces,
each piece becomes a different magnet with its
own North and South Pole.
Objects that are attracted to each other illustrate
the magnetic principles of ferromagnetism and
paramagnetism, while diamagnetism describes
the repulsion of magnetic fields.
Types of Magnets
Magnets fall into three categories:

Permanent (Natural or Pure) Magnets

These magnets hold their magnetism for a
long period of time.
Temporary Magnets These are magnets
that attain their magnetism from permanent
magnets.
Electromagnets These are magnets that
attain their magnetism from electric current.

Before a temporary magnet is magnetized, the

domains are said to be in a helter-skelter formation.
The opposition to magnetic lines of force is called
RELUCTANCE and is measured in Ampere/ Weber.

Laws of Magnetic Lines of Force

1. Lines of force flow from north to south
externally and south to north internally.
2. Lines of force are invisible
3. Lines of force flow in a complete loop
4. Lines of force never cross each other
5. Lines of force travel in the shortest route
6. Lines of force flow parallel to each other
7. Like poles repel each other while unlike poles
attract each other.

Repulsion and Attraction

Electromagnetism
If two magnets are brought close to each other, with
one pole is north and the other is south, the two
magnets will pull towards each other. This is called
the force of attraction. If the two poles were the
same (two north or two south) then the magnets
would push apart (repel). This is called the force of
repulsion.

When an electric current passes through a conductor,

a magnetic field is set up around the conductor. This
magnetism is called electromagnetism.
The direction of the magnetic field depends on the
direction of the current flow. A relationship exists
between the direction of the current flow in the
conductor and the direction of the magnetic field
around the conductor. This relationship can be
discovered using Flemmings Left Hand Rule. This rule
states that the current carrying conductor is grasped
in the left hand with the thumb pointing in the
direction of the current, then the fingers when
wrapped around the conductor will point in the
direction of the magnetic field.

Magnetic Field of a Coil

When a current carrying conductor is wrapped in the
form of a bobbin or coil the lines of force are then
concentrated into a strong electromagnetic field.
Thus the coil will act as a magnet having a North and
South Pole. The North Pole is the end at which the
magnetic field leaves the coil while the South Pole is
the end at which the field enters the coil.

Therefore, the force (F) on a conductor measured in

Newton(s) is directly proportional to:

The magnetic flux density ( ) measured in

Tesla(s)
The length (L) of the conductor measured in
meter(s).
The size of the current () measured in
Ampere(s).
The angle () at which the conductor is
relative to the magnetic lines of force
measured in degrees.

F = L Sin
Activity 1:
A conductor 200m long carries a current of 50A at
right angles to a magnetic field having a flux density
of 0.5T. Calculate the force on the conductor.
Given:
= 0.5T
The magnetic field of an electromagnet is affected by
three factors. These are:

The magnitude of the current

The number of turns in the coil
The type of iron core.

L= 200m
= 50A

Since
F = L Sin

If a coil is producing an electromagnetic field, to

increase this magnetic field, one can either insert a
soft iron core into the coil or increase the current flow
or add more turns to the coil.

Force Determination on a Conductor

The force on a conductor carrying current at right
angles to a magnetic field will be increased when;

The magnetic field is made stronger

The current is increased
The conductor is made longer

F = 0.5 200 50 Sin 90

F =5000 N

Calculating Magnetic Flux ()

Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines

passing through a surface placed in a magnetic field.

In the second picture, since the angle between the

normal of the system and magnetic field lines is
90 and cos90 = 0 equation of magnetic flux
become;
=BAcos90
=BA 0
=0
Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is the method of obtaining
an electric current with the aid of an electromagnetic
field. This was discovered by Micheal Faraday in 1831.
He found out that if two coils (A & B) are wound on a
steel ring and a source is applied to coil A a
galvanometer (G) is connected to coil B, a deflection
was seen on the galvanometer. When the source was
removed the deflection went in the reverse/ opposite
direction.

We show magnetic flux with the Greek letter; .

We find it with following formula;

= A Cos

Coil B

Where is the magnetic flux and unit of is Weber

(Wb)
is the magnetic field and unit of is Tesla
A is the area of the surface and unit of A is m2

Following pictures show the two different angle

situation of magnetic flux.

In
the
first
one, magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the
surface, thus, since angle between normal of the
surface and magnetic field lines 0 and cos 0
=1equation of magnetic flux becomes;

=BAcos0
=BA1

Coil A

Source

Galvanometer

The Left Hand Grip Rule

The direction of the magnetic fields can be
remembered using the left hand grip rule for
electron flow.

Magneto Motive Force

This is the force associated with a magnetic field and
that produces magnetic flux; it is the work required to
carry a magnetic monopole of unit strength once
round a magnetic circuit; measured in ampere-turns.
MMF = N

Where
N is the number of turns
is the current Measured in Ampere(s)

Magnetic Field Strength

If the magnetic circuit is uniformed and of a
uniformed cross-sectional area, the M.M.F. per
metre length of the magnetic circuit is called
the magnetic field strength and is represented
by the symbol H
=

Where: N is the number of turns

is the current Measured in Ampere(s)
L is the length measured in metre(s)

If using positive charges or conventional current

(+ to -) then the right hand can be used.
If a current carrying wire or other moving charge is
placed in a stationary magnetic field it experiences a
force due to the field produced by the moving charge
and the stationary field.
The direction of the force is perpendicular to the
direction of movement and the stationary field lines.

Transformers
A transformer is a device used to change unit values
in an AC circuit (voltage and current). The change is
brought about by using the magnetic energy field of
an alternating current. The transformer is an
important application of mutual induction.
A transformer has three basic parts:

The Primary Winding (NP)

The Secondary Winding (NS)
The Core

The changing or varying magnetic flux induces

an EMF based on self-inductance into the
primary winding and an EMF based on mutual
inductance into the secondary winding.

When a load is connected across the

secondary winding a current IS flows through
it.

Turns Ratio
If the secondary winding has the same number of
turns as the primary, the voltage will be the same in
both windings. This transformer is known as a 1:1
transformer.

IP

VP

If the secondary has twice as many turns as the

primary, the secondary voltage will be twice as high
as the primary. This transformer is referred to as the
step up transformer.

Is

Vs

If the secondary windings are less than the number of

turns as the primary, the secondary voltage will be
less than the primary voltage. This transformer is
referred to as a step down transformer.
Based on Faradays law the number of turns in a
transformer will be directly proportional to its
voltage.

Operation of the Transformer

As a result of the AC supply VP a current IP

flows through the primary winding. This
Alternating current supply produces a varying
electromagnetic field which links both the
primary and secondary coils.

=
=

If any three of the quantities in the above formula
are known, the fourth quantity can be calculated.

Activity 1:
A transformer has 200 turns in the primary, 50
turns in the secondary, and 120 volts applied to
the primary (Vp). What is the voltage across the
secondary (Vs)?

Given:
NP = 200 turns
NS = 50 turns
VP = 120 volts
VS =?
Since

50
200

Activity 2:
There are 400 turns of wire in an iron-core coil. If
this coil is to be used as the primary of a
transformer, how many turns must be wound on
the coil to form the secondary winding of the
transformer to have a secondary voltage of one
volt if the primary voltage is five volts?
Given:

NP = 400 turns
NS =?
VP = 5 volts
VS = 1 volt
Since

120

200 VS = 120 50
VS = 6000 / 200
VS = 30 volts

400

1
5

5 NS = 400 1
5 NS = 400
NS = 400 / 5
NS = 80 turns

Activity 3:

Transformer Efficiency

A transformer has a 6:1 voltage ratio.

Find the current in the secondary if the current in
the primary is 200 milliamperes.

A transformer is a highly efficient piece of

equipment mainly because there are no moving
parts. A transformer only consists of electrical
losses (iron losses and copper losses).
Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC
machine, except that transformers do not have
mechanical losses.

Given:
NP = 6 turns
NS = 1 turn
IP = 200 mA 0.2A
IS =?

Losses in transformer are explained below (i) Core losses or Iron losses

Since

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon

the magnetic properties of the material used for the

1
6

construction of core. Hence these losses are also

known as core losses or iron losses.

0.2

Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss

is due to reversal of magnetization in the

transformer core. This loss depends upon the
volume and grade of the iron, frequency of

1 IS = 6 0.2
IS = 1.2 A

magnetic reversals and value of flux density.

Eddy current loss in transformer: In
transformer, AC current is supplied to the
primary winding which sets up alternating
magnetizing flux. When this flux links with
secondary winding, it produces induced emf in

Note that the input side of the transformer is

always the primary side. The load is always
connected to the secondary side.

it. But some part of this flux also gets linked

with other conducting parts like steel core or
iron body or the transformer, which will result
in induced emf in those parts, causing small
circulating current in them. This current is
called as eddy current. Due to these eddy
currents, some energy will be dissipated in the
form of heat.

(ii) Copper loss in transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the

Eff. = [860000 (1100+700)] 860000

Eff. = 858200/ 860000

transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary

winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2.
Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and

Eff. = 0.9979
% Eff. = 0.9979 100

secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the

resistances of primary and secondary winding
respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional
to square of the current, and current depends on the
load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with
the load.
Efficiency of Transformer

Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical

devices. Most of the transformers have full load
efficiency range of 95% to 98.5%. To find
efficiency of a transformer:

Efficiency = (input - losses) / input

Activity 1:
A 1000KVA transformer having a full load power
factor of 0.86, has iron and copper losses of 700W
and 1100W at full load. Calculate the efficiency
of the transformer as a decimal and percentage.
Given:
Apparent Power 1000KVA 1000000VA
Power Factor = 0.86
Fe Loss = 700W
Cu Loss = 1100W
True Power = App. Power P.F.
T.P. = 1000000 0.86
T.P. = 860000W (Input Power)
Eff. = (Input Power Total losses) / Input Power

%Eff. = 99.79%

Cooling Methods for Transformers

ventilation ducts. This method can be used for

No transformer is truly an 'ideal transformer' and

transformers up to 15 MVA.

hence each will incur some losses, most of which

get converted into heat. If this heat is not dissipated
properly, the excess temperature in transformer may

Cooling methods for Oil Immersed Transformers

cause serious problems like insulation failure. It is

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

obvious that transformer needs a cooling system.

Transformers can be divided in two types as (i) dry
type transformers and (ii) oil immersed
transformers. Different cooling methods of
transformers are

For dry type transformers

Air Natural (AN)

Air Blast

For oil immersed

transformers

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

This method is used for oil immersed transformers.

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

In this method, the heat generated in the core and

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

winding is transferred to the oil. According to the

Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

principle of convection, the heated oil flows in the

upward direction and then in the radiator. The

Cooling methods for Dry type Transformers

vacant place is filled up by cooled oil from the

Air Natural or Self air cooled transformer

radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the

This method of transformer cooling is generally

atmosphere due to the natural air flow around the

used in small transformers (up to 3 MVA). In this

transformer. In this way, the oil in transformer

method the transformer is allowed to cool by natural

keeps circulating due to natural convection and

air flow surrounding it.

dissipating heat in atmosphere due to natural

Air Blast

conduction. This method can be used for

For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling

by natural air method is inadequate. In this method,
air is forced on the core and windings with the help
of fans or blowers. The air supply must be filtered to
prevent the accumulation of dust particles in

transformers up to about 30 MVA.

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

The heat dissipation can be improved further by

applying forced air on the dissipating surface.
Forced air provides faster heat dissipation than
natural air flow. In this method, fans are mounted
near the radiator and may be provided with an
automatic starting arrangement, which turns on
when temperature increases beyond certain value.
This transformer cooling method is generally used
for large transformers up to about 60 MVA.

Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

This method is similar to OFAF method, but here

forced water flow is used to dissipate hear from the
heat exchangers. The oil is forced to flow through
the heat exchanger with the help of a pump, where
the heat is dissipated in the water which is also
forced to flow. The heated water is taken away to
cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

in very large transformers having rating of several

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a

hundred MVA.

pump. The oil circulation is forced through the heat

exchangers. Then compressed air is forced to flow
on the heat exchanger with the help of fans. The
heat exchangers may be mounted separately from
the transformer tank and connected through pipes at
top and bottom as shown in the figure. This type of
cooling is provided for higher rating transformers at
substations or power stations.

Schematic Diagrams of the various forms of

transformers