Contents

Foreword
Preface
Special Features

vii
ix
xix

1. Introduction and Philosophy of a Protective Relaying System

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11

Types of Faults 1
Abnormalities 6
Functions of Protective Relay Schemes 7
Major Components of an Electrical Power System 7
Basic Tripping Circuit with System Transducers 8
Testing and Maintenance of Relays 10
Zones of Protection 10
Requirements of a Protective System 11
Relay Operating Criteria 13
Main and Back-Up Protection 13
Evolution of Protective Relay Technology 14
Multiple Choice Questions 15

2. Electromagnetic Relays
Classification of Relays 16
Thermal Relays (Overload Relays) 17
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays 18
Time-Delayed Overcurrent Relays 19
Definite-Time Overcurrent Relays 19
Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relays 20
IDMT Overcurrent Relays 26
Non-Directional Normal Inverse-Time-Overcurrent
Relays without the Need of Auxiliary Supply 26
2.9 Voltage-Controlled Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relays
2.10 Induction-Cup Relays 28

16

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8

26

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Contents

2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19

Differential Relays 29
Two-Input Relays 33
Directional Relays 34
Directional Overcurrent Relays 36
Impedance Relays 37
Reactance Relays 38
Ohm Relays 38
Mho Relays 39
Auxiliary Relays 42
Review Questions 49
Multiple Choice Questions 50

3. Static Relays
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

Advantages of Static Relays Over Electromagnetic Relays 51

Limitations of Static Relays 52
Basic Elements of Static Relays 53
Static Relays 59
Review Questions 63
Multiple Choice Questions 63

4. Microprocessor-Based Digital Protection

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

64

Advantages of Numerical (Digital) Relaying 64

Numerical Relay Hardware 69
Digital Signal Processing 72
Estimation of Phasors 79
Full-Cycle Fourier Algorithm 84
Half-Cycle Fourier Algorithm 86
Practical Considerations for Selection of Algorithm 87
Comparative Summary of Estimation Algorithm 88
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 89
Review Questions 91
Multiple Choice Questions 91

5. Generator Protection
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

51

Differential Protection 94
Inter-Turn Fault Protection 104
Stator Earth-Fault Protection 105
Rotor Earth-Fault Protection 112
Negative Phase Sequence Protection (Protection Against Unbalanced Loading) 117
Field Failure Protection (Protection Against Loss of Excitation) 120
Overload Protection 123

93

Contents

5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.A.1
5.A.2
5.A.3

Overvoltage Protection 124

Reverse Power Protection 124
Pole-Slipping Protection 127
Back-up Impedance Protection 131
Under-Frequency Protection 131
Miscellaneous Protections 132
Numerical Approach to Generator Protection 134
Appendix 1Class A, Class B and Class C Protections and Conditions Causing Alarm 134
Appendix 2Field Suppression 136
Appendix 3Information Required for Designing Protection Scheme for Generator and for
Relay Settings 137
Review Questions 138
Multiple Choice Questions 141

6. Transformer Protection
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.A.1

143

Faults in Transformers 143

Gas-Operated Relays 145
Overcurrent Protection 148
Restricted Earth-Fault Protection 148
Differential Protection 151
Protection Against Overfluxing 166
Protection of Grounding Transformers 166
Protection Against Overheating 168
Schemes for Small Transformers 168
Transformer Protection Using a Numerical Relay 169
Appendix 1 172
Review Questions 173
Multiple Choice Questions 174

7. Protection of Transmission Lines by Overcurrent Relays

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10

xv

175

Basic Radial Feeder 175

Methods of Discrimination 177
Rules for Setting the IDMT Relays 186
Two Overcurrent and One Earth-Fault Scheme for Protection of a Feeder 192
Three Overcurrent and One Earth-Fault Scheme for Protection of a Transformer Feeder 193
Common Problems with Overcurrent Relays 193
Directional Protection 200
Directional Relay 202
Maximum Torque Angle 204
Directional Earth-Fault Relays 206

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Contents

7.11 Detailed Protective Scheme of Directional Overcurrent

Protection of a High-Voltage Transmission Line 206
7.12 Dead Zone 207
7.13 Coordination of Overcurrent Relays in an Inter-Connected System 215
7.14 Facilities Provided in Modern Numerical Overcurrent and Earth-Fault Relays
7.15 Limitations of Overcurrent Relays 222
Review Questions 222
Multiple Choice Questions 230

8. Protection of Transmission Lines by Distance Relays

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5

284

Protection Requirements 284

Non-Unit Protection by Back-up Relays 285
Unit Protection Schemes 285
Breaker Back-up Protection 296
Review Questions 299
Multiple Choice Questions 299

11. Induction Motor Protection

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6

272

Pilot-Wire Protection 272

AC Wire Pilot Relaying 273
Limitations of AC Wire Pilot Relaying 273
Carrier-Current Protection 273
Review Questions 283
Multiple Choice Questions 283

10. Buszone Protection

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4

231

Stepped Distance Characteristics of a Distance Relay 231

Quantities to be Fed to Distance Relays 232
Problems in Distance Measurement 239
Switched and Polyphase Distance Relaying Schemes 257
Limitations of Distance Protection for Transmission Lines 265
Review Questions 266
Multiple Choice Questions 270

9. Carrier Current Protection of Transmission Lines

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4

221

Starting of an Induction Motor 300

Faults in Induction Motors 301
Abnormalities of Induction Motors 302
Protection of Small Induction Motors 306
Protection of Large Induction Motors 307
Numerical Motor-Protection Relay 314
Review Questions 319
Multiple Choice Questions 321

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12. Testing, Commissioning and Maintenance of Relays

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7

322

Acceptance Tests 322

Type Tests 322
Laboratory Set-up for Testing of Different Types of Relays 327
Dynamic Testing of Relays 337
Requirements for Testing of Static Relays 338
Recommended Application of Test Voltage Classes 339
Tests 339
Multiple Choice Questions 344

13. Protective Current and Potential Transformers

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12
13.13
13.14

345

Equivalent Circuit and Vector Diagram of a CT 345

Construction of Current Transformers 345
Magnetisation Curve of a CT (CT Saturation Characteristic) 347
Difference Between CT Cores Used for Measurement and
those Used for Protective Relays 349
CT Errors 349
Calculation of CT Accuracy 350
Factors to be Considered while Selecting a CT 351
Problems Encountered in CT 353
CT Requirements for Different Protective Schemes 354
Specifications of a Current Transformer 357
Equivalent Circuit of a PT 359
Construction of Potential Transformer 360
Capacitor Voltage Transformer 360
Specifications of Voltage Transformer 362
Review Questions 363
Multiple Choice Questions 364

14. Circuit Breaking Fundamentals

14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11

xvii

Functions of Circuit Breakers 365

Types of Circuit Breakers 366
Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking 367
The Gaseous Discharges 368
Ionisation Process in a Gaseous Insulating Medium 369
Decay Process 370
Quenching of AC Arc 371
Arc Interruption Theories 374
Factors Affecting RRRV, Re-Striking Voltage and Recovery Voltage
Resistance Switching 388
Quenching of DC Arc 393

365

375

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Contents

Review Questions 396

Multiple Choice Questions

398

15. Electrical Switchgear

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6

16. Short-Circuit Testing of Circuit Breakers

16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6

440

Specifications of a Circuit Breaker 440

Basic Short-Circuit Testing Plant 442
Short-Time Withstand Capacity Test 444
Single-Phase Testing 444
Unit Testing 444
Synthetic Testing 444
Review Questions 447
Multiple Choice Questions 447

17. Lightning Overvoltage Protection

17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7

399

High-Voltage AC Circuit Breakers 400

High-Voltage DC (HVDC) Circuit Breakers 419
Isolators 420
Fuses 425
Miniature Circuit Breakers 434
Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers 436
Review Questions 437
Multiple Choice Questions 438

449

Specifications of a Lightning Stroke 450

Protection Against Lightning Overvoltages 451
Different Types of Lightning Arresters Used in Practice 454
Overvoltage Factors 461
Choice of Insulation Level for Transmission Line 461
Insulation Coordination 463
Insulation Coordination Scheme for 132 kV Substation 464
Review Questions 465
Multiple Choice Questions 466

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions

467

AnnexureList of International Codes for Drawings of Circuits for Protective

Relaying

469

Bibliography

472

Index

476