Section II.

Principles of Operation
1.7. GENERAL
This section covers the principles of turbine engine operation. The three classifications of
turbine engines are turbojet, turboshaft, and ramjet. The term "turbo" means "turbine."
Therefore, a turboshaft engine is one which delivers power through a shaft.
1.8. OTTO AND BRAYTON CYCLES
There is an element of similarity to both the reciprocating and jet engines, but the
thermodynamic cycle of each is different from the other. The reciprocating engine
operates on the Otto cycle, a constant volume cycle, consisting of four distinct operations.
These operations are performed intermittently by a piston reciprocating in an enclosed
cylinder. It is important to remember that the piston in a reciprocating engine delivers
power only during one of its four strokes.
The turbine engine operates on the Brayton cycle, a constant pressure cycle containing
the same four basic operations as the Otto cycle, but accomplishing them simultaneously
and continuously so that an uninterrupted flow of power from the engine results.
1.9. BRAYTON CYCLE OF OPERATION
Ambient air is drawn into the inlet section by the rotating compressor. The compressor
forces this incoming air rearward and delivers it to the combustion chamber at a higher
pressure than the air had at the inlet. The compressed air is then mixed with fuel that is
sprayed into the combustion chamber by the fuel nozzles. The fuel and air mixture is then
ignited by electrical igniter plugs similar to spark plugs. This ignition system is only in
operation during the starting sequence, and once started, combustion is continuous and
self-sustaining as long as the engine is supplied with the proper air-fuel ratio. Only about
25 percent of the air is used for combustion. The remaining air is used for internal
cooling and pressurizing.
The turbine engines in the Army inventory are of the free-power turbine design, as shown
in figure 1.2. In this engine, nearly two-thirds of the energy produced by combustion is
extracted by the gas producer turbine to drive the compressor rotor. The power turbine
extracts the remaining energy and converts it to shaft horsepower (shp), which is used to
drive the output shaft of the engine. The gas then exits the engine through the exhaust
section to the atmosphere. Army helicopters use a divergent duct to eliminate the
remaining thrust. The various kinds of exhaust ducting are discussed in detail with the
engine using that particular ducting.

1.10. TURBOJET
The turbojet is the engine in most common use today in high-speed, high-altitude aircraft,
not in Army aircraft. With this engine, air is drawn in by a compressor which raises
internal pressures many times over atmospheric pressure. The compressed air then passes
into a combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel to be ignited and burned. Burning
the fuel-air mixture expands the gas, which is accelerated out the rear as a high-velocity
jet-stream. In the turbine section of the engine, the hot expanded gas rotates a turbine
wheel which furnishes power to keep the compressor going. The gas turbine engine
operates on the principle of intake, compression, power, and exhaust, but unlike the
reciprocating engine, these events are continuous. Approximately two-thirds of the total
energy developed within the combustion chamber is absorbed by the turbine wheel to
sustain operation of the compressor. The remaining energy is discharged from the rear of
the engine as a high velocity jet, the reaction to which is thrust or forward movement of
the engine. The turbojet is shown schematically in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3. Axial-Flow Turbojet Engine.

1.11. TURBOPROP ENGINE AND TURBOSHAFT ENGINE
The turboprop engine and turboshaft engines, shown in figures 1.4 and 1.5, are of the
same basic type as the turbojet. Instead of ejecting high-velocity exhaust gases to obtain
thrust, as in the turbojet, a turbine rotor converts the energy of the expanding gases to
rotational shaft power. A propeller or helicopter transmission can be connected to the
engine through reduction gearing. This energy may be extracted by the same turbine rotor
that drives the compressor, or it may be a free-power turbine which is independent of the
compressor turbine and only linked to it by the expanding gases.

Figure 1.4. Axial-Flow Turboprop Engine.

Figure 1.5. Centrifugal-Flow Turbojet Engine.

The free-power turbine is the type used in Army aircraft to harness the energy of the
gases and convert this energy to rotational shaft power. This feature of having a freepower turbine enables the power output shaft to turn at a constant speed while the power
producing capability of the engine can be varied to accommodate the increased loads
applied to the power output shaft. Turbine engines may be further divided into three
general groups, centrifugal-flow, axial-flow, and axial-centrifugal-flow, depending upon
the type of compressor. Figure 1.4 shows an axial-flow turboprop engine, figure 1.5
shows a centrifugal-flow turbojet engine, and figure 1.5a shows an axial-centrifugal-flow
compressor.

Figure 1.5a. Axial-Centrifugal-Flow Compressor.

1.12. ADVANTAGES OF TURBINE ENGINES

Keeping in mind the basic theory of turbine engines, compare the advantages and
disadvantages of the turbine engine with the piston or reciprocating engine. The
advantages are covered in the subparagraphs below, and disadvantages are discussed in
the next section.
Power-to-weight ratio. Turbine engines have a higher power-to-weight ratio than
reciprocating engines. An example of this is the T55-L-l11. It weighs approximately 650
pounds and delivers 3, 750 shaft horsepower. The power-to-weight ratio for this engine is
5.60 shp per pound, where the average reciprocating engine has a power-to-weight ratio
of approximately .67 shp per pound.
Less maintenance. Maintenance per hour of operation is especially important in military
operations. Turbine engines require less maintenance per flying hour than reciprocating
engines generally do. As an aircraft maintenance officer, this advantage will appeal to
you because of a greater aircraft availability and lower maintenance hour to flying hour
ratio. The turbine engine also has fewer moving parts than a reciprocating engine; this is
also an advantage over the reciprocating engine.
Less drag. Because of the design, the turbine engine has a smaller frontal area than the
reciprocating engine. A reciprocating engine requires a large frontal area which causes a
great deal of drag on the aircraft. Turbine engines are more streamlined in design, causing
less drag. Figure 1.6 shows one of the two nacelles that contain reciprocating engines in
the old CH-37 cargo helicopter. Figure 1.7 shows the smaller frontal area of the turbine
engines that power the CH-47 Chinook helicopter. Because of this, the engine nacelles
are more streamlined in design, causing less drag.

Figure 1.6. Reciprocating Engine Nacelles on CH-37.

Figure 1.7. Turbine Engine Nacelles on CH-47.

Cold weather starting. The turbine engine does not require any oil dilution or preheating
of the engine before starting. Also, once started, the reciprocating engine takes a long

time to warm up to operating temperatures, whereas the turbine engine starts readily and
is up to operating temperature immediately.
Low oil consumption. The turbine engine, in general, has a lower rate of oil consumption
than the reciprocating engine. The turbine engine does not require the oil reservoir
capacity to be as large as the reciprocating engine's; because of this, a weight and
economy factor is an additional advantage.
1.13. DISADVANTAGES OF TURBINE ENGINES
Just like everything else, along with the advantages or the good, we have to take the
disadvantages or the bad. This also holds true with the turbine engine. The disadvantages
of the turbine engine are discussed in the following subparagraphs.
Foreign object damage. One of the major problems faced by the turbine engine is foreign
object damage (FOD). A turbine engine requires tremendous quantities of air. This air is
sucked into the engine at extremely high velocities, and it will draw up anything that
comes near the inlet area. The turbine engines used in Army aircraft are fitted with filters
around the engine inlet to prevent foreign objects from entering the engine and damaging
the compressor vanes. However, even with this precaution, FOD is still a menace to
turbine engine operation, as shown in figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8. Compressor Foreign Object Damage.

High temperatures. In the combustion chamber, the temperature is raised to about 3, 500
F. in the hottest part of the flame. Because this temperature is above the melting point of
most metals, proper cooling and flame dilution must be employed at all times to insure
that the engine is not damaged.
Slow acceleration. The acceleration rate of a turbine engine is very slow in comparison
with that of a reciprocating engine. The pilot must be aware of the time lag in the turbine
engine acceleration between the instant when power is requested and when power is
available.
High fuel consumption. Turbine engines are very uneconomical when it comes to the
amount of fuel they consume. The Lycoming T53 turbine engine, for instance, uses
approximately 1.5 gallons per minute of fuel. Compare it to a reciprocating engine of
approximately the same horsepower which has a fuel consumption rate of 1 gallon per
minute.

Cost. The initial cost of a turbine engine is very high when compared to the cost of a
reciprocating engine. For example the T53-L-13B engine costs about $63,000, and the
cost of a reciprocating engine of approximately the same horsepower is $20,000.

1.14. SUMMARY
The two turbine engines commonly in use today are the turbojet and turboshaft. The
turbine has surpassed the piston engine in design efficiency. The advantages of the gas
turbine are a high power-to-weight ratio, less maintenance, and low oil consumption.
Because of the small frontal area, turbines have less aerodynamic drag. The
disadvantages are foreign object damage to the compressor vanes, high operating
temperatures, and high fuel consumption. The turbine also has a slower acceleration rate.
Because of the high operating rpm, all rotating parts must be in perfect balance. The cost
to manufacture a turbine is much higher than that of a reciprocating engine. Aircraft
designers have always been limited by the powerplants available for use on aircraft of
new design. Their constant plea has been for higher power, less weight, and a more
compact design; the turbine engine has been the answer to some, if not all, of their pleas.