The Use and Non-Use of Articles

Definition of articles
English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use
of these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member
of a group, or to a specific member of a group:

1. Indefinite Articles: a and an

A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member
of a group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the
noun is general; the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for
plural general nouns. The rule is:

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy

an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like
'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)
some + plural noun: some girls

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends

on the initial sound of the adjective that immedately follows the article:

a broken egg
an unusual problem
a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with
consonant 'y' sound)

Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate
membership in a profession, nation, or religion.

I am a teacher.
Brian is an Irishman.
Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.

2. Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is
particular or specific. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a
particular member of a group. Compare the indefinite and definite articles in
the following examples:

Indefinite (a or an)
a dog (any dog)
Singular
an apple (any apple)
some dogs (any dogs)
Plural
some apples (any apples)

Definite (the)
the dog (that specific dog)
the apple (that specific apple)
the dogs (those specific dogs)
the apples (those specific apples)

The is not used with noncountable nouns referring to something in a general

sense:
[no article] Coffee is a popular drink.
[no article] Japanese was his native language.
[no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify.
The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting
modifying phrase or clause:
The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.
The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside.
The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.
The is also used when a noun refers to something unique:
the White House
the theory of relativity
the 1999 federal budget
Note: Geographical uses of the

Do not use the before:

names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and

the US
names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba, Miami)
names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St.)
names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group
of lakes like the Great Lakes
names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of
mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the
Matterhorn
names of continents (Asia, Europe)
names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island
chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before:

names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Pacific)

points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole)

geographical areas (the Middle East, the West)

deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the
Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula)

Further Uses of Articles

In addition, use of a, an, and the also depends on whether the noun following
the article possesses one of these paired qualities:

Countable vs. noncountable

First vs. subsequent mention
General vs. specific

1. Countable vs. Noncountable

A and an are used if the noun can be counted.

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did

you step in? Just one. Therefore, use a.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be

counted)

I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

The must be used when the noun cannot be counted.

I dove into the water. (How many waters did

you dive into? The question doesn't make any
sense because water is noncountable. Therefore,
use the.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk

cannot be counted)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages?

Foliage cannot be counted)

2. First vs. Subsequent Mention

A or an is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a
piece of writing. The is used afterward each time you mention that same noun.
An awards ceremony at the Kremlin would not normally have
attracted so much attention. But when it was leaked that Soviet
President Konstantin Chernenko would be presenting medals to
three cosmonauts, interest in the ceremony intensified. Time,
Sept. 17, 1984.
Note: There is and there are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at
the beginning of a paragraph or essay.
There is a robin in the tree outside my window. When my cat
jumps up on the desk, the robin flies away.
3. General vs. Specific
A, an, and the can all be used to indicate that a noun refers to the whole class
to which individual countable nouns belong. This use of articles is called
generic, from the Latin word meaning "class."
A tiger is a dangerous animal. (any individual tiger)
The tiger is a dangerous animal. (all tigers: tiger as a generic
category)
The difference between the indefinite a and an and the generic a and an is
that the former means any one member of a class while the latter means all of
the members of a class.
The omission of articles also expresses a generic (or general) meaning:
no article with a plural noun: Tigers are dangerous animals. (all
tigers)
no article with a noncountable noun: Anger is a destructive
emotion. (any kind of anger)

Omission of Articles
While some nouns combine with one article or the other based on whether they
are countable or noncountable, others simply never take either article. Some
common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
1. Names of languages and nationalities

a.
b.
c.
d.

Chinese
English
Spanish
Russian

2. Names of sports

a. volleyball
b. hockey
c. baseball
3. Names of academic subjects

a.
b.
c.
d.

mathematics
biology
history
computer science

A or An?
"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.

a
a
a
a
a

cat
dog
purple onion
buffalo
big apple

with one exception: Use an before unsounded h.

an honorable peace
an honest error

"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:

an
an
an
an
an

apricot
egg
Indian
orbit
uprising

with two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o
makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.

a
a
a
a
a
a

union
united front
unicorn
used napkin
U.S. ship
one-legged man

Note:
The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound)
quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written)
representation of the letter.
If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first
letter would makes a consonant-type sound, you use "a."
So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any
exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound,
in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel;
consequently, 'an' is used.
In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a
glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is
treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.

Prepositions of Time, of Place, and to

Introduce Objects
One point in time
On is used with days:

I will see you on Monday.7

The week begins on Sunday.

At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:

My plane leaves at noon.

The movie starts at 6 p.m.

In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:

He likes to read in the afternoon.

The days are long in August.
The book was published in 1999.
The flowers will bloom in spring.

Extended time
To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for,
by, fromto, from-until, during,(with)in

She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not
returned.)
I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and
ending in October.)
The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and
ending in fall.)
I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the
evening.)
We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)

Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk
about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk
about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at. For more detail, see
our handouts on Prepositions of Location and Prepositions of Direction.

There is a wasp in the room.

Put the present inside the box.
I left your keys on the table.
She was waiting at the corner.

Higher than a point

To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: over, above. For more detail, see our handout on
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship.

He threw the ball over the roof.

Hang that picture above the couch.

Lower than a point

To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below. For more
detail, see our handout on Prepositions of Spatial Relationship.

The rabbit burrowed under the ground.

The child hid underneath the blanket.
We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.
The valley is below sea-level.

Close to a point
To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the
following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite. For
more detail, see our handout on Prepositions of Spatial Relationship.

She lives near the school.

There is an ice cream shop by the store.
An oak tree grows next to my house
The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
I found my pen lying among the books.
The bathroom is opposite that room.

To introduce objects of verbs

English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following
verbs.
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare

She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
You didn't laugh at his joke.
I'm looking at the computer monitor.
We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
That pretty girl smiled at you.
Stop staring at me.

Of: approve, consist, smell

I don't approve of his speech.

My contribution to the article consists of many pages.
He came home smelling of alcohol.

Of (or about): dream, think

I dream of finishing college in four years.

Can you think of a number between one and ten?
I am thinking about this problem.

For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish

Did someone call for a taxi?

He hopes for a raise in salary next year.
I'm looking for my keys.
We'll wait for her here.
You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.

Prepositions of Spatial Relationship

above

Write your name above the

line.

across

Draw a line across the

page.

against

She leans against the tree.

ahead of

The girl is ahead of the

boy.

along

There is lace along the

edge of the cloth.

among

He is among the trees.

around

Draw a circle around the

answer.

behind

The boy is behind the girl.

below

Write your name below the

line.

beneath He sat beneath the tree.

beside

The girl is standing beside

the boy.

between She is between two trees.

from

He came from the house.

in front
of

The girl is in front of the

boy.

inside

He is inside the house.

nearby

There is a tree nearby the

house.

off

His hat is off.

out of

He came out of the house.

through

She went through the

door.

toward

She is walking toward the

house.

under

He is hiding under the

table.

within

Please mark only within the

circle.

Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to)

Prepositions of Direction: To, On(to), In(to)
This handout explains prepositions that express movement toward something:
to, onto, and into. First, the prepositions will be introduced as a group. Then,
the special uses of each one will be discussed.
To, into, and onto correspond respectively to the prepositions of location at, in,
and on. Each pair can be defined by the same spatial relations of point,
line/surface, or area/volume.

Introduction
1. The basic preposition of a direction is "to."
TO: signifies orientation toward a goal
When the goal is physical, such as a destination, "to" implies movement in the
direction of the goal.

(1) Sa'id returned to his

apartment.

When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, "to" marks a
verb; it is attached as an infinitive and expresses purpose. The preposition
may occur alone or in the phrase in order.
(2) Li Ling washed her dog (in order) to rid it of fleas.
The two uses can also occur together in a single sentence:

2. The other two prepositions of direction are compounds formed by

adding "to" to the corresponding prepositions of location.
The preposition of location determines the meaning of the preposition of
direction.

ON + TO = onto: signifies movement

toward a surface

IN + TO = into: signifies movement

toward the interior of a volume

("To" is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two mean about the
same thing.)

3. With many verbs of motion, "on" and "in" have a directional

meaning and can be used along with "onto" and "into".
(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is why "to" is
inside parentheses in the title of the handout, showing that it is somewhat
optional with the compound prepositions. Thus, the following sentences are
roughly synonymous:

(4) Tai-shing jumped in/into

the pool.

(5) Porfirio fell on/onto the

floor.

(6) The crab washed up

on/onto the shore.

To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposition conveys the
completion of an action, while the simple preposition points to the position of
the subject as a result of that action. This distinction helps us understand how

directional and locational prepositions are related: they stand in the

relationship of cause and effect.
Completion
of an Action

Position of
Subject

(7) Jean fell

on(to) the
floor.

Jean is on
the floor.

(8) Susumu
dived in(to)
the water.

Susumu is in
the water.

Uses of "to"
To occurs with several classes of verbs.
1. verb + to + infinitive
Verbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, or obligation.

willingness: be willing, consent, refuse

desire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, prefer
intention: intend, plan, prepare
obligation: be obligated, have, need

Examples:
(9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats.
(10) I'd like to ask her how long she's been skiing.
(11) I plan to graduate this summer.
(12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursar's office.
2. In other cases "to" is used as an ordinary preposition.

verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate, appeal (in
the sense of 'plead,' not 'be attractive')
verbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/ride/drive/ fly,
travel

Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as to.
However, "to" suggests movement toward a specific destination, while
"toward" suggests movement in a general direction, without necessarily
arriving at a destination:

(13) Drive toward the city

limits and turn north.
(Drive in the direction of the city limits;
turnoff may be before arriving there.)

(14) The plane was headed

toward a mountain.

(It was headed in the direction of a

mountain; it may not have reached or
hit the mountain.)

(15) Take me to the airport,

please.
(I actually want to arrive at the airport.)

Uses of "onto"
1. "Onto" can generally be replaced by "on" with verbs of motion.

(16) Dietrich jumped on(to) the

mat.

(17) Huan fell on(to) the floor.

(18) Athena climbed on(to) the

back of the truck.

2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject causes itself
or some physical object to be situated in a certain place (compare
#15-17 above).
Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto, with the
latter being preferred by some speakers.
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)

The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)

Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto the tree)
He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)
Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.
The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.
The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.

Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so perhaps is
put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise, scatter (when it takes a
direct object), pour, and add.
(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground.
(27) We're adding on a wing at the back of the building.
(28) We're adding a porch onto the house.
In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple preposition.
This contrast points to a fairly important and general rule:
Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound
prepositions cannot.
Note also that in (27), the word "on" has its ordinary meaning of a position on
a surface, but in this case the surface is vertical rather than horizontal-- the
side of a building. The use of "onto" in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25)
above.

3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which are

formally like "add on" but have the meaning "of continuing or
resuming an action" when used in the imperative mood.
(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang, which takes
both on and onto, they all occur only with on. The meanings of these
combinations, some of which are idiomatic, are given in parentheses.
Hang on(to the rope)! ('continue to grasp tightly')
carry on ('resume what you were doing')
sail on ('resume or continue sailing')
dream on ('continue dreaming'; a humorous way of saying 'that is an
unattainable goal')
lead on ('resume or continue leading us')
rock on ('continue playing rock music')

Uses of "into"
1. With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable except
when the preposition is the last word or occurs directly before an
adverbial of time, manner, or frequency.
In this case only in (or inside) can be used.
(29) The patient went into the doctor's office.
(30) The patient went in. (not into)
(31) Our new neighbors moved into the house next door
yesterday. ('to take up residence in a new home')
(32) Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.
In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the object of the
preposition in (32) can be omitted. Of course, in an information question,
"into" also can be last word except for an adverbial when its object is
questioned by a wh- word:
(34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
(35) Now what sort of trouble is she in?
2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only "on" or "in" with the
ordinary meanings of those prepositions.
If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted, the construction
may have an idiomatic meaning.

(36) The cat sat on the mat.

(37) The doctor is in his office.

(38) The doctor is in. ('available for

consultation')

In(to) has two special uses with move.

3. When "move in" is followed by a purpose clause, it has the sense of
"approach".
(39) The lion moved in for the kill.
(40) The police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the
building.
In (39) and (40) "in" is part of the verb, so "into" cannot be used; We cannot
say: "The lion moved into for the kill."
4. When "into" is used with move, it functions as an ordinary
preposition to convey the idea of moving something from one place to
another.

(41) We'll move your brother's old

bed into your room.

This use of "into" is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and (29).

Prepositions of Location: At, In, On

Prepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds: prepositions of
location and prepositions of direction. Both kinds may be either positive or
negative. Prepositions of location appear with verbs describing states or
conditions, especially be; prepositions of direction appear with verbs of motion.
This handout deals with positive prepositions of location that sometimes cause
difficulty: at, on, and in.
The handout is divided into two sections. The first explains the spatial
relationships expressed by the three prepositions. The second examines more
closely the uses of in and on.

Dimensions and Prepositions

Prepositions differ according to the number of dimensions they refer to. We
can group them into three classes using concepts from geometry: point,
surface, and area or volume.
Point
Prepositions in this group indicate that the noun that follows them
is treated as a point in relation to which another object is
positioned.

Surface
Prepositions in this group indicate that the position of an object is
defined with respect to a surface on which it rests.
Area/Volume
Prepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within the
boundaries of an area or within the confines of a volume.
Notice that although in geometry surface and area go together because both
are two-dimensional, in grammar area and volume go together because the
same prepositions are used for both.
In light of these descriptions, at, on, and in can be classified as follows:

at ....... point

on ....... surface

in ....... area/volume

The meanings of the three prepositions can be illustrated with some sample
sentences:

1) My car is at the house.

2) There is a new roof on the

house.

3) The house is in Tippecanoe

county.

4) There are five rooms in the

house, which has a lovely
fireplace in the living room.

All of these sentences answer a question of the form, "Where is _______?" but
each gives different information. Before going on, explain to yourself the
spatial relations shown in each sentence.
1) locates a car in relation to a house, understood as a fixed point. 2) treats
the house as a surface upon which another object, the roof, is placed. 3)
locates the house within a geographical area. 4) treats the house as a threedimensional structure that can be divided into smaller volumes, namely,
rooms, inside one of which is an object, the fireplace.

Using "at"
At calls for further comment. Because it is the least specific of the prepositions
in its spatial orientation, it has a great variety of uses. Here are some of them:
location

5a) Tom is waiting for his sister at the

bank.

5b) Sue spent the whole afternoon at

the fair.

destination

6a) We arrived at the house.

6b) The waiter was at our table

immediately.
direction

7a) The policeman leaped at the

assailant.

7b) The dog jumped at my face and

really scared me.

In 5a), the bank can be understood as a point defining Tom's location, much as
in 1) above. It makes less sense to think of a fair as a point in 5b) since fairs
are usually spread out over a fairly large area. Probably at is used in this case
just because it is the least specific preposition; it defines Sue's location with
respect to the fair rather than some other place. In 6a), at exhibits its
cause/effect relationship with to, which cannot be used here: arrival at a place
is the result of going to it. 7a) and 7b) show that with certain verbs of motion
at may be used with the same meaning as its directional counterpart to, that
is, direction toward something. Again, see the directional prepositions handout.

In the remainder of the handout, we will look at special problems that arise in
choosing between in and on.

"in" and "on"

1. Nouns denoting enclosed spaces, such as a field or a window, take both on
and in. The prepositions have their normal meanings with these nouns: on is
used when the space is considered as a surface, in when the space is
presented as an area:

Three players are practicing on the

field. (surface)

Three cows are grazing in the

field. (area)

The frost made patterns on the

window. (surface)

A face appeared in the window.

(area)

Notice that in implies that the field is enclosed, whereas on implies only that
the following noun denotes a surface and not necessarily an enclosed area:

The sheep are grazing in the pasture.

(enclosed by a fence)

The cattle are grazing on the open

range. (not enclosed by a fence )

Three players are on the basketball

court. (not enclosed)

Three players are on the soccer field.

(not enclosed)

Two boxers are in the ring. (enclosed

by ropes)

2. When the area has metaphorical instead of actual boundaries, such as when
field means "academic discipline," in is used:
She is a leading researcher in the bioengineering field.
3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two follow the
general pattern of in and on usage. The third is an idiom that must be learned
as a unit.

a) The children are playing in the

street.

b) Our house is on Third Street.

c) He declared bankruptcy last

week, and now he's out on the
street.

(This is an idiom meaning that he's

poor.)

In a) the street is understood as an area enclosed by the sidewalks on either

side. Compare b) with the discussion of sentence 3) in the first section. Here
on locates the house on either side of Third Street: it doesn't mean that the
street is a surface on which the house sits. Because the street is understood as
a line next to which the house is situated, on functions much like at in its
normal use: it locates the house in relation to the street but does not specify
the exact address. For that purpose, at is used because the address is like a
particular point on the line. Compare: "Our house is at 323 Third Street." In c)
out on the street is an idiom meaning "poor" or "destitute."
4. In and on are also used with means of transportation: in is used with a car,
on with public or commercial means of transportation:
in the car
on the bus
on the plane
on the train
on the ship
Some speakers of English make a further distinction for public modes of
transportation, using in when the carrier is stationary and on when it is in
motion.
My wife stayed in/on the bus while I got out at the rest stop.
The passengers sat in/on the plane awaiting takeoff.

Writing Numbers
Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed
in one or two words and use figures for other numbers:
Words
over two pounds
six million dollars
after thirty-one years
eighty-three people

Figures
after 126 days
only $31.50
6,381 bushels
4.78 liters

Here are some examples of specific situations.

Days and Years

December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965

A.D. 1066
in 1900
in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972
the eighties, the twentieth century
the 1980's or the 1980s
Time of Day

8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning

4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon
Addresses

16 Tenth Street
350 West 114 Street
Identification Numbers

Room 8
Channel 18
Interstate 65
Henry VIII
Page and Division of Books and Plays

page 30
chapter 6
in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii

Decimals and Percentages

a 2.7 average
13 1/4 percent
.037 metric ton
Large Round Numbers

four billion dollars (or) $4 billion

16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

Notes on Usage
Repeat numbers in legal or commercial writing.

The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.

two apples, six oranges, and three bananas

NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas
115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'
scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6
The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed
Write out numbers beginning sentences.

Six percent of the group failed.

NOT: 6% of the group failed.
Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a
combination will keep your writing clear.

Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90year-olds who were born in the city. (may cause the
reader to read '690' as one number.)
Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90year-olds who were born in the city.

Adjective or Adverb?
Basic Rules
1. Adjectives modify nouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs.
You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are
formed by adding -ly to an adjective.
Here are some sentences that demonstrate some of the differences
between an adjective and an adverb by showing what is being
modified in each sentence. In each sentence, light blue arrows
point to adjectives and green arrows point to adverbs.
Here careless is an adjective that
modifies the proper noun Richard.
Here carelessly is an adverb that
modifies the verb talks.

Here happy is an adjective

that modifies the proper
noun Priya and extremely is
an adverb that modifies the
adjective happy.
Here quickly is an adverb
that modifies the verb
finished and unusually is an
adverb that modifies the
adverb quickly.

Adverbs can't modify nouns, as you can see from the following
incorrect sentences.
He is a quietly man.

The correct sentence should say He is a

quiet man.

I have a happily dog.

The correct sentence should say I have a

happy dog.

On the other hand, it's sometimes easy to make the mistake of

using an adjective to modify a verb, as the incorrect sentences
below show.
He talks careless about
your wife.

The correct sentence should say He talks

carelessly about your wife.

He is breathing normal
again.

The correct sentence should say He is

breathing normally again.

2. An adjective always follows a form of the verb to be when it

modifies the noun before the verb.
Here are some examples that show this rule. Light blue arrows
point from the adjective to the noun that it modifies.

3. Likewise, an adjective always follows a sense verb or a verb of

appearance -- feel, taste, smell, sound, look, appear, and seem -- when
it modifies the noun before the verb.
Here are some examples that show this rule. Light blue arrows
point from the adjective to the noun it modifies.
Here bad is an adjective that modifies the
noun cough. Using the adverb badly here
would not make sense, because it would
mean her cough isn't very good at
sounding.

Here awful is an adjective that modifies the

noun oil. Using the adverb awfully here
would not make sense, because it would
mean that castor oil isn't very good at
tasting.
Here fresh is an adjective that modifies the
noun air. Using the adverb freshly here
would not make sense, because it would
mean that the air has a sense of smell that
it uses in a fresh manner.
Here unhappy is an adjective that modifies
the pronoun she. Using the adverb
unhappily here would not make sense,
because it would mean that she isn't very
good at seeming.
Here dark is an adjective
that modifies the noun
images. Using the adverb
darkly here would not make
sense, because it would
mean that the images were
suddenly popping into view
in a dark manner.

Be careful to notice whether the word modifies the subject or the

verb in the sentence. If the word modifies the subject, you should
use an adjective. If the word modifies the verb, you should use an
adverb. The difference is shown in the following pair of sentences.
Here sweet is an adjective that modifies
the noun apple. Using the adverb sweetly
here would not make sense, because it
would mean that the apple can smell
things in a sweet manner.
Here carefully is an adverb that modifies
the verb smells. Using the adjective
careful here would not make sense,
because it would mean that the dog gives
off an odor of carefulness.

Avoiding Common Errors

Bad or Badly?
When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an
adjective (Why? Feel is a sense verb;see rule #3 above). So you'd
say, "I feel bad." Saying you feel badly would be like saying you
play football badly. It would mean that you are unable to feel, as
though your hands were partially numb.
Good or Well?
Good is an adjective, so you do not do good or live good, but you
do well and live well. Remember, though, that an adjective follows
sense-verbs and be-verbs, so you also feel good, look good, smell
good, are good, have been good, etc. (Refer to rule #3 above for
more information about sense verbs and verbs of appearance.)
Confusion can occur because well can function either as an adverb
or an adjective. When well is used as an adjective, it means "not
sick" or "in good health." For this specific sense of well, it's OK to
say you feel well or are well -- for example, after recovering from
an illness. When not used in this health-related sense, however,
well functions as an adverb; for example, "I did well on my exam."
Double-negatives
Scarcely and hardly are already negative adverbs. To add another
negative term is redundant, because in English only one negative
is ever used at a time
They found scarcely any animals on the island. (not
scarcely no...)
Hardly anyone came to the party. (not hardly no
one...)
Sure or Surely?
Sure is an adjective, and surely is an adverb. Sure is also used in
the idiomatic expression sure to be. Surely can be used as a
sentence-adverb. Here are some examples that show different uses
of sure and surely. Light blue arrows indicate adjectives and green
arrows indicate adverbs.
Here sure is an adjective
that modifies the
pronoun I.

Here surely is an adverb

that modifies the
adjective ready.
Here sure to be is an
idiomatic phrase that
functions as an adjective
that modifies the
pronoun she.
Here surely is an
adverb that modifies
the verb has been.

Real or Really?
Real is an adjective, and really is an adverb. Here are some
examples that demonstrate the difference between real and really.
Light blue arrows indicate adjectives and green arrows indicate
adverbs.
Here really is an adverb that
modifies the adverb well.
Here really is an adverb that
modifies the verb phrase going
out.
Here real is an
adjective that
modifies the noun
problems.

Near or Nearly?
Near can function as a verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition.
Nearly is used as an adverb to mean "in a close manner" or
"almost but not quite." Here are some examples that demonstrate
the differences between various uses of near and nearly. Light blue

arrows indicate adjectives and green arrows indicate adverbs.

Subjects and verbs are marked in purple.
Here neared is a verb in the
past tense.
Here nearly is an adverb
that modifies the verb
finished.
Here near is an adjective
that modifies the noun
future.
Here near is an adverb of
place that modifies the verb
crept.
Here nearly is an
adverb that
modifies the verb
related.
Here near is a
preposition. The
prepositional
phase near the
end of the
movie modifies
the noun scene.

Count and NonCount Nouns (with Plurals, Articles, and

Quantity Words)
Section 1: Definition of Count and Noncount nouns
Count or Noncount?
The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they
refer to or not.
Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to
what can be perceived by the senses.
Examples:
table
chair
word

finger
remark
girl

bottle
award
candidate

Example sentences:

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just
one.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)

I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that
can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning
(for example, furniture).
Examples:
anger
furniture

courage
education

progress
weather

warmth

leisure

precision

Example Sentences:

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into?
The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is
noncountable.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be

counted.)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be

counted.)

Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be
divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it becomes solid enough to be
cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake

Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the
above definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is
countable in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.

Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing
The Rule

From the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for
pluralizing them:

most count nouns pluralize with -s

noncount nouns don't pluralize at all

This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for
yourself before reading further.
An Exception to the Rule

For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both
classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract
and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:
Count

I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific

problems)
The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of
specific lectures)
The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of
specific lights and noises)

Noncount

She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of
school being difficult)
I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general)
Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in
general)

Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification.
Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other
items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages:
food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:

There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine)

I prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian. (= kinds of coffee)
We use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter)

A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least among some students has the count plural
homeworks in addition to its noncount use. (For example, "You're missing three of the homeworks
from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be
considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing.
A Revision of the Rule

These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a
count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.
The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular
noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible
to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a
count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.

To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:

Pluralizes with -s
Count Noun

XX

Count Use

XX

Doesn't Pluralize

Noncount Noun

XX

Noncount Use

XX

Articles
Nouns and Articles

Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices
depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both
count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.
Combinations of Nouns and Articles

The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this, that, these,
and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite,
which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object
known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously
mentioned in a piece of writing.

Count
singular

a, an

the

XX

XX

Count
plural

XX

Noncount

XX

this, that

these,
those

XX

XX
XX

Examples:
Count Singular:
I ate an apple.
I rode the bus.
Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.
Count Plural:
I like to feed the birds.

no article

XX
XX

Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.

Cats are interesting pets.
Noncount:
The water is cold.
This milk is going sour.
Music helps me relax.

Quantity Terms
The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity
words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any
of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no
can also be applied to many of these terms.

much, less, little, a

little, very little

some, any, most,

more, all, a lot of, no,
none of the

many, both, several,

few/fewer/fewest, a
few, one of the, a
couple of

Count
singular

XX

Count plural
Noncount

each, every, any, one

XX
XX

XX

XX

Examples:
Count Singular:
I practice every day.
I'd like one donut, please.
Count Plural:
Can I have some chips?
She has a lot of books, and many are autographed.
I have fewer pencils than you.
Noncount:
Can I have some water?
She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing.
I have less courage than you.

Count and NonCount Nouns (with Articles and Adjectives)

Countable Nouns
Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural
form.
Concrete nouns may be countable.
There are a dozen flowers in the vase.
He ate an apple for a snack.
Collective nouns are countable.
She attended three classes today.
London is home to several orchestras.
Some proper nouns are countable.
There are many Greeks living in New York.
The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their
Newport summer mansion.

Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.
Abstract nouns are uncountable.
The price of freedom is constant vigilance.
Her writing shows maturity and intelligence.
Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense).
The price of oil has stabilized recently.
May I borrow some rice?
While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural form, sometimes they may be pluralized
when used in a countable sense. The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of
nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following chart:
Uncountable Sense

Countable Sense

Art is often called an imitation of life.

I read a book about the folk arts of Sweden.

Life is precious.

A cat has nine lives.

He likes to eat pizza.

How many pizzas should we order?

Religion has been a

powerful force in history.

Many religions are practiced in the United States.

The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins.

She has beautiful skin.
We have several sculptures in our home.
Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek sculpture.
We use only recycled paper in our office.

Where are those important papers?

Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is
singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no
article if it is used in a general sense.
The guest of honor arrived late.
You are welcome as a guest in our home.
The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise.
Guests are welcome here anytime.
Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is
sometimes used with uncountable nouns in the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that
is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.
Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world.
The information in your files is correct.
Sugar has become more expensive recently.
Please pass me the sugar.

Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Abstract

Material

Generic

Non-Plurals with - s

advice
help
information
knowledge
trouble
work
enjoyment
fun
recreation
relaxation

meat
rice
bread
cake
coffee
ice cream
water
oil
grass
hair

fruit
wildlife
equipment
machinery
furniture
mail
luggage
jewelry
clothing
money

mathematics
economics
physics
civics
ethics
mumps
measles
news
tennis
(other games)

Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some, Any
Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns.
There are some cookies in the jar. (countable)
There is some water on the floor. (uncountable)
Did you eat any food? (uncountable)
Do you serve any vegetarian dishes? (countable)
Much, Many
Much modifies only uncountable nouns.
How much money will we need?
They ate so much cake that they started to feel sick.
Much effort will be required to solve this problem.
Many modifies only countable nouns.
How many children do you have?
They had so many books that they had to stack them in the hall.
Many Americans travel to Europe each year.
A lot of, Lots of
These words are informal substitutes for much and many.
Lots of effort will be required to solve this problem. (uncountable)
A lot of Americans travel to Europe each year. (countable)
Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few
Little and quite a little modify only uncountable nouns.
We had a little ice cream after dinner.
They offered little help for my problem. (meaning "only a small
amount")
They offered quite a little help for my problem. (meaning "a large
amount") (See quite a bit of, below.)
Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns.
A few doctors from the hospital play on the softball team.
Few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning
"only a small number")
Quite a few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes.
(meaning "a large number")

A little bit of, Quite a bit of

These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as
quite a little and is used more commonly.
There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small
amount")
There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large
amount")
Enough
This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
I don't have enough potatoes to make the soup.
We have enough money to buy a car.
Plenty of
This term modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
There are plenty of mountains in Switzerland.
She has plenty of money in the bank.
No
This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
There were no squirrels in the park today.
We have no time left to finish the project.

Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some/Any:
Both modify countable and uncountable nouns.
There is some water on the floor.
There are some Mexicans here.
Do you have any food?
Do you have any apples?
Much/Many:
MUCH modifies only uncountable nouns.
They have much money in the bank.
MANY modifies only countable nouns.
Many Americans travel to Europe.
A lot of/lots of:
These are informal substitutes for MUCH and MANY. They are used with uncountable nouns when
they mean MUCH and with countable nouns when they mean MANY.
They have lots of money in the bank.
A lot of Americans travel to Europe.
Little/Few:
LITTLE modifies only uncountable nouns.
He had little food in the house.
FEW modifies only countable nouns.
There are a few doctors in town.
A little bit of:
This phrase is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.
There is a little bit of pepper in the soup.

Enough:
ENOUGH modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
There is enough money to buy a car.
I have enough books to read.
Plenty of:
This phrase modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
They have plenty of money in the bank.
There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.

No:
NO modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
There is no time to finish now.
There are no squirrels in the park.

Appositives
An appositive is a noun or pronoun -- often with modifiers -- set beside
another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. Here are some examples of
appositives.

An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it

may also precede it.

Punctuation of appositives
In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive;
the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the
case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the

sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas
are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.
Here are some examples.
Here we do
not put
commas
around the
appositive,
because it is
essential
information.
Without the
appositive,
the sentence
would be The
popular US
president was
known for his
eloquent and
inspirational
speeches. We
wouldn't
know which
president was
being referred
to.
Here we put
commas
around the
appositive
because it is
not essential
information.
Without the
appositive,
the sentence
would be John
Kennedy was
known for his
eloquent and
traditional
speeches. We
still know who
the subject of
the sentence
is without the

appositive.
Here we do
not put
commas
around either
appositive
because they
are both
essential to
understanding
the sentence.
Without the
appositives,
the sentence
would just be
John Kennedy
was quite
different from
John
Kennedy. We
wouldn't
know what
qualities of
John Kennedy
were being
referred to
without the
appositive.

Exercise
Underline the appositives in the following sentences.
1. My son, the policeman, will be visiting us next week.
2. The captain ordered the ship's carpenters to assemble the shallop, a large
rowboat.
3. Walter, the playboy and writer, is very attached to his mother, Mrs.
Hammon.
4. The actor Paul Newman directed only one picture.
5. Elizabeth Teague, a sweet and lovable girl, grew up to be a mentally
troubled woman.
Underline and punctuate the appositives in the following sentences.
Remember: not all require punctuation.

6. Sweetbriar a company known throughout the South is considering a

nationwide advertising campaign.
7. An above-average student and talented musician John made his family
proud.
8. The extremely popular American film Titanic was widely criticized for its
mediocre script.
9. The greatest American film ever made Citizen Kane won only one Academy
Award.
10. 60 Minutes the TV news magazine program featured a story on the popular
singer Whitney Houston.

Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike

Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This
list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that
sound alike. Click on any of the blue underlined links to open a longer and
more complete definition of the word in a new window.

Forms to remember
Accept, Except

accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise

graciously.
except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the
game except Alyson.

For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on
accept/except and affect/effect.
Affect, Effect

affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game?
effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an
effect on your game?
effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have
effected a major change in university policy.

A memory-help for affect and effect is is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb

and Effect is a Noun.
For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on
accept/except and affect/effect.
Advise, Advice

advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise

you to be cautious.
advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what
could or should be done: I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.

Conscious, Conscience

conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head

injury, the patient remained conscious.
conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris
wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.

Idea, Ideal

idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind,

or a general notion or conception formed by generalization: Jennifer had
a brilliant idea -- she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!
ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection,
or an ultimate object or endeavor: Mickey was the ideal for tutors
everywhere.
ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence
or perfection, or the best; Jennifer was an ideal student.

Its, It's

its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the pronoun it): The crab
had an unusual growth on its shell.
it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining;
it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when
two words are being shortened into one.)

Lead, Led

lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician

wore a vest lined with lead.
led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to
guide or direct: The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous
decision.

Than, Then
Than used in comparison statements: He is richer than I.
used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.
used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than
the first paragraph.
Then a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job
then.
next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.
suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam
should be no problem.

Their, There, They're

Their = possessive pronoun: They got their books.

There = that place: My house is over there. (This is a place word, and
so it contains the word here.)
They're = contraction for they are: They're making dinner. (Pronouns
have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

To, Too, Two

To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went

to the lake to swim.
Too = very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.
Two = the number 2: Two students scored below passing on the exam.

Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all
contain the letters tw.
Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains
an extra o ("one too many")
We're, Where, Were

We're = contraction for we are: We're glad to help. (Pronouns have

apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
Where = location: Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so
it contains the word here.)
Were = a past tense form of the verb be: They were walking side by
side.

Your, You're

Your = possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied.

You're = contraction for you are: You're walking around with your
shoes untied. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are
being shortened into one.)

One Word or Two?

All ready/already

all ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness

already: an adverb expressing time
At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left.

All right/alright

all right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal

spelling, more common in scientific & academic writing: Will you be all
right on your own?
alright: Alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in
journalistic and business publications, and especially common in
fictional dialogue: He does alright in school.

All together/altogether

all together: an adverb meaning considered as a whole, summed up:

All together, there were thirty-two students at the museum.
altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely,
entirely: His comment raises an altogether different problem.

Anyone/any one

anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all: Anyone who can solve
this problem deserves an award.
any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a
group; usually used with of: Any one of those papers could serve as an
example.

Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one
Anyway/any way

anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless: He objected,

but she went anyway.
any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course,
direction, or manner: Any way we chose would lead to danger.

Awhile/a while

awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; some readers consider it

nonstandard; usually needs no preposition: Won't you stay awhile?
a while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually
used with for: We talked for a while, and then we said good night.

Maybe/may be

maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps: Maybe we should wait until the

rain stops.
may be: a form of the verb be: This may be our only chance to win the
championship.

Spelling: Accept/Except and Affect/Effect

Errors in writing that involve sound-alike words (homophones) are known as
"wrong word" errors. Such errors are more significant than simple spelling
mistakes, since they involve word-level confusion, not merely incorrect spelling
of the correct word. Two common sources of wrong word errors are the
homophone pairs accept/except and affect/effect. For more information on
sound-alike words, see our handout on this topic.

Accept and Except

Meanings for the most common uses:
accept (transitive verb) [Middle English, from Middle French accepter, from
Latin acceptare, frequentative of accipere to receive, from ad- toward + capere
to take]
1a: to receive willingly <accept a gift> b: to be able or
designed to take or hold (something applied or added)
<a surface that will not accept ink>
2: to give admittance or approval <to accept her as
one of the group>
3a: to endure without protest or reaction <accept poor
living conditions> b: to regard as proper, normal, or
inevitable <the idea is widely accepted> c: to
recognize as true; believe <refused to accept the
explanation>
4a: to make a favorable response to <accept an offer>
b: to agree to undertake (a responsibility) <accept a
job>
5: to assume an obligation to pay; also: to take in
payment <we don't accept personal checks>

1. except (preposition) [Originally past participle; see meaning 3, below]

with the exclusion or exception of <open daily except Sundays>
2. except (conjunction)
1: on any other condition than that; unless <you face
punishment except if you repent>
2: with the following exception <was inaccessible

except by boat>
3: only (often followed by that) <I would go except
that it's too far>
Meanings for less common uses:
3. except (transitive verb) [Latin exceptus, past participle of excipere to take
or draw out, to except; ex- out + capere to take]
To take or leave out (anything) from a number or a
whole; to exclude; to omit <if we only except the
unfitness of the judge, the trial was a perfect
enactment of justice> <Adam and Eve were forbidden
to touch the excepted tree (past participle)>

Would you like to try an interactive exercise on using accept and except
correctly?

Affect and Effect

Meanings for the most common uses:

Affect
1. affect (transitive verb) [Middle English, from affectus, past participle of
afficere]
to produce an effect upon, as a: to produce a material
influence upon or alteration in <paralysis affected his
limbs> b: to act upon (as a person or a person's mind
or feelings) so as to bring about a response; influence

Effect
1. effect (noun) [Middle English, from Middle French & Latin; Middle French,
from Latin effectus, from efficere to bring about, from ex- out (of) + facere to
make, do]
1a: purport; intent <the effect of their statement was
to incite anger> b: basic meaning; essence <her
argument had the effect of a plea for justice>
2: something that inevitably follows an antecedent (as
a cause or agent) <environmental devastation is one
effect of unchecked industrial expansion>

3: an outward sign; appearance <the makeup created

the effect of old age on their faces>
4: accomplishment; fulfillment <the effect of years of
hard work>
5: power to bring about a result; influence <the
content itself of television is therefore less important
than its effect>
6 plural: movable property; goods <personal effects>
7a: a distinctive impression <the color gives the effect
of being warm> b: the creation of a desired impression
<her tears were purely for effect> c (1): something
designed to produce a distinctive or desired
impression, usually used in plural (2) plural: special
effects
8: the quality or state of being operative; operation
<the law goes into effect next week>
in effect: in substance; virtually <the committee
agreed to what was in effect a reduction in the hourly
wage>
to the effect: with the meaning <issued a statement
to the effect that he would resign>

Meanings for less common uses:

Affect:
2. affect (transitive verb)
1: to make a display of liking or using; cultivate
<affect a worldly manner>
2: to put on a pretense of; feign <affect indifference,
though deeply hurt>
3. affect (noun) [pronunciation: stress on first syllable, unlike verb forms of
this word]
the conscious subjective aspect of an emotion
considered apart from bodily changes <he displayed a
distressing lack of affect>

Effect
2. effect (transitive verb)
1: to cause to come into being <the citizens were able
to effect a change in government policy>
2a: to bring about often by surmounting obstacles;
accomplish <effect a settlement of a dispute> b: to put
into operation <the duty of the legislature to effect the
will of the citizens>
Usage: The confusion of the verbs affect and effect not only is
quite common but has a long history. The verb effect was used in
place of affect (1, above) as early as 1494 and in place of affect (2,
above) as early as 1652. If you think you want to use the verb
effect but are not certain, check the definitions here. The noun
affect is sometimes mistakenly used for the noun effect. Except
when your topic is psychology, you will seldom need the noun
affect.

Sentence Fragments

Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of

sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the
easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment
and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the
newly combined sentence.
Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation
and/or words added to make corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that
the fragment is frequently a dependent clause or long phrase that follows the
main clause.
Fragment (phrase or
dependent clause)

Possible Revision

Purdue offers many majors in

engineering. Such as electrical,
chemical, and industrial
engineering.

Purdue offers many majors in

engineering, such as electrical,
chemical, and industrial
engineering.

Coach Dietz exemplified this

behavior by walking off the
field in the middle of a game.
Leaving her team at a time
when we needed her.

Coach Dietz exemplified this

behavior by walking off the field
in the middle of a game, leaving
her team at a time when we
needed her.

I need to find a new

roommate. Because the one I
have now isn't working out too
well.

I need to find a new roommate

because the one I have now isn't
working out too well.

The current city policy on

housing is incomplete as it
stands. Which is why we
believe the proposed
amendments should be
passed.

Because the current city policy

on housing is incomplete as it
stands, we believe the proposed
ammendments should be
passed.

You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a
dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the
preceding main clause, as in the last example above. This is a conventional

journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For academic writing and
other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such
journalistic fragment sentences.
Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left
unattached to the main clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a
subject or main verb.
Fragment (incomplete main
clause)

Possible Revisions

No main verb
A story with deep thoughts
and emotions.

Appositive: Gilman's "The

Yellow Wallpaper," a story
with deep thoughts and
emotions, has impressed
critics for decades.
Direct object: She told a
story with deep thoughts and
emotions.

Toys of all kinds

thrown everywhere.

Complete verb: Toys of all

kinds were thrown
everywhere.
Direct object: They found
toys of all kinds thrown
everywhere.

A record of
accomplishment
beginning when you
were first hired.

Direct object: I've noticed a

record of accomplishment
beginning when you were first
hired.
Main verb: A record of
accomplishment began when
you were first hired.

No subject
With the ultimate effect of
all advertising is to sell the
product.
By paying too much
attention to polls can
make a political
leader unwilling to
propose innovative
policies.

Remove preposition: The

ultimate effect of all
advertising is to sell the
product.
Remove preposition: Paying
too much attention to polls
can make a political leader
unwilling to propose
innovative policies.

For doing freelance

work for a competitor
got Phil fired.

Remove preposition: Doing

freelance work for a
competitor got Phil fired.
Rearrange: Phil got fired for
doing freelance work for a
competitor.

These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as
mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They
start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular
predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last
two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the
preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or
pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor,

use a singular verb.

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or

pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject
that is nearer the verb.

4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular
subject. Don't is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural
subject. The exception to this rule appears in the case of the first person and
second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don't
should be used.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb.
The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody,
anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a
singular verb.

7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require

singular verbs.

Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of
money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars
themselves, a plural verb is required.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs.
(There are two parts to these things.)

9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the
verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are
considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: group, team,
committee, class, and family.
In very few cases, the plural verb is used if the individuals in the group are
thought of and specifically referred to.

11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in

addition to, or as well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject
is singular, the verb is too.

Verb Tenses
Active Tenses
Simple Present
Present Progressive

Simple Past
Past
Progressive

Future

Present
Past
Perfect
Perfect
Progressive

Present
Perfect

Future
Perfect

Passive Tenses
Simple
Present

Present
Simple
Progressive Past

Past
Present Past
Future
Progressive
Perfect Perfect

Future Modal
Perfect s

Active Tenses
Simple Present
Present Action
or Condition

Non-action;
Habitual Action

General Truths

I hear
you.
Here
comes the
bus.

There are thirty

days in
September.

Future Time

I like music.
I run on
Tuesdays and
Sundays.

The train
leaves at
4:00 p.m.

Present Progressive
Activity in Progress

Verbs of Perception

I am playing soccer now

He is feeling sad

Simple Past
Completed Action

Completed Condition

We visited the museum yesterday.

The weather was rainy

last week.

Past Progressive
Past Action that took place over a period of
time

They were climbing for twenty-seven

days.

Past Action interrupted by another

We were eating dinner when

she told me.

Future
With will/won't -- Activity or event
With going to -- future in relation to
that will or won't exist or happen in
circumstances in the present
the future

I'll get up late tomorrow.

I won't get up early.

I'm hungry.
I'm going to get something to eat.

Present Perfect
With verbs of state that
begin in the past and lead
up to and include the
present

With events occurring at an

To express
indefinite or unspecified time in
habitual or
the past -- with ever, never,
continued action
before

He has lived here for

many years.

He has
worn
glasses all
his life.

Have you ever been to

Tokyo before?

Present Perfect Progressive

To express duration of an action that began in the past, has continued into the
present, and may continue into the future

David has been working for two hours, and he hasn't finished yet.

Past Perfect
to describe a past event or condition
completed before another event in the past

In reported speech

When I arrived home, he had already

called.

Jane said that she had gone

to the movies.

Future perfect
to express action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the
future

By next month we will have finished this job.

He won't have finished his work until 2:00.

THE PASSIVE TENSES

Simple present
active:

passive:

The company ships the computers to

many foreign countries.

Computers are shipped to

many foreign countries.

Present Progressive
active:

passive:

The chef is preparing the food.

The food is being prepared.

Simple Past
active:

passive:

The delivery man delivered the

package yesterday.

The package was delivered

yesterday.

Past Progressive
active:

passive:

The producer was making an

announcement.

An announcement was being

made.

Future
active:

passive:

Our representative will pick up the

computer.

The computer will be picked

up.

Present Perfect
active:

passive:

Someone has made the

arrangements for us.

The arrangements have been

made for us.

Past Perfect
active:

They had given us visas for three

months.

passive:

We had been given visas for

three months.

Future perfect
active:

passive:

By next month we will have

finished this job.

By next month this job will have

been finished.

Modals
active:

You can use the computer.

passive:

The computer can be used.

Sequence of Tenses
Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are marked in the verb alone,
present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language
tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries.
Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to recreate much of the reality of
time in his writing. The six are
Simple Present: They walk
Present Perfect: They have walked
Simple Past: They walked
Past Perfect: They had walked
Future: They will walk
Future Perfect: They will have walked
Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which
are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third
principal part.
ring, rang, rung
walk, walked, walked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must,"
"ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have," "had," and they are the forms we shall use
in this most basic discussion.

Present Perfect
The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with
"has" or "have." It designates action which began in the past but which continues
into the present or the effect of which still continues.
1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past)
2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect)
The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2), that she is still teaching.
1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies.
2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the movies.
Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when combined with "have," and
sometimes problems arise when infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope,"
"plan," "expect," and "intend," all of which usually point to the future (I wanted to
go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The perfect tense sets up a
sequence by marking the action which began and usually was completed before
the action in the main verb.
1. I am happy to have participated in this campaign!
2. John had hoped to have won the trophy.
Thus the action of the main verb points back in time; the action of the perfect
infinitive has been completed.
The past perfect tense designates action in the past just as simple past does, but
the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another
action.
1. John raised vegetables and later sold them. (past)
2. John sold vegetables that he had raised. (past perfect)
The vegetables were raised before they were sold.
1. Renee washed the car when George arrived (simple past)
2. Renee had washed the car when George arrived. (past perfect)
In (1), she waited until George arrived and then washed the car. In (2), she had
already finished washing the car by the time he arrived.
In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the
part that states the condition.

1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.

2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.
Notice: There can be only one "would have" action group in a sentence.

Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a
specified time in the future.
1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple future)
2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. (future perfect)

Review
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Judy
Judy
Judy
Judy
Judy

saved thirty dollars. (past)

will save thirty dollars. (future)
has saved thirty dollars. (present perfect)
had saved thirty dollars by the end of last month. (past perfect)
will have saved thirty dollars by the end of this month. (future perfect)

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives

In this handout, the three types of verbals are discussed: gerunds, participles,
and infinitives.
Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in a separate section of
this handout because they can both end in -ing but have different functions in a
sentence.
Finally, since they can both function as nouns in a sentence despite their different
forms, gerunds and infinitives are compared and contrasted in the last section
below.

Throughout this document, occasional example sentences with wording that

might be considered nonstandard, ambiguous, or at least peculiar in formal
writing are marked with an asterisk (*).

Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal
indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb
and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund
functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun
ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and
object of preposition.
Gerund as subject:

Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.

The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences.

Gerund as direct object:

They do not appreciate my singing.

They do not appreciate my assistance.

Gerund as subject complement:

My cat's favorite activity is sleeping.

My cat's favorite food is salmon.

Gerund as object of preposition:

The police arrested him for speeding.

The police arrested him for criminal activity.

A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s),
or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:

Finding a needle in a haystack would be

easier than what we're trying to do.

The gerund phrase functions as the

subject of the sentence.
Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed
in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as
adverb)

I hope that you appreciate my offering you

this opportunity.

The gerund phrase functions as the

direct object of the verb appreciate.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form,
modifying the gerund)
offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in
gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action
expressed in gerund)

Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his

constituents.

The gerund phrase functions as the

subject complement.
lying to (gerund)
his constituents (direct object of action
expressed in gerund)

You might get in trouble for faking an

illness to avoid work.

The gerund phrase functions as the

object of the preposition for.
faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action
expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.

The gerund phrase functions as the

subject of the sentence.
Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via
state of being expressed in gerund)

Punctuation

A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.

Points to remember:
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or
complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

Exercise on Gerunds:
Underline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the following sentences and
label how they function in the sentence (subject, direct object, subject
complement, object of preposition).

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Swimming keeps me in shape.

Swimming in your pool is always fun.
Telling your father was a mistake.
The college recommends sending applications early.
He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
Her most important achievement was winning the national championship.
Going to work today took all my energy.
Fighting for a losing cause made them depressed.

Answers to this exercise are available.

Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or
-ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of
verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being.
However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns.
There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles.
Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in
the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.

The crying baby had a wet diaper.

Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
The burning log fell off the fire.
Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.

A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s)

and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect
object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:

Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.

The participial phrase functions as an

adjective modifying Jack.
Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action expressed
in participle)

Delores noticed her cousin walking along

the shoreline.

The participial phrase functions as an

adjective modifying cousin.
walking (participle)
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase
as adverb)

Children introduced to music early develop

strong intellectual skills.

The participial phrase functions as an

adjective modifying children.
introduced (to) (participle)
music (direct object of action expressed in

participle)
early (adverb)

Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the

importance of exercise.

The participial phrase functions as an

adjective modifying Lynn.
Having been (participle)
a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn,
via state of being expressed in participle)

Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as

close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.

Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *

Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.

In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the
action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically
understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling
modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any
specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be
doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers
to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in
the second sentence.
Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be
placed after the phrase.

Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.

Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.

If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should

be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of
the sentence.

Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.

The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.

Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no
commas should be used:

The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special
award.
The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.

If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes

the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase
directly follows the word it modifies.

The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)

Points to remember:
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n
(past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s),
and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns
or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be
clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes at the
beginning of a sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential
element, or c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the
word it modifies.

Exercise on Participles:
Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following sentences, and
draw a line to the noun or pronoun modified.
1. Getting up at five, we got an early start.
2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they hadn't worked
hard enough in high school.
3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association revealed that
seventy percent of American colleges offer remedial English classes
emphasizing composition.
4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly.
5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.
In each of the following sentences, underline the participial phrase(s), draw
a line to the word(s) modified, and punctuate the sentence correctly.
Remember that some sentences may not need punctuation.
6. Starting out as an army officer Karen's father was frequently transferred.
7. Mrs. Sears showing more bravery than wisdom invited thirty boys and
girls to a party.

8. The student left in charge of the class was unable to keep order.
9. Applicants must investigate various colleges learning as much as possible
about them before applying for admission.
10. The crying boy angered by the bully began to fight.
Rewrite the following sentences (you may need to reword them slightly)
with the correct placement and punctuation of the participial phrases.
11. Espousing a conservative point of view the proposal for more spending
on federal social programs bothered him.
12. Absorbed in an interesting conversation my scheduled appointment
time passed unnoticed.
Answers to this exercise are available.

Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest
"stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal
indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb
and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may
function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a
sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form,
deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.

To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)

Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)
We must study to learn. (adverb)

Be sure not to confuse an infinitive--a verbal consisting of to plus a verb--with a

prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or
pronoun and any modifiers.
Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch,
to belong
Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to
the mountains, to us, to this address
An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the
modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s),

direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state

expressed in the infinitive, such as:

We intended to leave early.

The infinitive phrase functions as the

direct object of the verb intended.
to leave (infinitive)
early (adverb)

I have a paper to write before class.

The infinitive phrase functions as an

adjective modifying paper.
to write (infinitive)
before class (prepositional phrase as
adverb)

Phil agreed to give me a ride.

The infinitive phrase functions as the

direct object of the verb agreed.
to give (infinitive)
me (indirect object of action expressed in
infinitive)
a ride (direct object of action expressed in
infinitive)

They asked me to bring some food.

The infinitive phrase functions as the

direct object of the verb asked.
me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to bring (infinitive)
some food (direct object of action
expressed in infinitive)

Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of

the team.

The infinitive phrase functions as the

direct object of the verb wanted.
Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive
phrase)
to be (infinitive)
the captain (subject complement for Carol,
via state of being expressed in infinitive)
of the team (prepositional phrase as
adjective)

Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be
roughly characterized as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the
infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an
infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice
that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in
the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object,
require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor. Still other
verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.

Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors:

agree

begin

continue

decide

fail

hesitate

hope

intend

learn

neglect

offer

plan

prefer

pretend

promise

refuse

remember

start

try

Examples:
Most students plan to study.
We began to learn.
They offered to pay.
They neglected to pay.
She promised to return.
In all of these examples no actor can come between the italicized main (finite)
verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Verbs that take infinitive objects with actors:
advise

allow

convince

remind

encourage

force

hire

teach

instruct

invite

permit

tell

implore

incite

appoint

order

Examples:
He reminded me to buy milk.
Their fathers advise them to study.
She forced the defendant to admit the truth.
You've convinced the director of the program to change her position.
I invite you to consider the evidence.
In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized main (finite) verb
and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.

Verbs that use either pattern:

ask

expect

(would) like

want

Examples:
I asked to see the records.
I asked him to show me the records.
Trent expected his group to win.
Trent expected to win.
Brenda likes to drive fast.
Brenda likes her friend to drive fast.
In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with
or without an actor.
Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in
a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is
needed for an infinitive phrase.

To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.

To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.

Points to remember:
1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be
used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s),
complement(s), and/or actor(s).
3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at
the beginning of a sentence.

Split infinitives:
Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and
the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the
infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal
writing.
Examples:

I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)

On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal
contexts)
I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal
contexts)

Exercise on Infinitives:
Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the sentence,
adding any punctuation as needed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

I want to go.
I want you to go home.
We want to see the play.
To see a shooting star is good luck.
To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.

Now underline the infinitive phrase and label how it is used in the sentence.
6. To design a new building for them would be challenging.
7. I want him to be my bodyguard.
8. Jim is expected to program computers at his new job.
9. They will try to build a new stadium in ten years.
10. To distill a quart of moonshine takes two hours.
11. The president wants to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
12. She has the money to buy it.
13. We demonstrated to attract attention to our agenda.
14. I do not like to give poor grades.
15. The dogs were taught to stand, to sit, and to bark on command.
16. To be great is to be true to yourself and to the highest principles of
honor.
17. To see is to believe.
Answers to this exercise are available.

Comparing Gerunds and Participles

Look at the following pair of sentences. In the first, the use of a gerund
(functioning as a noun) allows the meaning to be expressed more precisely than
in the second. In the first sentence the interrupting itself, a specific behavior, is
precisely indicated as the cause of the speaker's irritation. In the second the
cause of the irritation is identified less precisely as Bill, who just happens to have

been interrupting. (In the second sentence, interrupting is actually a participle,

not a gerund, since it functions as an adjective modifying Bill.)
I was irritated by Bill's constant interrupting.
I was irritated by Bill, constantly interrupting.
The same pattern is shown in these other example pairs below: in the first of
each pair, a gerund (noun-function) is used; in the second, a participle
(adjective-function). Notice the subtle change in meaning between the two
sentences in each pair.

Examples:
The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (The technique was
extraordinary.)
The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (The person was
extraordinary, demonstrating the technique.)
He was not impressed with their competing. (The competing did not
impress him.)
He was not impressed with them competing. (They did not impress him as
they competed.)
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren's running and laughing.
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren, running and laughing.* (Ambiguous:
who is running and laughing?)

Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives

The difference in the form of gerunds and infinitives is quite clear just from
comparing the following lists:
Gerunds: swimming, hoping, telling, eating, dreaming
Infinitives: to swim, to hope, to tell, to eat, to dream
Their functions, however, overlap. Gerunds always function as nouns, but
infinitives often also serve as nouns. Deciding which to use can be confusing in
many situations, especially for people whose first language is not English.
Confusion between gerunds and infinitives occurs primarily in cases in which one
or the other functions as the direct object in a sentence. In English some verbs
take gerunds as verbal direct objects exclusively while other verbs take only

infinitives and still others can take either. Many such verbs are listed below,
organized according to which kind of verbal direct object they take.

Verbs that take only infinitives as verbal direct objects

agree

decide

expect

hesitate

learn

need

promise

neglect

hope

want

plan

attempt

propose

intend

pretend

Examples:
I hope to go on a vacation soon.
(not: I hope going on a vacation soon.*)
He promised to go on a diet.
(not: He promised going on a diet. *)
They agreed to sign the treaty.
(not: They agreed signing the treaty.*)
Because she was nervous, she hesitated to speak.
(not: Because she was nervous, she hesitated speaking.*)
They will attempt to resuscitate the victim
(not: They will attempt resuscitating the victim.*)

Verbs that take only gerunds as verbal direct objects

deny

risk

delay

consider

can't help

keep

give up

be fond of

finish

quit

put off

practice

postpone

tolerate

suggest

stop (quit)

regret

enjoy

keep (on)

dislike

admit

avoid

recall

mind

miss

detest

appreciate

recommend

get/be
through

get/be tired
of

get/be
accustomed
to

get/be used
to

Examples:
They always avoid drinking before driving.
(not: They always avoid to drink before driving.*)
I recall asking her that question.
(not: I recall to ask her that question.*)
She put off buying a new jacket.
(not: She put off to buy a new jacket.*)
Mr. Allen enjoys cooking.
(not: Mr. Allen enjoys to cook.*)
Charles keeps calling her.
(not: Charles keeps to call her.*)

Verbs that take gerunds or infinitives as verbal direct objects

start

begin

continue

hate

prefer

like

love

try

remember

Examples:
She has continued to work at the store.
She has continued working at the store.
They like to go to the movies.
They like going to the movies.

Brent started to walk home.

Brent started walking home.

Forget and remember

These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a gerund or infinitive is
used as the object.

Examples:
Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)
Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn't remember now.)
Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)
Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn't remember sometime
later.)
Jack remembers to take out the cat. (He regularly remembers.)
Jack remembers taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembers now.)
Jack remembered to take out the cat. (He did it.)
Jack remembered taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembered
sometime later.)
In the second of each pair of example sentences above, the past progressive
gerund form having taken can be used in place of taking to avoid any possible
confusion.

Sense verbs that take an object plus a gerund or a simple verb

Certain sense verbs take an object followed by either a gerund or a simple verb
(infinitive form minus the word to). With many of the verbs that follow the object,
the use of the gerund indicates continuous action while the use of the simple verb
indicates a one-time action. Still, sometimes the simple verb can indicate
continuous action if one-time action wouldn't make sense in the context.
feel

hear

notice

see

smell

observe

watch

Examples:
We watched him playing basketball. (continuous action)
We watched him play basketball. (continuous action)
I felt my heart pumping vigorously. (continuous action)
I felt my heart pump vigorously. (continuous action)
She saw them jumping on the bed. (continuous action)
She saw them jump on the bed. (one-time action)
Tom heard the victim shouting for help. (continuous action)
Tom heard the victim shout for help. (one-time action)
The detective noticed the suspect biting his nails. (continuous action)
The detective noticed the suspect bite his nails. (one-time action)
We could smell the pie baking in the kitchen. (continuous action)
We could smell the pie bake in the kitchen. (continuous action)
Sometimes the simple-verb version might seem unconventional, so it's safer in
most cases to use the gerund version.

Verb Tense Consistency

Throughout this document, example sentences with nonstandard or inconsistent

usage have verbs in red.

Controlling Shifts in Verb Tense

Writing often involves telling stories. Sometimes we narrate a story as our main
purpose in writing; sometimes we include brief anecdotes or hypothetical
scenarios as illustrations or reference points in an essay. Even an essay that does
not explicitly tell a story involves implied time frames for the actions discussed
and states described. Changes in verb tense help readers understand the
temporal relationships among various narrated events. But unnecessary or
inconsistent shifts in tense can cause confusion. Generally, writers maintain one
tense for the main discourse and indicate changes in time frame by changing
tense relative to that primary tense, which is usually either simple past or simple
present. Even apparently non-narrative writing should employ verb tenses
consistently and clearly.
General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each
action or state is the same.

Examples:
1. The ocean contains rich minerals that washed down from rivers
and streams.
Contains is present tense, referring to a current state; washed down
is past, but should be present (wash down) because the minerals are
currently continuing to wash down.
Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from
rivers and streams.
2. About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low
rumble announces the approaching storm.
Darkened and sprang up are past tense verbs; announces
is present but should be past (announced) to maintain
consistency within the time frame.

Corrected: About noon the sky darkened, a breeze

sprang up, and a low rumble announced the
approaching storm.
3. Yesterday we had walked to school but later rode the bus home.
Had walked is past perfect tense but should be past to
maintain consistency within the time frame (yesterday);
rode is past, referring to an action completed before the
current time frame.
Corrected: Yesterday we walked to school but later
rode the bus home.

General guideline: Do shift tense to indicate a change in time frame from one action or
state to another.

Examples:
1. The children love their new tree house, which they built
themselves.
Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it
now;) built is past, referring to an action completed before the
current time frame (they are not still building it.)
2. Before they even began deliberations, many jury members had
reached a verdict.
Began is past tense, referring to an action completed
before the current time frame; had reached is past
perfect, referring to action from a time frame before that
of another past event (the action of reaching was
completed before the action of beginning.)
3. Workers are installing extra loudspeakers because the music in
tonight's concert will need amplification.
Are installing is present progressive, referring to an
ongoing action in the current time frame (the workers are
still installing, and have not finished;) will need is future,
referring to action expected to begin after the current
time frame (the concert will start in the future, and that's
when it will need amplification.)

Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay

General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional
shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.

Hints:

Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or an

author's ideas as historical entities (biographical information about a
historical figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over
time).
Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions,
and to discuss your own ideas or those expressed by an author in a
particular work. Also use present tense to describe action in a literary work,
movie, or other fictional narrative. Occasionally, for dramatic effect, you
may wish to narrate an event in present tense as though it were happening
now. If you do, use present tense consistently throughout the narrative,
making shifts only where appropriate.
Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of
will, shall, is going to, are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time,
and a wide range of contextual cues.

Using Other Tenses in Conjunction with Simple Tenses

It is not always easy (or especially helpful) to try to distinguish perfect and/or
progressive tenses from simple ones in isolation, for example, the difference
between simple past progressive ("She was eating an apple") and present perfect
progressive ("She has been eating an apple"). Distinguishing these sentences in
isolation is possible, but the differences between them make clear sense only in
the context of other sentences since the time-distinctions suggested by different
tenses are relative to the time frame implied by the verb tenses in surrounding
sentences or clauses.
Example 1: Simple past narration with perfect and progressive elements

On the day in question...

By the time Tom noticed the doorbell, it had already rung three times.
As usual, he had been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turned
the stereo down and stood up to answer the door. An old man was
standing on the steps. The man began to speak slowly, asking for
directions.
In this example, the progressive verbs had been listening and was standing
suggest action underway at the time some other action took place. The stereo-

listening was underway when the doorbell rang. The standing on the steps was
underway when the door was opened. The past perfect progressive verb had been
listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative
time frame and that was still underway as another action began.
If the primary narration is in the present tense, then the present progressive or
present perfect progressive is used to indicate action that is or has been
underway as some other action begins. This narrative style might be used to
describe a scene from a novel, movie, or play, since action in fictional narratives
is conventionally treated as always present. For example, we refer to the scene in
Hamlet in which the prince first speaks (present) to the ghost of his dead father
or the final scene in Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing, which takes place (present)
the day after Mookie has smashed (present perfect) the pizzeria window. If the
example narrative above were a scene in a play, movie, or novel, it might appear
as follows.
Example 2: Simple present narration with perfect and progressive elements

In this scene...
By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it has already rung three times.
As usual, he has been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turns
the stereo down and stands up to answer the door. An old man is
standing on the steps. The man begins to speak slowly, asking for
directions.
In this example as in the first one, the progressive verbs has been listening and is
standing indicate action underway as some other action takes place. The present
perfect progressive verb has been listening suggests action that began in the time
frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that is still underway as another
action begins. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first
example.
In all of these cases, the progressive or -ing part of the verb merely indicates
ongoing action, that is, action underway as another action occurs. The general
comments about tense relationships apply to simple and perfect tenses,
regardless of whether there is a progressive element involved.
It is possible to imagine a narrative based on a future time frame as well, for
example, the predictions of a psychic or futurist. If the example narrative above
were spoken by a psychic, it might appear as follows.
Example 3: Simple future narration with perfect and progressive elements

Sometime in the future...

By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it will have already rung three
times. As usual, he will have been listening to loud music on his
stereo. He will turn the stereo down and will stand up to answer the
door. An old man will be standing on the steps. The man will begin to
speak slowly, asking for directions.
In this example as in the first two, the progressive verbs will have been listening
and will be standing indicate ongoing action. The future perfect progressive verb
will have been listening suggests action that will begin in the time frame prior to
the main narrative time frame and that will still be underway when another action
begins. The verb notices here is in present-tense form, but the rest of the
sentence and the full context of the narrative cue us to understand that it refers
to future time. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first two
examples.
General guidelines for use of perfect tenses
In general the use of perfect tenses is determined by their relationship to the
tense of the primary narration. If the primary narration is in simple past, then
action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in past
perfect. If the primary narration is in simple present, then action initiated before
the time frame of the primary narration is described in present perfect. If the
primary narration is in simple future, then action initiated before the time frame
of the primary narration is described in future perfect.
Past primary narration corresponds to Past Perfect (had + past
participle) for earlier time frames
Present primary narration corresponds to Present Perfect (has or
have + past participle) for earlier time frames
Future primary narration corresponds to Future Perfect (will have +
past participle) for earlier time frames
The present perfect is also used to narrate action that began in real life in the
past but is not completed, that is, may continue or may be repeated in the
present or future. For example: "I have run in four marathons" (implication: "so
far... I may run in others"). This usage is distinct from the simple past, which is
used for action that was completed in the past without possible continuation or
repetition in the present or future. For example: "Before injuring my leg, I ran in
four marathons" (implication: "My injury prevents me from running in any more
marathons").
Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after, by the time, and others-when used to relate two or more actions in time--can be good indicators of the
need for a perfect-tense verb in a sentence.

By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the audience had
lost (past perfect) interest.
By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his speech,
the audience has lost (present perfect) interest.
By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his
speech, the audience will have lost (future perfect) interest.
After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course, we
offered (past) our guests dessert.
After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we
offer (present: habitual action) our guests dessert.
After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we will
offer (future: specific one-time action) our guests dessert.
Long before the sun rose (past), the birds had arrived (past perfect)
at the feeder.
Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds have
arrived (present perfect) at the feeder.
Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the birds
will have arrived (future perfect) at the feeder.
Sample paragraphs
The main tense in this first sample is past. Tense shifts are inappropriate and are
indicated in bold.
The gravel crunched and spattered beneath the wheels of the bus as
it swung into the station. Outside the window, shadowy figures
peered at the bus through the darkness. Somewhere in the crowd,
two, maybe three, people were waiting for me: a woman, her son,
and possibly her husband. I could not prevent my imagination from
churning out a picture of them, the town, and the place I will soon
call home. Hesitating a moment, I rise from my seat, these images
flashing through my mind. (adapted from a narrative)
Inappropriate shifts from past to present, such as those that appear in the above
paragraph, are sometimes hard to resist. The writer becomes drawn into the
narrative and begins to relive the event as an ongoing experience. The
inconsistency should be avoided, however. In the sample, will should be would,
and rise should be rose.
The main tense in this second sample is present. Tense shifts--all appropriate-are indicated in bold.
A dragonfly rests on a branch overhanging a small stream this July
morning. It is newly emerged from brown nymphal skin. As a nymph,

it crept over the rocks of the stream bottom, feeding first on

protozoa and mites, then, as it grew larger, on the young of other
aquatic insects. Now an adult, it will feed on flying insects and
eventually will mate. The mature dragonfly is completely
transformed from the drab creature that once blended with
underwater sticks and leaves. Its head, thorax, and abdomen glitter;
its wings are iridescent in the sunlight. (adapted from an article in the
magazine Wilderness)
This writer uses the present tense to describe the appearance of a dragonfly on a
particular July morning. However, both past and future tenses are called for when
she refers to its previous actions and to its predictable activity in the future.

Verbs with Helpers

1. Recent Past (Present Perfect)
A conjugation of Have + [VERB+ed] describes an action that began in the past and
continues into the present or that occurred in the recent past.

Examples:

The child has finished the candy.

I have gone to college for one year.
He has worked hard all day.

2. Distant Past (Past Perfect)

Had + [VERB+ed] describes actions that began and ended in the past.

Examples:

Mike had promised to repair Joe's bike.

I had eaten dinner before he came.

3. Present Continuous Action (Present Progressive)

Is + [VERB+ing] shows action that is in progress now or is going to happen in the
future.

Examples:

I am taking Spanish this semester.

He is getting ready for the party this evening.
Next week they are going to Florida.

4. Past Continuous Action (Past Progressive)

Was + [VERB+ing] shows action that was in progress at a certain time in the past.

Examples:

Yesterday I was working in the garden.

He was smoking a pack a day before he quit.
The dogs were barking all night.

5. Other helping verbs (Modals)

[HELPER] + [VERB], such as CAN, WILL, SHALL, MAY, COULD, WOULD, SHOULD, MIGHT,
MUST
keep the same form. They do not change to agree with the subject.

Examples:
I|
you |
he | can do that assignment easily.
we |
There are also modal phrases (some of which don't change form), such as:
COULD HAVE + Verb
WOULD HAVE + Verb
MUST HAVE + Verb
(Not could "of" or would "of")
Example:

I could have won the prize if I had entered the contest.

He must have bought the ticket already.

OR

USED TO + Verb
HAVE TO + Verb
HAVE GOT TO + Verb
BE ABLE TO + Verb
OUGHT TO + Verb
BE SUPPOSED TO + Verb
Examples:

I used to think that all dogs have fleas.

I am supposed to come back next week.

Two-Part (Phrasal) Verbs (Idioms)

Many verbs in English are followed by an adverb or a preposition (also called a
particle), and these two-part verbs, also called phrasal verbs, are different from
verbs with helpers. The particle that follows the verb changes the meaning of the
phrasal verb in idiomatic ways:
VERB

MEANING

EXAMPLE

drop off

decline gradually

The hill dropped off near the

river.

drop
off(2)

fall asleep

While doing his homework, he

dropped off.

drop
off(3)

stop and give something

to someone

Would you drop this off at the

post office?

drop out cease to participate

After two laps, the runner

dropped out.

Some particles can be separated from the verb so that a noun and pronoun can
be inserted, and some particles can't be separated from the verb. In addition,
some phrases are intransitive, meaning they cannot take a direct object.
Separable

add up (meaning: Correct: She added up the total on her

to add)
calculator.
Correct: She added it up on her calculator.

get around
Inseparable (meaning: to
evade)

Correct: She always gets around the rules.

Incorrect: She always gets the rules around
(This construction makes no sense in English.)

catch on
Intransitive (meaning: to
understand)

Correct: After I explained the math problem, she

began to catch on.
Incorrect: She began to catch on the math
problem. (catch on cannot take a direct object in
this meaning.)
Correct: She began to catch on to the math
problem. (the word to makes the math problem
an indirect object, which is acceptable in this
meaning.)

Unfortunately, there is usually no indicator whether an idiomatic phrase is

separable, inseparable, or intransitive. In most cases the phrases must simply be
memorized. Below is a partial list of each kind of phrase.

Separable
add up - add
back up - cause to move backwards; support; blow up; cause to explode; destroy
by explosives
break down - analyze; list the parts of separately
break into - go into a house or room forcibly; suddenly; begin; bring about cause to happen
bring off - accomplish
bring on - cause
bring out - publish; emphasize
bring over - bring
bring to - revive
bring up - raise; care for from childhood

brush out - brush the inside of

burn down - destroy by burning
burn up - consume by fire
buy out - by the other person's share of a business
buy up - buy the whole supply of
call off - cancel; order away
call up - telephone; summon for military service
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue
carry out - fulfill; complete; accomplish; perform
carry over - carry; continue at another time or place
cheer up - cause to become cheerful
chew up - chew thoroughly
chop up - chop into small pieces
clean off - clean the surface of
clean out - clean the inside of
clean up - clarify; tidy
clear out - clear the surface of
clear up - clear the inside of
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
count in - include
count out - exclude
count up - calculate; count; add to a total
cross out - eliminate
cut off - interrupt; sever; amputate
cut out - eliminate; delete
cut down - reduce in quantity
draw up - write; compose (a document)
dress up - put clothes on; adorn
dust out - dust the inside of
eat up - eat completely
figure out - interpret; understand
figure up - compute
fill in - complete (a printed form)
fill out - complete (a printed form)
fill up - fill completely (a container)
find out - discover
fix up - repair; arrange in a suitable manner
get across - cause to be understood
give back - return
give out - distribute; announce
give up - surrender something
hand down - deliver; pronounce formally; leave as an inheritance
hand over - yield control of
hang up - suspend

have on - be dressed in
have over - entertain someone informally at one's home
hold off - delay; restrain
hold up - delay; rob; threaten with a weapon
keep up - continue; keep the same pace
leave out - omit
let down - disappoint
let out - release from confinement; make larger (in sewing)
light up - light; illuminate thoroughly
live down - live in such a way as to cause something to be forgotten
make over - remake
move over - move to the side
pass out - distribute
pass up - not take advantage of (as an opportunity)
pass on - transmit
pay back - repay
pay off - discharge a debt completely; give someone his final pay
pick up - come to meet an escort; lift with hands or fingers; learn casually;
initiate an association publicly
play down - minimize
play up - emphasize
point out - indicate
pull down - pull in a downward direction; raze
push across - cause to be understood or accepted
put off - postpone
put on - dress in; deceive or fool
put up - preserve (food); receive as an overnight guest
quiet down - be quiet
ring up - the telephone
rinse off - rinse the surface of
rinse out - rinse the inside of
rule out - eliminate
run down - trace; disparage; hit with a vehicle
run off - cause to depart; reproduce mechanically
save up - accumulate
see through - complete; in spite of difficulties
see off - accompany someone to the beginning of a trip
send back - send to a place where formerly located
send over - send to where someone is
set up - arrange
show off - exhibit ostentatiously
shut off - cause to cease functioning
slow up - cause to move more slowly
spell out - enumerate; state in detail
stand up - fail to keep an appointment with
sweep out - sweep the inside of

take back - return; retract a statement

take down - remove from a high position; write from dictation
take in - understood; fool; deceive; make smaller (in sewing)
take over - take; assume command of
tear down - destroy
tear up - tear into small pieces
tell off - scold; reprimand
think over - consider
think through - consider from beginning to end
think up - create; invent
throw away - discard
throw over - reject
tie up - tie securely or tight
tire out - cause to be exhausted
touch up - repair
try on - put on a garment to verify the fit
try out - test
turn down - refuse; lower the volume
turn out - produce; force into exile, extinguish (a light)
wash off - wash the surface of
wash out - wash the inside of
wear out - use until no longer usable; tire greatly
wind up - finish, tighten the spring of a watch or machine
wipe off - wipe the surface of
wipe out - wipe the inside of; decimate
work out - solve
write down - record
write out - write down every detail; spell out
write up - compose; prepare (a document)

Inseparable
back out of - desert; fail to keep a promise
bear down on - lean on; browbeat
bear on - have to do with
bear up under - endure
break in on - interrupt
break into - interrupt
call for - come to get; require
care for - like; guard; supervise; maintain
carry on with - continue
catch up with - cover the distance between oneself and
check up on - examine; verify
come across - find accidentally
come along with - accompany; make progress
come by - find accidentally

come down with - become ill with

come out with - utter; produce
come up with - utter; produce
count on - rely on
cut in on - interrupt
disagree with - cause illness or discomfort to
do away with - abolish
do without - deprive oneself of
drop in at/on - visit casually without planning
drop out of - leave; quit
face up to - acknowledge
fall behind in - lag; not progress at required pace
fall back on - use for emergency purpose
fall out with - quarrel with
fill in for - substitute for
get ahead of - surpass; beat
get around - evade; avoid
get away with - do without being caught or punished
get by with - manage with a minimum of effort
get down to - become serious about; consider
get in - enter (a vehicle)
get off - descend from; leave
get on - enter (a vehicle); mount
get on with - proceed with
get through with - terminate, finish
go back on - desert; fail to keep (a promise)
go for - like a great deal
go in for - be interested in; participate in
go on with - continue
go over - review
go with - harmonize with; look pleasing together
go without - abstain from
hang around - remain idly in the vicinity of
hear from - receive a communication from
hear of - learn about (sometimes accidentally)
hit on - discover accidentally
hold on to - grasp tightly
hold out against - resist
keep at - persevere at
keep to - persist in; continue
keep up with - maintain the pace of
lie down on - evade; fail to do
live on - support or sustain oneself by means of
live up to - maintain the standard demanded of
look after - take care of
look back on - remember nostalgically

look down on - feel superior to

look forward to - anticipate
look up to - respect; admire
make up for - compensate for
pass on - transmit
pick on - tease; bully
play up to - flatter for personal advantage
put up with - tolerate
read up on - search out information on
run against - compete against in an election
run away with - leave; escape from
run for - campaign for
see about - consider; arrange
see to - arrange; supervise
settle on - decide on; choose
stand for - represent; permit
stand up for - support; demand
stand up to - resist
stick to - persist
stick up for - support; defend
take after - resemble
talk back to - answer impolitely
talk over - discuss
tell on - report misbehavior to authority
touch on - mention briefly
turn into - become
wait on - serve
wait up for - not go to bed while waiting for
watch out for - be careful for

Intransitive
back down - retreat from a position in an argument
back out - desert; fail to keep a promise
back up - move backwards
bear up - endure
blow in - drop in to visit unexpectedly
blow over - pass without doing harm
blow up - explode; lose one's temper
call up - telephone
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue as before; misbehave
catch on - understand
catch up - cover the distance between oneself and a moving goal
check up - investigate
check out - leave; pay one's bill

cheer up - become cheerful

clear out - leave
clear up - become clear
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
came about - happen
come along - accompany; make progress
come back - return
come by - visit someone in his home
come out - appear; make a social debut
come over - come to someone's house, to where someone is
come through - succeed
come to - regain consciousness
cut in - interrupt
die away - fade; diminish
die down - fade; diminish
die off/out - disappear; become extinct
dress up - don fancy or unusual clothes
drive back - return by car
drop in - visit someone casually without planning
drop out - abandon some organized activity; leave; quit
drop over - visit someone casually
fall behind - not progress at required pace
fall off - decrease; lose weight
fall through - fail; not be accomplished
fill in - substitute
find out - learn
fly back - return by air
fly over - fly to where someone is
get ahead - make progress
get along - have a friendly relationship
get around - circulate; move about
get away - escape
get by - manage; either just barely or with a minimum of effort
get in - enter
get off - descend from leave
get on - enter (a vehicle); mount (a horse, etc.)
get on/along - progress; be compatible
get up - rise
get through - finish
give out - become exhausted
give up - surrender; fail to finish
go back - return
go off - explode
go on - happen; continue
go out - stop burning; leave one's residence

go over - go; succeed

grow up - mature
hang around - remain idly; dawdle
hang up - replace a telephone receive on its hook
hold on - grasp tightly; persevere; wait while telephoning
hold out - continue to resist; persevere; persist
keep on - continue
keep up - maintain the required pace or standard; continue
let up - diminish in intensity
lie down - recline
look on - be a spectator
make out - progress; succeed
make up - become reconciled
move over - move to the side
pan out - turn out well; be successful
pass out - become unconscious
pass on - die
pick up - grow; increase
pull in - arrive
pull out - deport
pull through - survive (barely)
ride over - ride to where someone is
run away - escape; leave; leave quickly without permission
run down - slowly lose power so as to stop functioning
run off - depart running; drain
sell out - sell the ownership or responsibility
settle up - pay one's bills or debts
show off - boast by words or actions
show up - arrive; appear unexpectedly
shut up - stop talking
slow up - reduce speed
stand by - wait; be prepared to assist
stand up - stand; rise from sitting; last; endure
stay over - remain at someone's house overnight or longer
step aside - move to one side
take off - leave the ground
take over - assume command
talk back - answer impolitely
throw up - vomit
turn around - turn so that one is facing another direction
turn in - go to bed
turn out - succeed; come; appear, as at a public meeting
turn up - arrive; be found unexpectedly
wait up - remain awake in anticipation
wake up - awaken
walk back - return on foot to where one was

walk over - walk to where someone is

wash out - fade or disappear from washing
watch out - be careful
wear off - fade; disappear through use or time
wear out - become unusable through use; become used up
work out - be successful

Irregular Verbs
Present

Past

Past
Participle

feed

fed

fed

feel

felt

felt

be

was, were

been

fight

fought

fought

become

became

become

find

found

found

begin

began

begun

fly

flew

flown

blow

blew

blown

forbid

forbade

forbidden

break

broke

broken

forget

forgot

forgotten

bring

brought

brought

forgive

forgave

forgiven

build

built

built

freeze

froze

frozen

burst

burst

burst

get

got

gotten

buy

bought

bought

give

gave

given

catch

caught

caught

go

went

gone

choose

chose

chosen

grow

grew

grown

come

came

come

have

had

had

cut

cut

cut

hear

heard

heard

deal

dealt

dealt

hide

hid

hidden

do

did

done

hold

held

held

drink

drank

drunk

hurt

hurt

hurt

drive

drove

driven

keep

kept

kept

eat

ate

eaten

know

knew

known

fall

fell

fallen

lay

laid

laid

lead

led

led

sit

sat

sat

leave

left

left

sleep

slept

slept

let

let

let

speak

spoke

spoken

lie

lay

lain

spend

spent

spent

lose

lost

lost

spring

sprang

sprung

make

made

made

stand

stood

stood

meet

met

met

steal

stole

stolen

pay

paid

paid

swim

swam

swum

quit

quit

quit

swing

swung

swung

read

read

read

take

took

taken

ride

rode

ridden

teach

taught

taught

ring

rang

rung

tear

tore

torn

rise

rose

risen

tell

told

told

run

ran

run

think

thought

thought

say

said

said

throw

threw

thrown

see

saw

seen

understand understood understood

seek

sought

sought

sell

sold

sold

send

sent

shake

wake

woke
(waked)

woken
(waked)

sent

wear

wore

worn

shook

shaken

win

won

won

shine

shone

shone

write

wrote

written

sing

sang

sung

LIE versus LAY

Present

Past

Past Participle

lie, lying (to tell a

falsehood)

I lied to my mother.

I have lied under

oath.

lie, lying (to recline)

I lay on the bed

because I was tired.

He has lain in the

grass.

lay, laying (to put,

place)

I laid the baby in her

cradle.

We have laid the

dishes on the table.

After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep.
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?

SIT versus SET

Present

Past

Past Participle

sit (to be seated or come to

resting position)

I sat in my favorite
chair.

You have sat there for

three hours.

set (to put or place)

I set my glass on the She has set her books on

table.
my desk again.

Let's set the table before we sit down to rest.

RISE versus RAISE

Present

Past

rise (steady or customary The balloon rose into the

upward movement)
air.
raise (to cause to rise)

They raised their hands

because they knew the
answer.

The boy raised the flag just before the sun rose.

Past Participle
He has risen to a
position of power.
I have raised the
curtain many times.