Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(PMB CAMPUS)
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT, IT AND GOVERNANCE
DISCIPLINE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
2016
COURSE NOTES
Reporting - simply summarising or giving an account of some data, for example, statistics.
Description - Tries to discover answers to questions of who, what, when, where and how.
Defines subjects and concepts.
Explanation - Gives reasons of what has been described via observation. Theories and
hypotheses are used to account for influences that caused the phenomenon to arise.
Prediction - Once you can explain why a phenomenon occurred, it is useful to predict when
it will occur again. Prediction is important in planning, development of better theory of the
phenomenon, forecasting.
2
Control - Once we can explain and predict, it is useful to control the phenomenon.
Control is thus the logical outcome of prediction.
1.6 CONCLUSION
Due to the complexity and dynamic nature of organisations and the environment, the manager
today has to know more. Research is one way to obtain pertinent information and knowledge.
The manager can either engage in his own research or get the research services. Hence, in both
cases the study of research methodology is important. In the case of the latter, the manager
needs a knowledge of research methodology to be able to judge research quality. Good research
must:a) Be purposeful.
b) Have clearly defined goals.
c) Have carefully planned procedures.
d) Be objective.
e) Have good analysis, reporting, conclusions and recommendations.
The manager-researcher relationship is important as both have an obligation to make the project
meaningful.
2) VARIABLES
A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at
various times for the same object or person, or the values can differ at the same time for
different objects or persons.
The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher's
goal is to explain or predict the variability in the dependent variable.
The independent variable is the one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive
or negative way. That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is
also present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or
decrease in the dependent variable also. In other
words, the variance in the dependent
variable is accounted for by the independent variable.
The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variabledependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating
variable) modifies the originally expected relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
The moderating variable is the explanatory variable.
It is the second independent variable and has a significant contributory effect on the original IVDV relationship.
It depends on the focus.
The extraneous variables are variables that affect a given relationship.
The intervening variables are a mechanism through which the IV and MV may affect
the
DV. It is a factor that theoretically affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen,
measured or manipulated. Its effects are inferred from the effects of the IV and the MV on the
DV.
A research question is the hypothesis or question that best states the objective of the
research.
The investigative question: From general questions to a more specific level.
General questions are well-defined characteristics of the problem and clearly stated research
questions. These lead to essential sub-questions that will guide the planning stages of the
research process.
Investigative questions are those that the researcher must answer to sufficiently respond to
the general research question.
The measurement question: Questionnaire formulated - previously validated ones - questions asked to respondents.
3.3 EXPLORATION
Search for published data.
Researchers speak to well-informed people on the topic - interview well known people in the
field.
Read specific books and periodicals.
Revise the problem and determine what is needed to secure answers to the proposed
questions.
Some problems may be resolved only by exploration and may then terminate the problem.
Written proposal - Purpose:Parties understand the project's purpose and proposed methods of investigation.
Time, budgets and responsibilities are clearly outlined.
Research methodology ie. sample, sample size, specifications of field work, proposed
analysis techniques, data capturing and processing.
11
12
What has been done relating to the key variables so far. (Literature Review)
What is missing?
What you are researching and how study is going to contribute to what is missing?
Importance/Benefits of your study.
Sample - who?
Sample - Size.
Data collection Method.
Questionnaire:-
Established? or to be formulated.
What variables to be covered?
What scaling?
Use of biographical data.
13
CHAPTER 5 - MEASUREMENT
5.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION
A problem may be defined as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the
desired ideal state. A problem definition or problem statement is a clear precise, and succinct
statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or
solution. Problem definitions could pertain to: existing business problems where a manager is looking for a solution.
situations that may not be posing any problems at present but where the manager feels that
things may be improved.
areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory building.
situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically.
14
ORDINAL SCALE
An ordinal scale not only categorises the variables in such a way as to denote qualitative
differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful
way. With any variable for which the categories are to be ordered according to some
preference, the ordinal scale would be used. The preferences would be ranked (for example,
from best to worst, first to last) and numbered 1, 2, and so on. The ordinal scale provides more
information than the nominal scale. However, in ordinal scaling, even though it is known there
are differences in the ranking of objects, persons, or events investigated, the magnitude of these
difference is unknown. This deficiency is overcome by interval scaling.
EXAMPLE
Rank the following five characteristics in a job in terms of how important they are for you. You
should rank the most important item as 1, the second most important as 2, and so on, until you
have given each of the five items a rank of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.
Job Characteristic
Ranking of Importance
15
______
______
______
______
______
INTERVAL SCALE
An interval scale enables certain arithmetical operations to be performed on the data collected
from the respondents. Whereas the nominal scale only allows to qualitatively distinguish
groups by categorising them, the ordinal scale allows to rank-order the preferences, and the
interval scale allows to compute the means and the standard deviations of the responses on the
variables. In other words, the interval scale not only groups individuals according to certain
categories and taps the order of these groups, but it also measures the magnitude of the
differences in the preferences among the individuals.
EXAMPLE
Indicate the extent to which you agree with the following statements as they relate to your job,
by marking a cross (X) against the appropriate number, using the scale below.
1 - Strongly disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Neither agree nor disagree
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly agree
_______________________________________________________________
1
2
3
4
5
____________________________________________________________________________
The following opportunities offered by the job
are very important to me:
a. Interacting with others.
1
2
3
4
5
b. Using a number of different skills.
1
2
3
4
5
c. Completing a task from beginning to end.
1
2
3
4
5
d. Serving others.
1
2
3
4
5
e. Working independently.
1
2
3
4
5
____________________________________________________________________________
16
RATIO SCALE
The ratio scale overcomes the deficiency of the arbitrary origin point given to the interval scale,
in that it has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point which is a meaningful
measurement point. Thus, the ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences
between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences, and is thus the most
powerful of the four scales. It is useful for multiplication and division. For example, 250 kgs is
twice as heavy as 125 kgs and 250 divided by 125 is 2.
In summary: The nominal scale separates individuals or items into categories eg. seniors and juniors.
The ordinal scale helps to rank order the separated items.
The interval scale helps to determine the extent to which the items are different from each
other. In other words, is the difference between item 1 and 2 the same as the difference
between 4 and 5?
The ratio scale helps to determine the proportion of differences among items since it has an
absolute zero origin, and is the most powerful of the four scales.
5.3 SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT DIFFERENCES
Error sources include:a) The Respondent
Temporary factors, for example, fatigue, anxiety, boredom, hunger, impatience, lack of
interest, mood swings - affect the ability to respond accurately and completely.
b) Situational Factors
Factors that put a strain on the interview eg. presence of a third person, fear of breach of
confidentiality.
c)
Measurement Strategy
Rewording, rephrasing, reordering questions.
Voice, tone, prompting with smiles/nods.
Problems in mechanical processing and failure to record full replies (illiterate).
Incorrect coding, careless tabulations, incorrect statistical calculation.
d)
The Instrument
A defective instrument can cause distortion.
Confusing and ambiguous questions.
Content items - instrument that does not explore the potentially important issues.
17
18
19
B) SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL
In this scale a number of bipolar attributes are indicated at the extremes of, usually, a sevenpoint scale and respondents indicate their attitudes toward a particular individual, object or
event on these attributes. The bipolar adjectives could represent such words as good --- bad;
strong --- weak.
EXAMPLE
------------------------------------Think of the person with whom you have had difficulty working. It does not have to be a
person you really dislike, just someone you must work with and with whom working is difficult.
Describe the person on each of the scales below by checking the number between each pair of
adjectives that best describes that person. Then transfer the numbers to the spaces at the right
and total them.
--------
Pleasant
.
7
.
6
.
5
.
4
.
3
.
. Unpleasant
2 1
Friendly
.
7
.
6
.
5
.
4
.
3
.
2
. Unfriendly
1
--------
Accepting
.
7
.
6
.
5
.
4
.
3
.
2
. Rejecting
1
--------
Relaxed
.
7
.
6
.
5
. .
4 3
.
2
. Tense
1
--------
Interesting
.
7
.
6
.
5
. .
4 3
.
2
. Boring
1
--------
Nasty
.
7
.
6
.
5
. .
4 3
.
2
. Nice
1
--------
__________________________________________________________________________
20
C) RANK ORDERING
EXAMPLE
Assume you are to judge a set of statements that will be used in developing a differential scale
for an employee attitude survey. Score each of the statements listed below from 1 to 10, with 10
being the most positive favourable statement and 1 the least favourable.
SCORE
______ The pay in this company is terrible.
______ I think the company goes outside to fill good jobs instead of promoting people
who are here.
______ The company is sincere in wanting to know what its clients think about it.
______ I think this company treats its employees better than any other company does.
______ I believe accidents will happen no matter what you do about them.
______ One can get ahead in this company if one tries.
______ The workers put as much over on the company as the company puts over on them.
______ My boss gives all the breaks to lodge and church friends.
______ Soldiering on the job is on the increase.
______ In the long run this company will "put it over" on you.
21
A population refers to the entire group of people, events or things of interest that the researcher
wishes to investigate. If the researcher is interested in investigating the saving habits of typists
in the plastics industry in South Africa, then all typists in the plastics industry throughout the
country will form the population.
An element is a single member of the population.
Generalisability refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one
organisational setting to other settings. For wider generalisability, the research sampling design
has to be logically developed and a number of other meticulous details in the data-collection
methods need to be followed.
A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some members selected from the
population. If 200 typists are drawn from a population of 1000 typists, these 200 members form
the sample for the study. By studying these 200 members, the researcher would draw
conclusions about the entire population of the 1000 typists considered in the study. A sample is
thus, a subgroup or subset of the population. By studying the sample, the researcher would be
able to draw conclusions that would be generalisable to the population of interest.
A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an element is a single member of the
population.
Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population so that
by studying the sample, and understanding the properties of the characteristics of the sample
subjects (statistics), the properties or characteristics may be generalised to the population
elements (parameter).
22
There are two types of probability sampling designs: the unrestricted or simple random
sampling and the restricted or complex probability sampling plans.
In the simple random sampling design, every element in the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected as a subject.
The complex probability plan consists of five different sampling designs: Cluster sampling - least expensive and least dependable.
Stratified random sampling - most efficient in the sense that for the same number of sample
subjects it offers more precise and detailed information.
Systematic sampling design - has the built-in hazard of possible systematic bias.
Area sampling - a form of cluster sampling.
Double sampling - takes place when a subgroup of a sample is used a second time to obtain
more information.
There are two main types of nonprobability sampling designs: convenience sampling and
purposive sampling.
Convenience sampling - least reliable in terms of generalisability but suitable when quick and
timely information is needed.
Purposive sampling - two categories: judgement and quota sampling.
Judgement sampling, though restricted in generalisability, may sometimes be the best
sampling design choice, especially when there is a limited population that can supply the
information needed.
Quota sampling, though not very reliable for generalisability, is often used for cost and time
considerations.
Snowball sampling
23
In summary:Simple random sampling is best fitted when generalisability of the findings to the whole
populations is the objective of the study.
Stratified random sampling is the most efficient and is a good choice when differentiated
information is needed regarding various strata within the population known to differ in their
parameters.
If the frame is large and a listing of the elements is conveniently available in one place (as in the
telephone directory, company payroll) then a systematic sampling procedure will offer the
advantages of ease and quickness in developing the sample.
Cluster sampling would be most useful when a heterogeneous group is to be studied at one
time. The unit costs of such a study are much lower compared to the other probability sampling
designs of simple or stratified random sampling or systematic sampling.
Area sampling design is constituted of geographical clusters eg. retail stores location plans,
advertising focused specifically on local populations, use an area sampling design to gather
information on the interests, attitudes, predispositions and behaviours of the local area people.
Area sampling is thus best suited when the goal of the research is confined to a particular
locality or area.
Double sampling is resorted to when more complete or comprehensive information needs to be
obtained from a group from which some information has already been collected. A subset of
the original sample is used for the purpose. This results in minimal additional expenditure for
further data gathering.
Convenience sampling is not generalisable at all and is not appropriate for 'scientific' research.
It may however, be used at times to get some 'quick' information and data obtained might offer
a 'feel' on some variable or variables of interest.
Judgement sampling is used where gathering 'specialised informed inputs' on the topic area
researched is vital and using any of the probability sampling design would not offer
opportunities to gain the specialised information. This method calls for special efforts to locate
and gain access to the individuals who do have the requisite information.
Quota sampling ensures certain groups are adequately represented in the study through the
assignment of a quota. Generally, the quota fixed for each subgroup is based on the total
numbers of each group in the population. However, since this is a nonprobability sampling
design, the results are not generalisable to the population. In a workplace and society that is
increasingly heterogeneous because of changing demographics, quota sampling can be expected
to be used more frequently in the future.
24
EXERCISE
1. What kinds of sampling designs would be used for the following:a) A study to get a quick idea of the medical acceptability of a new aspirin substitute which
cannot be dispensed over the counter without a prescription.
b) A study involving a sample of 325 students in a university where 2 000 students are enrolled.
c) An investigation of the career salience of professionals in the fields of medicine,
engineering, business and law.
d) The generalisability of the attitudes of managers from a sample of 184 to the total population
of 350 managers in the entire company.
25
ABSTRACTS:Personnel Management Abstracts is an index of articles that deal with the management of
people and organisational behaviour.
Psychological Abstracts summarises the literature in psychology, covering several hundred
journal reports, and other scientific documents.
Internet - This is an international network that enables one to search library catalogs,
information databases, new reports, government information and reference works.
JOURNALS:OB/PERSONNEL/HR MANAGEMENT
Academy of Management Journal
Academy of Management Review
Journal of Applied Behavioural Science
Journal of Applied Business Research
Journal of Applied Psychology
Journal of Social Psychology
Journal of Business Research
Journal of Communication
Journal of Management
Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes
Harvard Business Review
Organisational Dynamics
Personnel Psychology
Psychological Bulletin
Industrial Relations
Training and Development Journal
MARKETING
26
NB. Different libraries carry a different combination of journals. Therefore, make use of the
Inter-library loans section to order you articles.
27
b) ADVANTAGES
Good co-operation from respondents.
Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for answers, use follow-up questions
and gather information by observation.
Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.
Illiterate and semi-literate respondents can be used.
Interviewer can pre-screen respondents to ensure he/she fits the population profile.
CAPI - Computer-assisted personal interviewing:- Responses can be entered into a portable
microcomputer to reduce cost and error.
c) DISADVANTAGES
High cost.
Need for highly trained interviewers.
Longer duration needed in the field to collect data.
May be wide geographic dispersion.
Follow-up is labour intensive.
Not all respondents are available or accessible.
Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes.
Some neighbourhoods are difficult to visit.
Questions may be altered or respondents coached by interviewers.
28
b) ADVANTAGES
c) DISADVANTAGES
29
c) DISADVANTAGES
31
PRINCIPLES OF WORDING
If some questions are not understood or are interpreted differently by the respondents, the
researcher will be getting the wrong answers to the questions and the responses will be biased.
3. TYPE OF QUESTIONS
Open-ended
Type of questions
Closed-ended question
Open-ended questions allow people to answer questions in any way they choose, for example,
State 5 things that are challenging in a job.
Closed-ended questions ask the respondent to make choices amongst a set of alternatives, for
example, given 15 challenging aspects in a job, each person is asked to rank order the first five
in order of importance.
Closed questions: advantages
enables quick decisions
enables easy coding for later analysis.
32
Social desirability:
Questions should not be phrased such that they elicit socially desirable responses.
For example, "Do you think that older people should be laid off?".
Rather ask:- "There are advantages and disadvantages to retaining senior citizens in the
Length of questions:
Ask short questions. Questions should never exceed more than 20 words.
5. SEQUENCE OF QUESTIONS
The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be such that respondents are led from
questions that are of a general nature to those that are more specific and from questions that are
relatively easy to answer to those that are progressively more difficult. This is called the 'funnel
approach'. This approach facilitates the easy and smooth progress of the respondent through the
items in the questionnaire.
Sequence of questions - positive and negative.
For example, 'I am allowed to interact with colleagues at work.'
'I am not allowed to interact with colleagues at work.'
This is not necessary and insults the respondent.
6. BIOGRAPHICAL/PERSONAL DATA
For example, eg, marital status, income.
Avoid asking the name but if it is necessary, have a separate list of names with each person
have a code or number.
At the beginning or end?
Beginning - sense of commitedness/psychologically identify with questionnaire.
End - convinced of the genuineness of the inquiry.
Better to provide a range of response options.
For example, Age - Under 20, 21 - 30, 31 - 40, 41 - 50, 51 - 60, Over 60.
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
Principles of measurement are followed to ensure that the data collected are appropriate to test
the objectives/hypothesis. The principles encompass: the scales and scaling techniques used in measuring concepts.
the assessment of reliability and validity of measures used.
34
35
CHAPTER 11 - OBSERVATION
11.1 BACKGROUND
The collection of data by means of observation is often haphazard. However, in research,
observation can be a scientific inquiry when:a)
b)
c)
d)
Besides collecting data visually, observation involves listening, reading, smelling and touching.
Observation includes monitoring behavioural and non-behavioural activities and conditions and
is thus good when studying animal behaviour and children.
b) ADVANTAGES
This is the only method available to gather certain types of information, for example,
children, animals, illiterate people. Secures information that cannot be derived from
experiments or surveys.
Can collect the original data at the time they occur and need not depend upon reports and
thus, overcomes the problems of filtering information, incomplete reporting and forgetting.
Can secure information that most participants would ignore because it is so common and
expected or because it is considered irrelevant.
It also can capture the whole event as it occurs in its natural environment.
Subjects seem to accept an observational intrusion better than questioning.
36
c) DISADVANTAGES
The observer normally must be at the scene of the event when it takes place and it is often
impossible to predict where and when the event will occur.
Observation is a slow and expensive process that requires either human observers or costly
surveillance equipment.
The most reliable results are restricted to information that can be learned by overt action or
surface indicators. To go below the surface, the observer must make inferences.
The research environment is more likely suited to subjective assessment and recording of
data than controls and quantification of events.
Observation is limited as a way to learn of the past.
37
38
deductive
explains causal relationships between variables.
normally uses quantitative data.
employs controls to allow the testing of hypotheses.
highly structured methodology used to facilitate replication.
Independence
Value-freedom
Causality
Hypothetico-deductive
Operationalisation
Reductionism
Generalisation
Cross-sectional analysis
The Phenomenological approach is based on the way people experience social phenomena
in the world in which they live.
Characteristics:-
39
POSITIVISM
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Inflexible - direction often cannot be changed once data collection has started.
Weak at understanding social processes.
Often does not discover the meanings people attach to social phenomena.
PHENOMENOLOGY
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
40
12.4
Quantitative Data
Based on meanings derived from numbers.
Collection results in numerical and standardised data.
Analysis conducted through the use of diagrams and statistics.
Qualitative Data
Based on meanings expressed through words.
Collection results in non-standardised data requiring classification into categories.
Analysis conducted through the use of conceptualisation.
41
12.6
SECONDARY DATA
When considering how to answer their research question(s) or meet their objectives, few
researchers consider the possibility of re-analysing data that have already been collected for
some other purpose. Such data are known as secondary data. Most researchers automatically
think in terms of collecting new (primary) data specifically for that purpose. Yet, despite this,
secondary data can provide a useful source from which to answer, or begin to answer, your
research question(s).
Secondary data include both raw data and published summaries.
Most organisations collect and store a variety of data to support their operations, for
example, payroll details, copies of letters, minutes of meetings and accounts of sales of
goods and services.
Daily newspapers contain a wealth of data, including reports about takeover bids, and
companies' share prices.
Government departments undertake surveys and publish official statistics covering social,
demographic and economic topics.
Consumer research organisations collect data which are used subsequently by different
clients.
Trade organisations survey their members on topics such as sales which are subsequently
aggregated and published.
Some of these data, in particular documents such as company minutes, are only available
from the organisations which produce them and so access will need to be negotiated.
Others, including government surveys such as the population census are widely available in
published form and on CD-ROM in university libraries. An increasing variety have been
deposited in and are available from data archives. In addition a rapidly increasing number of
on-line computer databases can be accessed via the Internet.
Three main subgroups of secondary data are documentary data, survey-based data and those
compiled from multiple sources (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 1997: 158 - 159).
ADVANTAGES
May have fewer resource requirements.
Unobtrusive.
Longitudinal studies may be feasible.
Can provide comparative and contextual data.
Can result in unforeseen discoveries.
42
DISADVANTAGES
May have been collected for a purpose which does not match your need.
Access may be difficult or costly.
Aggregations and definitions may be unsuitable.
Initial purpose may affect how data is presented.
12.7
12.9 TRIAGULATION
44
After the questionnaire data have been obtained, the data need to be edited. The blank
responses, if any, have to be handled in some way, the data then have to be coded, categorised
and keyed in, and decisions need to be made as to how they will be computer analysed.
EDITING DATA
Especially when the data come from questionnaires containing open-ended questions, the data
have often to be edited. In other words, information that may have been written by the
respondent in a hurry must now be clearly deciphered so that all of it can be coded
systematically.
45
CODING
The next step is to code the responses. the easiest way to illustrate a coding scheme is through
an example. The responses for the demographic variables can be coded from 1 to 5 for the
variable age and 1 or 2 for sex, depending on which box in the columns was checked by the
respondent, as follows:-
25 - 34
35 - 44
45 - 54
55 and over
SEX
Male
Female
CATEGORISATION
At this point it is useful to categorise the variables such that the several items measuring the
concept are all grouped together for feeding into the computer later. Responses to some of the
negatively worded questions have to be reversed so that all answers are in the same direction.
KEYING DATA
The raw data will have to be manually keyed into the computer. Mistakes can occur at this
stage as well. To ensure the correct figures are entered into the right columns, initially every
tenth record or so can be spot-checked for accuracy. if mistakes are detected, it would then
become necessary for one person to read each of the figures on the code sheet as another checks
for the accuracy of the keyed-in data. Because the results obtained from data analyses can only
be as good as the raw data entered, care should be taken when the data are collected.
46
SPSSX
SPSS
SYSTAT
SYMSTAT
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
FREQUENCIES
Frequencies refer to the number of times various subcategories of a certain phenomenon occur,
from which the percentage and the cumulative percentage of the occurrence of the subcategories
can be easily obtained. This information can also be presented in the form of a histogram or a
bar chart. Frequencies are generally obtained for nominal variables such as gender, the
departmental unit in which one works and type of organisation.
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND DISPERSION
There are three measure of central tendency: mean, median and mode. The measures of
dispersion include the range, variance and standard deviation.
The mean is the average value.
The median is the central item in a group of observations when they are arranged in ascending
or descending order.
The mode is the score value occurring most frequently.
47
The range refers to the extreme values in a set of observations. It is the highest minus the
lowest score value.
The variance is calculated by subtracting each of the observations in the data set from the
mean, taking the square of this difference and dividing the total of these by the number of
observations. For example, in set 2, 8, 12 and 10:Mean (8) = 8
N
= 4
Variance =
14
The standard deviation is calculated simply as the square root of the variance.
48
CHAPTER 14
HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
14.1 INTRODUCTION TO HYPOTHESIS TESTING
An hypothesis is a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of testable statements. The null hypothesis is a proposition that states
a definitive, exact relationship between two variables. The null hypothesis is expressed as no
relationship between two variables or no significant difference between two groups. It is
represented by Ho.
The alternate hypothesis is the opposite of the null hypothesis and is thus, a statement
expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups. It
is represented by H1.
Ho : UM = UF
or
Ho : UM - UF = 0
H1 : UM UF
If p < 0,05 for a directional or one-tailed test, reject the null hypothesis and accept the
alternate hypothesis.
If p < 0,025 for a non-directional or two-tailed test, reject the null hypothesis and accept the
alternate hypothesis.
50
x2 =
(Oi - E)
________ ;
Ei
51
52
Scheffe's Test
Duncan Multiple Range Test
Turkey's Test
Student-Newman-Keul's Test
The DECISION RULE applied is that, if the F statistic obtained is significant at the 0,05
level or better (as can be seen from the F tables), accept the alternate hypothesis that there
are significant mean differences among the groups. If the F statistic is not significant,
retain the null and reject the alternate hypothesis.
53
54
ANNEXURE 1
POPULATION TO SAMPLE SIZE TABLE
N
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
S
10
14
19
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
59
63
66
70
73
76
80
86
92
97
103
108
113
118
123
127
132
136
N
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
460
480
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1100
S
140
144
148
152
155
159
162
165
169
175
181
186
191
196
201
205
210
214
217
226
234
242
248
254
260
265
269
274
278
285
N
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10 000
15 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
75 000
1 000 000
S
291
297
302
306
310
313
317
320
322
327
331
335
338
341
346
351
354
357
361
364
367
368
370
375
377
379
380
381
382
384
N is population size
S is sample size
Sekaran, U. (1992). Research Methods for Business: A Skill-Building Approach. 2nd
Edition. New York: John Wiley. 253.
55
ANNEXURE 2
GUIDELINES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
56