Unit


Reproduction
13

How does life carry on and how does

it survive?

Fig. 1 There is life almost everywhere on

theplanet.

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Getting started
Fig. 2
A kestrel has caught
a mouse.

Characteristic
Something
about an
organism or
other thing.
For example,
having
black hair
or having
light green
leaves is a
characteristic.

Look at the picture. The kestrel has characteristics that help

it catch its prey. The mouse has characteristics that help it
escape. Write one or two sentences about each one.
Your answer might include: eyesight, color, speed, hearing,
and more.
Kestrel:




Mouse:





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 Learning Outcomes
Concepts
In completing this unit you will learn to:
Compare sexual and asexual
reproduction (L6)
Explain examples of natural
selection (L7)

Success Criteria
Learning outcome L6
Here is what you might aim to achieve by
the end of this unit:
Emerging identify examples of
sexual and asexual reproduction
Developing describe examples of
sexual and asexual reproduction

Describe the advantages and

disadvantages of selective breeding
(L8)

Mastery compare sexual and

asexual reproduction

Key Terms
The meanings of these terms can be found Learning outcome L7
in the glossary on pages 27590.
Here is what you might aim to achieve by
adapt
misuse
the end of this unit:
antibiotics
multicellular organism
Emerging outline the process of
asexual
natural selection
natural selection
reproduction
nectar
Developing describe the process of
bud
offspring
natural selection
camouflage
organ
Mastery explain examples of
characteristic
ovum
natural selection
drug resistance
pollen
Learning outcome L8
electron microscope population
Here is what you might aim to achieve by
embryo
reproduce
the end of this unit:
extinct
resistant
Emerging identify examples of
fertilization
rise
selective breeding
fission
scar
Developing describe the process of
fragmentation
selective breeding
selective breeding
fusion
species
Mastery describe the advantages and
gamete
sperm
disadvantages of selective breeding
individual
variation
What level do you think you will be able
inherit
vegetative
to achieve?
mate
reproduction
I know what
medical operation
zygote
these words
Investigating Scientifically
S11

mean

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1 Reproduction

L6

Fig. 3
This is the
microscopic
organism Euglena.

Individual
A single
organism.
For example,
you are an
individual
human.
Reproduce
When an
organism or
organisms
make new
organisms
of the same
species.
Species
A type of
organism;
for example,
lions are a
species of
mammal.
Kestrels are
a species of
bird. Date
palms are
a species of
plant.

You have already learned about Euglena in Unit 3. It is a

unicellular organism. This means it is only one cell. Many
Euglena live together in a colony. Colonies of Euglena can
make lakes green, but each individual organism is a
singlecell.
How many nucleuses does a single Euglena have?

Sometimes Euglena is carried to a new pond on the feet or

body of a bird. If conditions are right, soon the lake will have
a large colony of Euglena. But how does a colony develop from
just a few cells of Euglena?
The answer is that Euglena reproduces. It makes more of the
same species. In fact, all living things reproduce.

Activity 1.1
What to do:
Your teacher will show you a video of Euglena reproducing.
Asyou watch it, answer these questions:
1. How many Euglena cells can you see at the beginning of
the video?

2. How many Euglena cells can you see at the end?

3. How many nucleuses does each Euglena cell have?

Carefully watch the video.

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The way Euglena reproduces is called fission. The cell divides

in two. Each new cell has everything the cell needs to live, and
to reproduce again. Each cell is just like the original cell.
Budding
Yeast is a unicellular fungus that is used all over the world to
make bread rise. Yeast doesnt swell and split into two identical
halves like Euglena does. When yeast reproduces, a smaller copy
grows on the side of the cell. This copy is called a bud. When it
is ready, the smaller cell falls off and lives as a separate cell.

Fig. 4
This tree bud will become a
new leaf.
developing
bud

bud

bud

nucleus

Fission
When a cell
reproduces by
splitting into
two identical
copies.
Rise
When yeast
produces
bubbles
of carbon
dioxide and
makes the
bread mixture
increase in
size.
Bud
A bud is a
small growth
which will
become
something
new. On a
tree, a bud
will become
a new branch
or a flower.

vacuole
nucleus
divides

The original yeast cell is called the mother and the new
smaller cell is the daughter. The mother and the daughter
are not identical. The daughter is smaller. The mother has a
scar where the daughter fell away.

Fig. 5
This is how yeast
buds.

Scar
A mark
where skin
or another
part of a
living thing
has been
damaged.

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Fig. 6
Bread dough (top)
without yeast; the
same bread dough
(bottom) after it has
risen. It is yeast that
makes the dough rise.

Asexual
reproduction
This is
reproduction
with only
one parent
organism.
Fragmentation
One part of a
multicellular
organism
breaks off
and grows
into a new
individual.
Vegetative
reproduction
Small copies
of the
organism
grow as part
of the original
organism.
They then
drop off and
live as new
individuals.

Asexual reproduction
Euglena and yeast, and organisms like them, only need
one parent to reproduce. This type of reproduction is called
asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction happens in different ways in different
organisms. But however it happens, the new organisms are
very similar to the parent organism.
The photos in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show asexual reproduction.
The starfish can reproduce by fragmentation. Spider plants
use a process called vegetative reproduction.
Fig. 7
One arm falls off and
grows into a new
starfish.

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Fig. 8
Small copies of the plant drop off the
plant and grow into new plants. If you
plant a spider plant, you will soon have
lots of spider plant daughters!

Asexual reproduction makes nearly perfect copies of

organisms. This means that large populations have lots of
similar organisms. We say there is little variation. This can
be a problem when the environment changes, or when there
is an illness. It is hard for an organism that only reproduces
asexually to adapt to a changing environment.

L6

2 Sexual reproduction
You have looked at reproduction where there is only
one parent. But many organisms need two parents
to reproduce. This is sexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction in flowers

You are going to look at how a flower reproduces and makes
new plants.

pollen

Fig. 9
Insects and birds are attracted to
flowers by their colors and smell.
Many flowers make nectar which
insects and birdsdrink.

Population
All the
individuals
of a species.
We can
talk about
the total
population,
or the
population
of an area.
For example,
the human
population of
the world is
7 billion. The
population of
Abu Dhabi is
2.2 million.
Variation
A measure of
the different
characteristics
found among
different
individual
organisms in
a species.

Adapt
Changes in
an organisms
characteristics
over time. The
species adapts
to have
characteristics
which help
it live in its
environment.

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Nectar
A sweet liquid
produced by
some flowers.
Bees and
other insects
drink nectar.

Pollen
A sticky
powder found
in flowers.
Bees and
other animals
move pollen
from flower to
flower.

Most people think flowers are pretty and smell nice. Many
other animals agree! Insects love flowers. Some flowers
encourage insects to land on them by producing nectar.
When a bee visits a flower it doesnt just drink nectar. Sometimes
it brushes against sticky powder in the flower, called pollen.
Look at Fig. 9. You can see pollen stuck to the bees leg. If you
look through an electron microscope you will see pollen.

Fig. 10
Pollen from different
plants. This is a photo
taken under an electron
microscope, so the
colors are not real.

Electron
microscope
A microscope
that uses
a beam of
electrons
instead of
light. It shows
details at a
much higher
magnification
than a
normal
optical
microscope.

Fig. 11
Pollen on the leg of a
bee looks like this under
an electron microscope.

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Often pollen sticks to the body of a bee. When the bee visits
another flower, pollen rubs off the bee and sticks to the new
flower. In this way bees carry pollen from flower to flower.
Pollen from insects rubs off on an organ of the flower called
the stigma.

picks up pollen

Organ
Part of an
organism
with a
particular
function or
functions.

drops some
pollen, and picks up
some pollen

Fig. 12
Here you can see
a bee moving from
flower to flower.

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Equipment:
A flower,
scalpel,
tweezers,
magnifying glass

Activity 2.1

petal

stigma

stamen

anther

pistil

style

filament
ovary
petal
ovule

sepal

Fig. 13
Here are the parts of
a flower.

What to do:
1. Look at Fig.13. Which parts of the flower make up the
stamen?

2. Look again at the diagram. Which parts of the flower

make up the pistil?

3. Look at your flower. How many parts of the diagram

can you observe? Write down any observations on your
diagram, for example the color of the flower part.
4. Remove the sepals and petals with the tweezers.

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5. Can you see any pollen in your flower? On your diagram,

find the name of the part where you can see pollen. Write
the name here.

6. Carefully remove the stamens. Examine them with

yourmagnifying glass. Draw the pollen in the space
beneath your diagram.
7. You should be left with the pistil. Carefully slice it in
half,down the length from top to bottom. Use the scalpel
for this.
8. Observe the pistil with your magnifying glass. You should
see that the style is a tube. What else can you identify from
your diagram?

Sperm
The gamete
provided
by a male
organism.
When a pollen grain falls on the stigma, a tube grows from the
pollen down through the style. A single cell called a sperm cell
travels down the tube to find an ovum inside theovule.

Ovum or egg
The gamete
provided
by a female
organism
(more than
one egg and
we say ova).

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Sexual reproduction and gametes

During sexual reproduction two parents are needed. One
parent is male and one is female.
Gamete
A cell needed
to make a
new organism
during sexual
reproduction.

A cell from both parents joins to form the new organism.

These are special cells called gametes.
The male gamete is called a sperm.
The female gamete is called an egg or ovum.

sperm

Fig. 14
This shows sexual
reproduction in an
animal. A sperm joins
with an ovum. Ova are
usually much larger
thansperm.

Sexual reproduction in fish

You have seen how the male and female gametes (sperm and
ovum) meet in some plants.
In sexual reproduction the sperm and ovum meet in different
ways in different animals.

Mate
The mate of
a female fish
is a male fish;
the mate of a
male fish is a
female fish.

Fig. 15
This female fish is laying
her eggs.

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Most female fish release many eggs (sometimes thousands).

They drop them into the water.
But the female fish can sexually reproduce only if it finds a
mate. The male fish has to release his sperm in the water at
the same place and time. As with flowers, a single sperm finds
a single ovum and reproduction begins.
Fertilization
The two gametes each have a nucleus. You already know
that each cell has just one nucleus. Fusion occurs when the
gametes meet and the two cells become one.
The nucleus from one gamete joins with the nucleus from
another gamete to make a new nucleus. This process is
called fertilization. The new nucleus has some properties
of the sperms nucleus and some properties of the ovums
nucleus.
The new cell is called a zygote and the new organism
develops from it. The zygote splits into two new cells. This
is not the same as the fission of Euglena in Unit 3. These are
not two new organisms. They are the first two cells of a new
multicellular organism. Each of the two cells splits again,
then again, and again. A new organism is growing. This
developing organism is called the embryo.
All new multicellular organisms are formed when cells split
and split again in this way. For it to be sexual reproduction, a
sperm must fertilize an ovum at the beginning of the process.
sperm

ovum

fusion

zygote

Fig. 16 This is what happens during fertilization in sexual reproduction.

embryo

Fusion
When the male
and female
gametes join.
The two cells
become one.
Fertilization
This happens
when the male
and female
gametes
(sperm and
ovum) meet
and join.
We say that
the ovum is
fertilized.
Zygote
The fertilized
egg. It is a
single cell with
properties of
the sperms
nucleus and
the eggs
nucleus.
Multicellular
organism
An organism
with more
than one cell.
Embryo
The group
of cells that
will be a new
multicellular
organism.

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Offspring
The new
organism or
organisms;
for example,
the offspring
of birds are
baby birds.

L7

3 Natural selection
The offspring of sexually reproducing organisms
have some properties, or characteristics, of each
parent.

Charles Darwin travelled to the Galapagos Islands in South

America. Birds called finches lived in the Galapagos Islands.
Darwin noticed that their beaks were different depending on
which island they lived on.
leaves

Isla
Isabela

buds and fruit

Isla
Santiago
Isla
Baltra
Isla
San
Cristobal

insects

Isla
Santa Maria

seeds
Galapagos
islands

tool using finch

grubs

Fig. 17 Finches on the Galapagos Islands come in many shapes and sizes.
Thisallows them to survive in different environments on different islands.

Inherit
When an
organism
has a
characteristic
that is the
same as a
characteristic
from one or
both parents.

Eventually, Darwin realized that the beaks of these finches

had changed over time to adapt to the environments of
different islands.
A finch with a beak tough enough to eat cactus will probably
survive if it lives in an environment with lots of cactus.
A finch with a beak that is not good at eating cactus will
probably go hungry and die.
Finches with beaks that are good for eating cactus will survive
and find a mate. They will reproduce. Their offspring will
usually inherit their parents useful beaks.

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Organisms with useful characteristics are likely to survive and

reproduce. Organisms with unhelpful characteristics probably
will not survive and reproduce. Darwin called this process
natural selection. Natural selection means that organisms
with useful characteristics survive.
Natural selection: peppered moths
Peppered moths are insects with black or white spotted wings.
They are found in the UK. Their color and markings are a
useful camouflage.

Natural
selection
The process
where
organisms
with useful
characteristics
survive and
reproduce.
Natural
selection
chooses useful
characteristics
over time.

Fig. 18
This tiger is camouflaged
it is hard to see among
these grasses.

Here is a picture of two moths on a tree.

Fig. 19
Two peppered moths
a black one and a pale
one. Can you see them
both?

Camouflage
Colors or
markings
which cant
easily be
seen in the
environment.

You can see that one of these moths is well camouflaged. The
other one is not!
Its not just you who can spot the black one more easily. Birds
can, too, and birds eat moths.
Which of the two moths is more likely to survive and reproduce?


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Two hundred years ago, nobody saw black peppered moths.

All peppered moths were white with small black spots. But
pollution in cities began to turn trees black. Here is another
picture of two peppered moths.

Fig. 20
Two peppered moths.
Which one is better
camouflaged now?

By the end of the 1800s, most moths were black. Can you
explain why more black moths survived to reproduce?



Now that cities are cleaner again, what do you think is
happening to the moths?



The story of the peppered moth shows how a species can
adapt to changes in its environment. Individuals with useful
characteristics survive to reproduce. Their offspring inherit the
useful characteristics of their parents.

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Natural selection: dodos

Fig. 21
This stuffed dodo lives in
amuseum.

The dodo was a bird living on the island of Mauritius in the

Indian Ocean. We cant show a living dodo in Fig. 21, because
the last one died around 1693.
Once many dodos lived on Mauritius and the island had no
humans living there. When humans arrived, the dodo wasnt
afraid of them. Dodos couldnt fly and they laid eggs in nests on
the ground. Humans, rats and dogs could easily catch the dodo.
About 100 years after people arrived there were no dodos left.
The dodo by then was extinct. The environment changed too
quickly for the dodo. It wasnt able to adapt quickly enough.

Extinct
When all
organisms of
a species are
dead.

Which of these animals is extinct? Put a tick next to all the

correct answers. Use an encyclopedia or the Internet to find
out about any of the animals you don't know.
elephants

dinosaurs

woolly mammoths

Tasmanian Wolf

oryx

Even though we now recognize when animals are in danger

ofbecoming extinct, hundreds or thousands still become
extinct every year.

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L6 L7
S11

4 Comparing asexual and sexual

reproduction
Activity 4.1

The lists below show the features of asexual and sexual

reproduction.
For each one, decide whether it is an advantage or
disadvantage.
Put a tick in the correct box.

Advantage Disadvantage

Asexual reproduction
If one organism cannot fight
off a disease, this will be true
for all the organisms

Reproduction is fairly fast

If the environment changes,

the organism cannot adapt
quickly

Less energy is needed to

reproduce

There is no need to find a mate [

Useful characteristics will

definitely be passed on to the
new organism

Variation means the organism

can adapt over a few
generations to adapt to a
changing environment
[

A male and a female need to

be in the same place to meet

Variation helps defend the

population against disease

Sexual reproduction
The process of reproduction
takes time and energy

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L8

5 Selective breeding
You have looked at how natural selection can select
characteristics of species over time. People have used
this idea to change the plants and animals we farm.

Fig. 22
This is a wild
grass the sort that
existed thousands of
yearsago.
Fig. 23
Modern wheat
provides much more
food than wild grass.

Humans carry out selective breeding on plants and animals

to get the characteristics we want. For example, we want
plants which produce lots of food. By breeding wild grasses
over thousands of years we now have modern wheat.
By carrying out selective breeding on animals we get more
milk, wool or meat.
The most obvious way to breed for a characteristic is to choose
male and female individuals with that characteristic. If we
want sheep with thick coats, we breed from a male and a
female with thick coats.

Selective
breeding
When
humans
choose which
individuals
will be the
parents
for sexual
reproduction.

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Problems with selective breeding

Selective breeding can lead to problems. Because humans
are looking at just a few characteristics, over time other
characteristics can be lost from the population.
Individual animals or plants in a wild population are
very different from each other. There is a large amount of
variation. This can be an advantage. If some individuals
catch a disease, others will not catch it because they have
different characteristics.
Selective breeding of animals and plants chooses just a few
useful characteristics. This means there is less variation in
the population. If an individual catches a disease, other
individuals are likely to also catch the disease. Eventually
the disease might affect every individual in the population.
If the disease causes death then all individuals will die.
Selective breeding of horses and dogs
Horses have been bred selectively for many hundreds of years.
Humans have chosen the characteristics they want. Arabian
racehorses have been bred to have features including being
tall, well-muscled, with a strong neck and easily trained.

Fig. 24
A wild horse which has not been bred for racing (left); an Arabian racehorse (right).

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Sometimes, the characteristics that humans want are actually

dangerous for the health of the dog. Modern English bulldogs
are the result of years of selective breeding. These dogs now
have trouble breathing, staying cool in hot weather, and
having puppies. Their median age at death is just 6 years old.

Fig. 25
An English bulldog 100 years ago (left); a modern English bulldog (right).

Selective breeding is very useful to us, but we must not make

organisms that cannot survive in their environment.
Drug resistance
Sometimes selective breeding happens by accident and not
because humans want to breed for characteristics. Drug
resistance is an example of this.
Antibiotics are very useful medicines. First used in the 1930s,
they are essential in modern medicine. They stop infections
from killing the patient after medical operations. They also
control infection in farm animals.
Most antibiotics kill unicellular organisms called bacteria.
Bacteria cause infections in humans, which can often kill.
But other organisms cause infection as well; for example,
colds and flu are caused by viruses, not bacteria. People
sometimes take antibiotics for illnesses which are not caused
by bacteria. This is misuse of antibiotics.

Drug
resistance
When a drug
does not
work to kill
an organism
which causes
disease. This
is because the
organism has
changed.
Antibiotics
Medicines
which kill
bacteria. They
are useful
for some
infectious
diseases, and
to control
infection
after injuries
or medical
operations.
Medical
operation
Cutting open
a human
body to treat
an illness.
For example,
to remove
cancer or to
fix the heart.
Misuse
Using
something
wrongly, or
for the wrong
purpose.

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Fig. 26
Alexander Fleming
discovered the first
antibiotic, penicillin,
in1928.

Sometimes people who take antibiotics start to feel better

so do not finish all their medicine. They may feel better but
not all the harmful bacteria have been killed. This gives the
population of bacteria in the body a chance to recover. It
allows bacteria to become resistant to the antibiotic. Because
these resistant bacteria will probably survive, they pass on
antibiotic resistance to their offspring. Bacteria are even able
to spread resistance from one species to another.
Resistant
Not affected
by something
very much.
Resistant
bacteria are
not killed by
antibiotics.

Drug resistance means that many antibiotics dont work any

more. The bacteria that they attack have become resistant.
This is a big problem. It is difficult and expensive to find new
antibiotics and it may even be impossible to find them intime.
One day we may not have antibiotics that work so people
will die from infections that are easy to control today. It will
be much more dangerous to operate in hospitals.

Fig. 27
Your doctor knows
when you need
antibiotics, and how they
should be taken safely.

It is very important only to take antibiotics when told to by a

doctor, and to take them for as long as the doctor says even
after you begin to feel better.

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6 Presentation Task
You need to investigate selective breeding in a particular
organism. You can choose your own example, or you could
look at one of these:
camels
date palms
prehistoric crops
carrots in The Netherlands
tomatoes.
Research how the original wild forms are different from the
modern organisms.
Why have the characteristics been chosen?
How has the selective breeding been done?
How successful has the selective breeding been?
Give a short talk to the rest of the class, using PowerPoint
slides to illustrate what you say.

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7 Feedback

Medals and Missions

Self Assessment
Shade in the level you have achieved for each outcome
in this unit.
Concept Learning
Outcome

L6
L7
L8
Skill Learning
Outcome

S11

Emerging

Developing

Mastery

Identify examples of
sexual and asexual
reproduction.

Describe examples of
sexual and asexual
reproduction.

Compare sexual and

asexual reproduction.

Outline the process of

natural selection.

Describe the process of

natural selection.

Explain examples of
natural selection.

Identify examples of
selective breeding.

Describe the process of

selective breeding.

Describe the
advantages and
disadvantages of
selective breeding.

Emerging
Draw a conclusion.

Developing
Draw a conclusion,
related to the scientific
question or prediction.

Mastery
Draw a conclusion,
consistent with the
data, and explain
it using scientific
knowledge and
understanding.

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Medals
What have been your greatest achievements during this unit? For example,
mastering a concept outcome, improving a skill or feeling proud of your
organizational abilities, team work or presentation.
What did you do well?

How did you do it?

1.

2.

3.

Missions
What are your targets for improvement? Select two Learning Outcomes to focus
on and set yourself a target. For example, if you have reached developing, what
do you need to do next time to achieve mastery?
Learning Outcomes

Target

1.

2.

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8 Science I have learned in this unit

Some organisms reproduce sexually, and some reproduce

asexually.
Types of asexual reproduction:
fission (for example, Euglena)
budding (for example, yeast)
fragmentation (for example, starfish)
vegetative reproduction (for example, spider plants).
Sexual reproduction needs a male gamete (sperm) and female

gamete (egg or ovum).

The male and female gametes join together by fusion. They form

a cell called a zygote.

The zygote repeatedly divides to make an embryo.
Asexual reproduction takes less energy, and there is no need to

find a mate.
Sexual reproduction allows a population to have more

variation. This makes a population more resistant to disease and

environmental change.
Natural selection allows a species to adapt to its environment.
Humans use selective breeding to develop useful characteristics in

organisms.

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Rows or
periods

Ra

Radium

Fr

88

87

Francium

Ba

Barium

Cs

56

55

Caesium

Sr

Strontium

Rb

38

37

Rubidium

Ca

Calcium

20

Potassium

19

Magnesium

Sodium

12

11

Mg

Beryllium

Lithium

Na

Be

Li

Hydrogen

Columns or
groups

Actinide
series

89103

Lanthanide
series

5771

Yttrium

39

Scandium

Sc

21

Ti

Rutherfordium

Rf

104

Hafnium

Hf

72

Zirconium

Zr

40

Titanium

22

Cr

24

Mn

25

Mo

42

Tc

43

Ru

44

Rh

45

Cobalt

Co

27

Dubnium

Db

105

Tantalium

Ta

73

Tungsten

74

Rhenium

Re

75

Osmium

Os

76

Ir
Iridium

77

Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium

Nb

41

Iron

Fe

26

Non-metal
Metal

Vanadium Chromium Manganese

23

Key

Platinum

Pt

78

Palladium

Pd

46

Nickel

Ni

28

Gold

Au

79

Silver

Ag

Mercury

Hg

80

Cadmium

Cd

48

Zinc
47

Zn

Cu

30

Copper

29

AI

TI
Thallium

81

Indium

In

49

Gallium

Ga

31

Aluminium

82

Lead

Pb

Tin

Sn

50

Germanium

Ge

32

Silicon

Si

14

Carbon

Boron
13

Bi
Bismuth

83

Antimony

Sb

51

Arsenic

As

33

Phosphorus

15

Nitrogen

34

At
Astatine

Po

84

Polanium

85

I
Iodine

Te

53

52

Tellurium

Bromine

Br

35

Chlorine

CI

Selenium

Se

Sulfur

17

Fluorine

Oxygen
16

Radon

Rn

86

Xenon

Xe

54

Krypton

Kr

36

Argon

Ar

18

Neon

Ne

10

Helium

He