How To Use SPSS

A Step-by-Step Guide
to Analysis and Interpretotion
Brian C. Cronk
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sectionnumbers
are
givenin parentheses.
Forinstance,
'(6.9)"refersyouto Section6.9in
Chapter6.
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Notice
SPSSis a registeredtrademarkof SPSS,Inc. Screenimages@ by SPSS,Inc.
and MicrosoftCorporation.Usedwith permission.
This book is not approvedor sponsoredby SPSS.
"PyrczakPublishing"is an imprintof FredPyrczak,Publisher,

A CaliforniaCorporation.
Althoughtheauthorandpublisherhavemadeeveryeffortto ensuretheaccuracyand
for
no responsibility
completeness
of informationcontainedin thisbook,we assume
herein.Any slightsof people,
errors,inaccuracies,
omissions,
or anyinconsistency
places,or organizations
areunintentional.
ProjectDirector:MonicaLopez.
ConsultingEditors:GeorgeBumrss,JoseL. Galvan,MatthewGiblin,DeborahM. Oh,
JackPetit.andRichardRasor.
providedby CherylAlcorn,RandallR. Bruce,KarenM. Disner,
Editdrialassistance
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Coverdesignby RobertKibler andLarryNichols.
Printedin theUnitedStates
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All rights
Publisher.
Copyright@2008,2006,2004,2002,1999
by FredPyrczak,
in anyform or by any
or transmitted
reserved.
No portionof thisbookmaybe reproduced
meanswithouttheprior writtenpermission
of thepublisher.
r s B N l -8 8 4 s8 5 -79 -5
Tableof Contents
Introduction
to theFifth Edition
What'sNew?
Audience
Organization
SPSSVersions
Availabilityof SPSS
Conventions
Screenshots
PracticeExercises
Acknowledgments'/
ChapterI
Ll
t.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Chapter2
2.1
') ')
Chapter3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Chapter4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Chapter5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
v
v
v
vi
vi
vi
vi
vii
vii
GettingStarted
StartingSPSS
EnteringData
DefiningVariables
LoadingandSavingDataFiles
RunningYour FirstAnalysis
ExaminingandPrintingOutputFiles
Modi$ing DataFiles
I
I
2
5
6
8
EnteringandModifyingData
VariablesandDataRepresentation
Transformation
andSelection
of Data
ll
t2
Descriptive
Statistics
l7
Frequency
Distributions
andpercentileRanksfor a singlevariable
Frequency
Distributions
andpercentileRanksfor Multille variables
Measuresof CentralTendencyandMeasuresof Dispersion
for a SingleGroup
Measures
of CentralTendency
andMeasures
of Dispersion
for MultipleGroups
StandardScores
t7
20
ll
2l
24
)7
GraphingData
29
GraphingBasics
TheNew SPSSChartBuilder
Bar Charts,Pie Charts,andHistograms
Scatterplots
AdvancedBarCharts
EditingSPSSGraphs
29
29
3l
33
36
39
Predictionand Association
4l
PearsonCorrelation Coeffi cient

SpearmanCorrelation Coeffi cient
Simple Linear Regression
Multiple Linear Regression
4l
43
45
49
u,
Chapter6
Parametric
InferentialStatistics
53
Reviewof BasicHypothesis
Testing
Single-Sample
t Test
Independent-Samples
I Test
Paired-Samples
t Test
One-WayANOVA
FactorialANOVA
Repeated-Measures
ANOVA
Mixed-Design
ANOVA
Analysisof Covariance
MultivariateAnalysisof Variance(MANOVA)
53
))
58
6l
65
69
72
75
79
8l
Chapter7
Nonparametric
InferentialStatistics
85
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
Chi-Square
Goodness
of Fit
Chi-SquareTestof Independence
Mann-Whitney
UTest
WilcoxonTest
Kruskal-Wallis,F/Test
FriedmanTest
85
87
.90
93
95
97
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
Chapter8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
TestConstruction
99
Item-TotalAnalysis
Cronbach's
Alpha
Test-RetestReliability
Criterion-Related
Validiw
99
100
l0l
t02
AppendixA
Effect Size
103
AppendixB
PracticeExerciseDataSets
r 09
PracticeDataSet I
PracticeDataSet2
PracticeDataSet3
109
ll0
ll0
AppendixC
Glossary
lt3
AppendixD
SampleDataFilesUsedin Text
tt7
n7
COINS.sav
GRADES.sav
HEIGHT.sav
QUESTIONS.sav
RACE.sav
SAMPLE.sav
SAT.sav
OtherFiles
l l7
l l7
n7
l18
l18
lt8
lt8
AppendixE
Informationfor Usersof EarlierVersionsof SPSS
l19
AppendixF
GraphingDatawith SPSS13.0and 14.0
t2l
tv
ChapterI
GettingStarted
Section1.1 StartingSPSS
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Startup proceduresfor SPSS will differ

slightly, dependingon the exact configurationof
the machine on which it is installed.On most
computers,you can start SPSS by clicking on
Start, then clicking on Programs, then on SPSS.
On many installations,there will be an SPSSicon
on the desktopthat you can double-click to start
the program.
When SPSS is started,you may be presentedwith the dialog box to the left, depending
on the optionsyour systemadministratorselected
for your version of the program. If you have the
dialog box, click Type in data and OK, which
will presenta blank data window.'
If you were not presentedwith the dialog
box to the left, SPSSshould open automatically
with a blank data window.
The data window and the output window provide the basic interface for SPSS. A
blank data window is shownbelow.
Section1.2 EnteringData
One of the keys to success
with SPSSis knowing how it stores
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and uses your data. To illustrate the rtlxlel&l *'.1
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basics of data entry with SPSS,we
will useExample1.2.1.
Example 1.2.1
A surveywas given to several
students from four different
classes (Tues/Thurs momings, Tues/Thurs afternoons,
Mon/Wed/Fri mornings, and
afternoons).
Mon/Wed/Fri
The students were asked
' Items that appearin the glossaryare presentedin bold. Italics areusedto indicatemenu items.
ChapterI GeningStarted
whether or not they were "morning people" and whether or not they worked. This
survey also asked for their final grade in the class (100% being the highest gade
possible).The responsesheetsfrom two studentsarepresentedbelow:
Response
SheetI
ID:
Dayof class:
Classtime:
Are you a morningperson?
Finalgradein class:
Do youwork outsideschool?
4593
MWF
Morning
Yes
X TTh
X Aftemoon
X No
8s%
Part{ime
Full-time
XNo
Response
Sheet2
ID:
Dayof class:
Classtime:
Finalgradein class:
Do vou work outsideschool?
l90l
x MwF
X Morning
X Yes
83%
Full-time
No
_
-
TTh
Afternoon
No
X Part-time
Our goal is to enterthe data from the two studentsinto SPSSfor use in future
analyses.
The first stepis to determinethe variablesthatneedto be entered.Any informaExample
tion that can vary amongparticipantsis a variablethat needsto be considered.
1.2.2liststhevariables
we will use.
Example1.2.2
ID
Dayof class
Classtime
Morningperson
Finalgrade
Whetheror not the studentworksoutsideschool
particivariablesandrowsrepresent
In the SPSSdata window,columnsrepresent
(variables)
rows
and
two
pants.Therefore,we will be creatinga datafile with six columns
(students/participants).
Section1.3 Defining Variables
Beforewe can enterany data,we must first entersomebasicinformationabout
eachvariableinto SPSS.For instance,
variablesmustfirst be givennamesthat:
o beginwith a letter;
o do not containa space.
Chapter I Getting Started
Thus, the variable name "Q7" is acceptable,while the variable name "7Q" is not.
Similarly, the variable name "PRE_TEST" is acceptable, but the variable name
"PRE TEST" is not. Capitalizationdoes not matter, but variable namesare capitalizedin
this text to make it clear when we are referring to a variable name, even if the variable
name is not necessarilycapitalizedin screenshots.
To define a variable.click on the Variable View tab at
thebottomofthema inscre e n .Th is wills h o wy o u t h e V a ri-@
able View window. To return to the Data View window. click
on the Data View tab.
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From the Variable View screen,SPSSallows you to createand edit all of the variables in your data file. Each column representssome property of a variable, and each row
representsa variable. All variablesmust be given a name. To do that, click on the first
empty cell in the Name column and type a valid SPSSvariable name. The program will
then fill in default valuesfor most of the other properties.
One usefulfunctionof SPSSis the ability to definevariableand value labels.Variable labels allow you to associatea descriptionwith each variable.Thesedescriptionscan
describethe variablesthemselvesor the valuesof the variables.
Value labelsallow you to associatea descriptionwith eachvalue of a variable.For
example,for most procedures,SPSSrequiresnumerical values.Thus, for data such as the
day of the class (i.e., Mon/Wed/Fri and Tues/Thurs),we need to first code the values as
numbers.We can assignthe number I to Mon/Wed/Friand the number2to Tues/Thurs.
To help us keep track of the numberswe have assignedto the values,we use value labels.
To assignvalue labels,click in the cell you want to assignvaluesto in the Values
column. This will bring up a small gray button (seeanow, below at left). Click on that button to bring up the Value Labelsdialog box.
--When you enter a iv*rl**
v&
12
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value label, you must click L.b.f ll6rhl|
s*l
!!+ |
Add after eachentry. This will
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mOVe the value and itS

associated label into the bottom section of
the window. When all labels have been

added, click OK to return to the Variable
View window.
ChapterI Gening Starred
In additionto namingand labelingthe variable,you havethe option of definingthe

variabletype. To do so, simply click on the Type, Width,or Decimals columns in the Variable View window. The default value is a numeric field that is eight digits wide with two
decimalplacesdisplayed.If your dataare more than eight digits to the left of the decimal
place,they will be displayedin scientificnotation(e.g.,the number2,000,000,000
will be
displayedas 2.00E+09).'SPSSmaintainsaccuracybeyondtwo decimalplaces,but all output will be roundedto two decimal placesunlessotherwiseindicatedin the Decimals column.
In our example,we will be usingnumericvariableswith all of the defaultvalues.
Practice Exercise
Createa data file for the six variablesand two samplestudentspresentedin Example 1.2.1.Name your variables:ID, DAY, TIME, MORNING, GRADE, and WORK. You
should code DAY as I : Mon/Wed/Fri,2 = Tues/Thurs.Code TIME as I : morning, 2 :
afternoon.CodeMORNING as 0 = No, I : Yes. Code WORK as 0: No, I : Part-Time,2
: Full-Time. Be sure you enter value labels for the different variables.Note that because
value labelsare not appropriatefor ID and GRADE, theseare not coded.When done,your
Variable View window should look like the screenshotbelow:
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Click on the Data View tab to open the data-entryscreen.Enter data horizontally,
beginningwith the first student'sID number.Enter the code for eachvariable in the appropriate column; to enterthe GRADE variablevalue,enterthe student'sclassgrade.
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Dependingupon your versionof SPSS,it may be displayedas 2.08 + 009.
Thepreviousdata window canbe changedto look insteadlike the screenshot

bel*.bv clickingon the ValueLabelsicon(seeanow).In this case,the cellsdisplayvalue
labelsratherthanthe corresponding
codes.If datais enteredin this mode,it is not necessaryto entercodes,asclickingthebuttonwhichappearsin eachcell asthe
cell is selected
will presenta drop-downlist of thepredefined
lablis. You may useeithermethod,according to yourpreference.
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Instead of clicking the Value Labels icon, you may

optionallytogglebetweenviews by clicking valueLaiels under
the Viewmenu.
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Section1.4 Loading and SavingData Files

Onceyou haveenteredyour data,you will need
to saveit with a uniquenamefor later useso that you
canretrieveit whennecessary.
Loadingand savingSpSSdatafiles worksin the
sameway as most Windows-based
software.Underthe
File menu, there are Open, Save, and Save As
commands.SPSSdata files have a .,.sav" extension.
which is addedby defaultto the end of the filename.
ThistellsWindowsthatthefile is anSpSSdatafile.
r lii
|:
H-
Save Your Data

When you save your data file (by clicking File, then clicking Save
or SaveAs to
specify a unique name),pay specialattentionto where you saveit. trrtist
systemsdefault to
the.location<c:\programfiles\spss>.You will probably want to
saveyour data on a floppy
disk, cD-R, or removableUSB drive so that you can taie the file withvou.
Load YourData
When you load your data (by clicking File, then
clicking Open, thenData, or by clicking the open file folder
icon), you get a similar window. This window lists all files
with the ".sav" extension.If you have trouble locating your
saved file, make sure you are
D{l
lriifqffi
looking in the right directory.
Practice Exercise
To be surethat you havemastered
saving and openingdata files, nameyour sample
datafile "SAMPLE" andsaveit to a removable
FilE Edt
$ew
Data Transform Annhze @al
storagemedium. Once it is saved,SPSSwill display the name of the file at the top of the
data window. It is wise to save your work frequently,in caseof computer crashes.Note
that filenamesmay be upper- or lowercase.In this text, uppercaseis usedfor clarity.
After you have saved your data, exit SPSS (by clicking File, then Exit). Restart
SPSSand load your databy selectingthe "SAMPLE.sav"file you just created.
Section1.5 RunningYour First Analysis

Any time you open a data window, you can mn any of the analysesavailable.To
get started,we will calculatethe students'averagegrade.(With only two students,you can
easily checkyour answerby hand,but imaginea data file with 10,000studentrecords.)
The majority of the available statistical tests are under the Analyze menu. This
menu displaysall the optionsavailablefor your versionof the SPSSprogram (the menusin
this book were createdwith SPSSStudentVersion 15.0).Otherversionsmay haveslightly
different setsof options.
j
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To calculatea mean (average),we are asking the computerto summarizeour data

set. Therefore,we run the commandby clicking Analyze, then Descriptive Statistics,then
Descriptives.
This brings up the Descriptives dialog
box. Note that the left side of the box containsa
OAY
list of all the variablesin our data file. On the right
.Sr ql
is an area labeled Variable(s), where we can
3s,l
specifythe variableswe would like to use in this
particularanalysis.
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We want to compute the mean for the
variable called GRADE. Thus, we need to select
the variable name in the left window (by clicking
;F* |
on it). To transfer it to the right window, click on
-t:g.J
the right arrow between the two windows. The
-!tJ
arrow always points to the window opposite the f- Smdadr{rdvdarvai&
PR:l
highlighted item and can be used to transfer
selectedvariablesin either direction.Note that double-clickingon the variable name will
also transfer the variable to the opposite window. Standard Windows conventions of
"Shift" clicking or "Ctrl" clicking to selectmultiplevariablescan be usedas well.
When we click on the OK button, the analysiswill be conducted,and we will be
readyto examineour output.
in
Section1.6 Examiningand PrintingOutput Files

After an analysis is performed, the output is
placed in the output window, and the output window
becomesthe active window. If this is the first analysis
you have conducted since starting SPSS, then a new
output window will be created.If you have run previous analyses
and savedthem,your
outputis addedto theendof yourpreviousoutput.

To switchbackandforthbetweenthedata window andtheoutput window,select
thedesiredwindowfrom the Windowmenubar(seearrow,below).
The output window is split into two sections.
The left sectionis an outlineof the
(SPSS
"outline
output
refersto this asthe
view").Theright sectionis theoutputitself.
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The sectionon the left of the output window provides an outline of the entire output window. All of the analysesare listed in the order in which they were conducted.Note
that this outline can be used to quickly locate a sectionof the output. Simply click on the
sectionyou would like to see,and the right window will jump to the appropriateplace.
Clicking on a statisticalprocedurealso selectsall of the output for that command.

By pressingtheDeletekey, that outputcan be deletedfrom the output window. This is a
quick way to be sure that the output window containsonly the desiredoutput. Output can
also be selectedand pastedinto a word processorby clicking Edit, then Copy Objecls to
copy the output.You can then switch to your word processorand click Edit, thenPaste.
To print your output, simply click File, then Print, or click on the printer icon on
the toolbar. You will have the option of printing all of your output or just the currently selected section. Be careful when printing! Each time you mn a command, the output is
addedto the end of your previous output. Thus, you could be printing a very large output
file containinginformation you may not want or need.
One way to ensurethat your output window containsonly the resultsof the current
commandis to createa new output window just before running the command.To do this,
click File, then New, then Outpul. All your subsequentcommandswill go into your new
output window.
Practice Exercise
Load the sampledata file you createdearlier (SAMPLE.sav). Run the Descriptives
command for the variable GRADE and print the output. Your output should look like the
exampleon page7. Next, selectthe data window and print it.
Section1.7 ModifyingData Files

Once you have createda data file, it is really quite simple to add additional cases
(rows/participants)
or additionalvariables(columns).ConsiderExample1.7.1.
Example1.7.1
Two morestudents
provideyou with surveys.
Theirinformationis:
ResponseSheet3
ID:
Day of class:
Classtime:
Final gradein class:
Do you work outsideschool?
ResponseSheet4
ID:
Day of class:
Classtime:
Are you a morning person?
Final gradein class:
Do you work outsideschool?
8734
MWF
Morning
Yes
X TTh
Afternoon
XNo
80%
Part-time
Full-time
No
1909
X MWF
X Morning
X Yes
73%
Full+ime
No
TTH
Afternoon
No
X
Part-time
To add thesedata, simply place two additionalrows in the Data View window (after loading your sampledata).Notice that as new participantsare added,the row numbers
becomebold. when done,the screenshouldlook like the screenshothere.
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3
ID
DAY
TIME MORNING GRADE WORK
4593.00 Tueffhu aternoon
No
85.00
No
1gnl.B0MonMed/ m0rnrng
Yes
83.00 Part-Time
8734.00 Tue/Thu mornrng
No
80,00
No
1909.00MonAfVed/ mornrng
Yeg
73.00 Part-Time
var
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New variables can also be added.For example, if the first two participantswere
given specialtraining on time management,and the two new participantswere not, the data
file can be changedto reflect this additionalinformation.The new variable could be called
TRAINING (whether or not the participant receivedtraining), and it would be coded so
that 0 : No and I : Yes. Thus, the first two participantswould be assigneda "1" and the
Iast two participantsa "0." To do this, switch to the Variable View window, then add the
TRAINING variable to the bottom of the list. Then switch back to the Data View window
to updatethe data.
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4
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TIME MORNING GRADE woRK I mruruwe
4593.0f1 Tueffhu aterncon
No
85.0u
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Yes
yes
1901.OCI
ManA/Ved/ m0rnrng
Yes
ffi.0n iiart?mel8734"00 Tueffhu momtng
No
80.n0
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No
1909.00M onrlVed/ morning
Yes
73.00 Part-TimeI
No '
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Adding data and adding variablesare just logical extensionsof the procedureswe
used to originally createthe data file. Save this new data file. We will be using it again
later in the book.
Practice Exercise
Follow the exampleabove(whereTRAINING is the new variable).Make the
modifications
to your SAMPLE.savdatafile andsaveit.
l0
Chapter2
EnteringandModifying Data
In Chapter 1, we learnedhow to createa simple data file, save it, perform a basic
analysis,and examine the output. In this section,we will go into more detail about variablesand data.
Section2.1 Variablesand DataRepresentation

In SPSS,variablesare representedas columns in the data file. Participantsare representedas rows. Thus, if we collect 4 piecesof information from 100 participants,we will
have a data file with 4 columnsand 100 rows.
Measurement Scales
There are four types of measurementscales:nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
While the measurementscalewill determinewhich statisticaltechniqueis appropriatefor a
given set of data, SPSSgenerally does not discriminate.Thus, we start this section with
this warning: If you ask it to, SPSSmay conduct an analysis that is not appropriatefor
your data.For a more completedescriptionof thesefour measurementscales,consultyour
statisticstext or the glossaryin Appendix C.
Newer versionsof SPSS allow you to indicate which types of
Measure
data you have when you define your variable. You do this using the
Measurecolumn. You can indicateNominal, Ordinal, or Scale(SPSS @Nv
doesnot distinguishbetweeninterval and ratio scales).
f $cale
.sriltr
Look at the sampledata file we createdin Chapter l. We calcur Nominal
lated a mean for the variable GRADE. GRADE was measuredon a ra-
summarystatistic(assumingthat the distribution

tio scale,andthe mean is an acceptable
is normal).
We could have had SPSScalculatea mean for the variableTIME insteadof
here.
GRADE.If we did, we wouldgettheoutputpresented
The outputindicatesthat the averageTIME was 1.25.Rememberthat TIME was
coded as an ordinal variable ( I =
m or ni ngcla ss,2-a fte rnoon
trlllql eilr $l-g
class).Thus, the mean is not an *lq]eH"N-ql*l
appropriatestatisticfor an ordinal
:* Sl astts
.l.:D
gtb
scale,but SPSScalculatedit any:$sh
way. The importance of considering the type of data cannot be
overemphasized. Just because
ht6x0tMn
SPSS will compute a statistic for
you doesnot mean that you should
.6M6.ffi
ll
$arlrba"t S#(|
LS
a
2.qg
Lt@
Chapter2 Enteringand Modifying Data
use it. Later in the text, when specificstatisticalproceduresare discussed,the conditions

underwhich they are appropriatewill be addressed.
Missing Data
Often, participantsdo not provide completedata.For some students,you may have
a pretestscore but not a posttestscore.Perhapsone studentleft one question blank on a
survey,or perhapsshe did not stateher age.Missing data can weakenany analysis.Often,
a singlemissingquestioncan eliminatea subject
from all analyses.
ql
total
If you have missing data in your data
2.00
2.Bn
4.00 set, leave that cell blank. In the example to
3.00
1.0 0
4.00 the left, the fourth subject did not complete
Question2. Note that the total score(which is
4.00
3.00
7.00 calculatedfrom both questions)is also blank
becauseof the missing data for Question 2.
2.00
SPSS representsmissing data in the data
1 .0 0
2.UB
3.00 window with a period (althoughyou should
not enter a period-just leave it blank).
Section2.2 Transformationand Selectionof Data

We oftenhavemoredatain a datafile thanwe wantto includein a specificanalysis.For example,our sampledatafile containsdatafrom four participants,
two of whom
receivedspecialtrainingand two of whom did not. If we wantedto conductan analysis
usingonly the two participants
who did not receivethe training,we wouldneedto specify
theappropriate
subset.
Selectinga Subset
F|! Ed vl6{ , O*. lr{lrfum An*/& e+hr
O*fFV{ldrr PrS!tU6.,.
CoptO.tafropc,tir3,..
t'llitl&JE
il :id
l,j.l,/r,:irrlrr! lif l ll:L*s,,.
Hh.o*rr,.,
Dsfti fi*blc Rc*pon$5ct5,,,
We can use the SelectCasescommandto specify

a subset of our data. The Select Cases command is
located under the Data menu. When you select this
command,the dialog box below will appear.
q*d-:-"-- "-"""-*--*--**-""*-^*l
6 Alce
a llgdinlctidod
,r l
ConyD*S
r irCmu*dcaa
i*np* |
{^ lccdotincoarrpr
sd.rt Csat
;.,* |
You can specify which cases(participants) you want to select by using the selection criteria, which appearon the right side of
the SelectCasesdialog box.
-:--J
llaffrvci*lc
l0&t
C6ttSldrDonoan!.ffi
foKl
t2
aar I c-"rl x* |
i:
By default,All caseswill be selected.The most common way to selecta subsetis

to click If condition is satisfied, then click on the button labeledfi This will bring up a
new dialog box that allowsyou to indicatewhich casesyou would like to use.
You can enter the logic
used to select the subset in the
upper section. If the logical
statement is true for a given
case, then that case will be
U;J;J:.1-glL1 E{''di',*tI
'J-e.l-,'JlJ.!J-El[aasi"-Eo,t----i
,
selected.If the logical statement
is false. that case will not be
0 U IAFTAN(r"nasl
,Jl _!JlJ
selected.For example, you can
sl"J=tx
-s*t"lBi!?Blt1trb :r
select all casesthat were coded
?Ais"I c'-t I Ht I
as Mon/Wed/Fri by entering the
formula DAY = I in the upperright part of the window. If DAY is l, thenthe statementwill be true,and SPSSwill select
the case.If DAY is anything other than l, the statementwill be false, and the casewill not
be selected.Once you have enteredthe logical statement,click Continue to return to the
SelectCasesdialog box. Then,click OK to returnto the data window.
After you have selectedthe cases,the data window will changeslightly.
The casesthat were not selectedwill be markedwith a diagonalline through the
casenumber. For example,for our sampledata, the first and third casesare not
selected.only the secondand fourth casesare selectedfor this subset.
ilqex4q lffiIl,?,l*;*"'=
,.,:r.
EffEN'EEEgl''EEE'o
rt
lnl vl
-'4 4
MORNING ERADE WORK TRAINING

4533.m Tueffhui affsrnoon
No
ffi.m
Na
Yes Not Selected
1901.m
MpnMed/i mornino
Yss
83,U1Fad-Jime
Yes
Splacled
6h4lto TuElThu
No
m.m
. morning
No
No Not Selected
ieifrfft MonA/Ved/1morning
Yes
ru.mPart-Time
No
. -..- ^,-.-.*.*..,--
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TIME
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*-
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1
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!LJ\ii. vbryJv,itayss 7
. *-JI
fsPssProcaesaFrcady
*] ,1,
An additional variable will also be createdin your data file. The new variable is
called FILTER_$ and indicateswhethera casewas selectedor not.
If we calculatea mean
DescripthreStailstics
GRADE using the subset we
just selected,we will receive
std.
N
Minimum Maximum M e a n
Deviation
the output at right. Notice that
UKAUE
2
73.00
83.00 78.0000 7 . 0 7 1 1
we now have a mean of 78.00 Va lid N
2
IliclwisP'l
with a samplesize (M) of 2 insteadof 4.
l3
'l
Be careful when you selectsubsets.The subsetremains in ffict until you run the
commandagain and selectall cases.You can tell if you have a subsetselectedbecausethe
bottom of the data window will indicatethat a filter is on. In addition, when you examine
your output, N will be less than the total number of recordsin your data set if a subsetis
selected.The diagonal lines through some caseswill also be evident when a subsetis selected.Be careful not to saveyour data file with a subsetselected,as this can causeconsiderableconfusionlater.
Computing a New Variable
SPSScan also be used
to compute a new variable or nh E* vir$, D.tr T|{dorm
manipulateyour existing vari*lslel EJ-rlrj -lgltj{l -|tlf,l a*intt m eltj I
ables. To illustrate this, we
will create a new data file.
This file will contain data for
four participants and three
variables (Ql, Q2, and Q3).
The variables represent the
points each
number of
l* ,---- LHJ
participant received on three
{#i#ffirtr!;errtt*;
different questions.Now enter
the data shown on the screen to the right. When done, save this data file as
"QUESTIONS.sav."We will be usingit againin laterchapters.
I TrnnsformAnalyze Graphs Utilities Whds
Rersdeinto5ameVariable*,,,
intoDffferant
Varlables.
Racodo
,,
Ar*omSicRarode,,.
Vlsual
8inrfrg,..
After clicking the Compute Variable

command, we get the dialog box at
right.
The blank field marked Target
Variable is where we enter the name
of the new variable we want to create.
In this example, we are creating a
variable called TOTAL, so type the
word "total."
Notice that there is an equals
sign between the Target Variable
blank and the Numeric Expression
blank. These two blank areas are the
Now you will calculatethe total score for

eachsubject.We could do this manually,but if the
data file were large, or if there were a lot of
questions,this would take a long time. It is more
efficient (and more accurate) to have SPSS
compute the totals for you. To do this, click
Transform and then click Compute Variable.
rrw I i+t*...
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gl
w
ca
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lij -!CJ:l Jslcl
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til
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iii:Hffiliji:.:
. i . i> t
i-Jr:J::i
l:j -:15
tJ -tJ-il
is:Jlll
two sides of an equation that SPSS

will calculate.For example,total : ql
+ q2 + q3 is the equation that is
entered in the sample presentedhere
(screenshot
at left). Note that it is possible to create any equation here
simply by using the number and
operational keypad at the bottom of
the dialog box. When we click OK,
SPSSwill createa new variablecalled
TOTAL and make it equalto the sum
of the threequestions.
Save your data file again so
that the new variablewill be available
for future sessions.
ii"alCt
i-3J:J
JJJI
--q-|J
--q*J
J- l
|f- - | ldindm.!&dioncqdinl
tsil
nact I
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- ltrl-Xl
Eile gdit SEw Qata lransform $nalyza 9aphs [tilities Add'gns Sindow Help
3.n0
4,n0
3.0n
10.00
4.00
31..........;.
2.oo
l
I
41
1.0 0 1
.:1
l-'r
--i-----i
2.oo
3 0 01
il
I
i
, l, l\qg,t_y!"*_i Variabte
ViewJ
Recodinga Variable-Dffirent
lit
W*;
r ljl
Variable
SPSS can create a new

variable based upon data from
another variable. Say we want to
split our participantson the basisof
their total score.We want to create
a variablecalled GROUP, which is
coded I if the total score is low
(lessthan or equal to 8) or 2 if the
total score is high (9 or larger). To
do this, we click Transform, then
Recodeinto Dffirent Variables.
F{| [dt
!la{
Data j Trrx&tm
,-.lu l,rll r-al +.
---.:1.l{
rr
I
I
'r tr- l
4.00
Analrra
vdiouc','
conp$o
Cd.nVail'r*dnCasas.,,
-o ..* * ^ c- - u - r - c
Art(tn*Rrcodr...
U*dFhn|ro,,.
2.00
i.m
Racodrlrto 0ffrror* Yal
l5
S*a *rd llm tllhsd,,,

Oc!t6 I}F sairs..,
Rid&c l4sitE V*s.,.
Rrdon iMbar G.rs*trr,,.
Ch a p te 2
r En te ri n ga n d Mo d i fy i n gD ata
This will bring up the

Recode into Different Variables
dialog box shown here. Transfer
the variable TOTAL to the middle
blank. Type "group" in the Name
field under Output Variable.Click
Change,and the middle blank will
show that TOTAL is becoming
GROUP.as shownbelow.
til
ladtnl c rlccdm confbil
-'tt"
rygJ**l-H+ |
NtnHbvli|bL-lo|rnrV*#r
To help keep track of variablesthat have

been recoded, it's a good idea to open the
t *.!*lr
Variable View and enter "Recoded" in the Label rr&*ri*i*t
column in the TOTAL row. This is especially ;rln
I r-":-'-'1**
useful with large datasets which may include i T I r nryrOr:frr**"L
many recodedvariables.
,fClick Old andNew Values.This will bring i c nq.,saa*ld6lefl;
Fup the Recodedialog box. In this example,we
have entered a 9 in the Range, value through
HIGHEST field and a 2 in the Value field under
New Value.When we click Add, the blank on the ,.F--*-_-_-_____
right displaysthe recodingformula. Now enter an :I "a *r***o
lrt*cn*r
I I nni.
8 on the left in the Range, LOWEST through rT..".''..."...value blank and a I in the Value field under New I ir:L-_t'
Value. Click Add, then Continue.Click OK. You l6; F i4i'|(tthah*
T &lrYdd.r*t
will be redirectedto the data window. A new I " n *'L,*l'||.r.$,
: r----**-:
variable (GROUP) will have been added and ; r {:ei.*
gf-ll
codedas I or 2, basedon TOTAL.
lirli
i " r, . ! * r h ^ . , " , r
'-
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Flc Ed Yl.ly Drt! Tr{lform
{*!c
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Chapter3
DescriptiveStatistics
ln Chapter2, we discussed
manyof the optionsavailablein SPSSfor dealingwith
our data.The procedures
usedto describe
data.Now we will discusswaysto summarize
andsummarizedataarecalleddescriptivestatistics.
Section3.1 FrequencyDistributions and PercentileRanks
for a SingleVariable
Description
The Frequencies
commandproducesfrequencydistributionsfor the specifiedvaripercentages,
ables.The outputincludesthe numberof occurrences,
valid percentages,
and
and the cumulativepercentages
cumulativepercentages.
The valid percentages
comprise
asmissing.
only thedatathatarenot designated
TheFrequencies
commandis usefulfor describingsampleswherethe meanis not
useful(e.g.,nominalor ordinal scales).
It is alsousefulasa methodof gettingthefeelof
your data.It providesmoreinformationthanjust a meanandstandarddeviationandcan
be usefulin determiningskewandidentifyingoutliers.A specialfeatureof the command
percentileranks.
is its abilityto determine
Assumptions
Cumulativepercentages
and percentilesare valid only for datathat are measured
on at leastan ordinal scale.Because
the outputcontainsoneline for eachvalueof a variable,thiscommandworksbeston variableswith a relativelysmallnumberof values.
Drawing Conclusions
TheFrequencies
outputthatindicatesboththenumberof cases
commandproduces
in the sampleof a particularvalueandthe percentage
of caseswith that value.Thus,conclusionsdrawnshouldrelateonly to describingthe numbersor percentages
of casesin the
regardingthe cumulativepersample.If the dataareat leastordinalin nature,conclusions
centageand/orpercentilescanbe drawn.
.SPSSData Format
The SPSSdatafile for obtainingfrequencydistributions
requiresonly onevariable,
andthatvariablecanbeof anytype.
tt
C h a p te 3
r D e s c ri p ti v e
Sta ti s ti c s
Creating a Frequency Distribution

To run the Frequer?ciescommand,
click Analyze, then Descriptive Statistics,
I
slsl}sl &99rv
i:rl.&{l&l&l
@
then Frequencies.(This example uses the i 1 r mpg
}
Disbtlvlr...
cdrFrb'l{tirE
i 18
N
Erpbr,..
CARS.savdata file that comeswith SPSS.
croac*a,..
Rrno,.,
It is typically located at <C:\Program
F.Pt'lok,.,
aaPUs,.,
Fi les\SPS
S\Cars.
sav>.)
This will bring up the main dialog r5117gl
box. Transfer the variable for which you
would like a frequencydistributioninto the
Variable(s)blank to the right. Be surethat
xl
tables option is
the Display
MilesperGallonlm r
q ! l checked.Clickfrequency
OK to receiveyour output.
/Erqlr,onispUcamr
that
the dialog boxes in
/ Hurepowor[horc
Note
dv*,id"w"bir 1|ut
jq? | newer versions of SPSS show both the
d t!rc toAceileistc
.f"tq I type of variable(the icon immediatelyleft
dr',Ccxr*yol Orbin[c
. He_l of the variable name) and the variable
labels if they are entered. Thus, the
l7 Oisgayhequercytder
variable YEAR shows up in the dialog
box as Model Year(modulo I0).
sr**i,1..1
rry*,:.
I
f*:.,. I
Output for a Frequency Distribution
The output consistsof two sections.The first sectionindicatesthe numberof records with valid data for eachvariableselected.Recordswith a blank scoreare listedas
missing.In this example,the datafile contained406 records.Notice that the variablelabel
is ModelYear (modulo100).
The second section of the output contains a
statistics
cumulative frequency distribution for each variable
Wse lected.A tth e topof t h e s e c t io n , t h e v a ria b le la b e lis
*
oo?
y.1"1 |
| given. The output iiself consistsof five columns.The first
|
Missing
t I
I
I
Jolumnliststhi valuesof the variablein sortedorder.There
is a row for eachvalue of your variable,
and additional rows are added at the
bottom for the Total and Missing data.
The secondcolumn gives the frequency
of eachvalue,includingmissingvalues.
The third columngivesthe percentage
of
all records (including records with
missingdata) for eachvalue.The fourth
column, labeled Valid Percenl, gives the
percentage
of records(without including
records with missing data) for each
value. If there were any missingvalues,
these values would be larger than the
valuesin column threebecausethe total
Modol Yo.r (modulo 100)

Cumulativs
Pcr ce n l
34
vatE
72
73
74
75
76
77
28
40
27
30
34
28
79
80
81
82
Total
Missing 0 (Missing)
Total
29
29
30
31
405
1
406
r8
I 4
7.1
6.9
9.9
6.7
8.4
6.9
8.9
7.1
7.1
7.4
7.6
99.8
100.0
Valid P6rcnl
I 4
7.2
6.9
9.9
6.7
7.4
8.4
6.9
8.9
f.2
7.2
7.4
7.7
100 .0
E4
15.6
22.5
32.3
39.0
46.4
54.8
61.7
70.6
77.8
84.9
92.3
| 00.0
Chapter3 DescriptiveStatistics
numberof recordswould have beenreducedby the numberof recordswith missing values.

The final column gives cumulative percentages.Cumulative percentagesindicate the percentageof records with a score equal to or smaller than the current value. Thus, the last
value is always 100%. These values are equivalentto percentile ranks for the values
listed.
D eterm ining P ercenti Ie Ranl<s

The Frequencies command can be
used to provide a number of descriptive
Sfndr*Pi*rcsnr
statistics,as well as a variety of percentile
SHslsp{rierltuso
(including quartiles, cut points, and
values
/v***v*$t*(ttu
YI
/lino toaccrbrar
!rydI scorescorrespondingto a specificpercentile
$1C**{ry o{Origr[c
|*"1 rank).
To obtain either the descriptiveor
lT Oirpbar
frcqlcreyttblce
percentile functions of the Frequencies
command,click the Statisticsbutton at the
frfix*... I
bottomof the main dialog box. Note that the
Central Tendencyand Dispersior sectionsof this box are useful for calculatingvalues,
suchas the Median or Mode. which cannotbe calculatedwith the Descriptiyescommand
(seeSection3.3).
:,,.
tril
Mla pa Galmlm3
This brings up the Frequencies:

Statisticsdialog box. Check any additional
desiredstatisticby clicking on the blank next
to it. For percentiles, enter the desired
percentile rank in the blank to the right of
the Percentile(s)label. Then, click Add to add
it to the list of percentiles requested.Once
you have selectedall your requiredstatistics,
click Continue to return to the main dialog
box. Click OK.
tr Ourilr3
F nrs**rtd!i*
c{q I
*g"d I
I
,crnqo,p, i
Hdo I
f- Vdrixtgor0mi&ohlr
Oi$.r$pn "
l* SUaa**
n v$*$i
I* nmgc
f Mi*n n
|- Hrrdilrtl
l- S"E.mcur
0idthfim'
t- ghsrurt
T Kutd*b
Outputfor Percentile Ranl<s
Statistics
ModelYear (modulo100
N
Vatid
Missing
Percentiles 25
50
75
80
xl
PscdibV.lrr
405
1
73.00
76.00
79.00
80.00
The Statistics dialog box adds on to the

previous output from the Frequenciescommand.The
new sectionof the output is shown at left.
The output containsa row for each piece of
information you requested.In the example above, we
checkedQuartiles and asked for the 80th percentile.
Thus, the output contains rows for the 25th, 50th.
75th,and 80th percentiles.
l9
Ch a p re ,1
r D e s c ri p tier S ta ti s ti cs
Practice Exercise
UsingPracticeDataSet I in AppendixB, createa frequencydistributiontablefor
the mathematics
skills scores.Determine
the mathematics
skills scoreat which the 60th
percentile
lies.
section 3.2 FrequencyDistributions and percentileRanks
for Multiple Variables
Description
The Crosslabscommandproducesfrequencydistributionsfor multiple variables.
The outputincludesthenumberof occurrences
of eachcombinationof levelJof eachvariable.It is possibleto havethecommandgivepercentages
for anyor all variables.
The Crosslabscommandis usefulfor describingsampleswherethe mean is not
useful(e'g.,nominalor ordinal scales).
It is alsousefulasa methodfor gettinga feelfor
your data.
Assumptions
Becausethe outputcontainsa row or columnfor eachvalue of a variable.this
command
worksbeston variables
with a relativelysmallnumberof values.
,SPSSData Format
The SPSS data file for the Crosstabs
lnalyzc Orphn Ut||Uot
commandrequirestwo or more variables.Those I
)
RcF*r
variablescanbe of anytype.
Runningthe CrosstabsCommand
This exampleusesthe SAMpLE.sav

data
file, which you createdin Chapter l. To run the
procedure, ctick Analyze, then Descriptive
Statistics,then Crosstabs.This will bring up ttt.
main Crosstabsdialog box, below.
i,
r---r
Ror{.}
ftr;;ho.-
l rJ I
.;lm&!
TK I
'-l
ryq I
(orprycrllcEnr
)
G*ncral
llrgar Flodcl )
,
)
;ilffi;
)
chrfy
DttaRcd.Etbn )
)
scah
The dialog box initially lists all variables on the left and contains two blanks labeled Row(s) and Column(s). Enter one variable (TRAINING) in the Row(s) box. Enter the
second (WORK) in the Column(s) box. To
analyze more than two variables, you would
enter the third, fourth, etc., in the unlabeled
area(ust under theLayer indicator).
20
The Cells button allows you to specify W:
percentagesand other information to be generatedfor

eachcombinationof values.Click Cells, and you will get
the box at right.
For the example presented here, check Row,
Column, and Total percentages.Then click Continue.
This will return you to the Crosstabsdialog box. Click
OK to run the analvsis.
t C",ti* |
t*"1
,"1
''Pdrl.!p.
;F Bu
F corm
r-Bait*"
: ,l- U]dadr&ad
if- sragatrd
"1'"1- -_rry-ys___ .
TRAINING'
WURKCross|nl)tilntlo|l
WORK
Parl-Time
I
1
50.0%
50.0%
50. 0%
50.0%
25. 0%
25.0%
1
1
50.0%
50.0%
50. 0%
50.0%
25.0%
25.0%
NO
TRAINING Yes
No
Total
Count
% withinTRAININO
% withinwoRK
% ofTolal
Count
% withinTRAINING
% withinWORK
% ofTolal
Count
% withinTRA|NtNo
% wilhinWORK
% ofTolal
50.0%
100. 0%
50. 0%
5 00 %
100.0%
50.0%
Tolal
100.0%
50.0%
50.0%
?
1000%
50.0%
50.0%
4
r 00.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Interpreting Cros stabs Output

The output consistsof a
contingencytable. Each level of
WORK is given a column. Each
level of TRAINING is given a
row. In addition, a row is added
for total, and a column is added
for total.
Each cell containsthe numberof participants(e.g.,one participantreceivedno

trainingand doesnot work; two participants
receivedno training,regardless
of employmentstatus).
The percentages
for eachcell are also shown.Row percentages
add up to 100%
horizontally.
Columnpercentages
addup to 100%vertically.Forexample,of all the individualswho had no training, 50ohdid not work and 50o%
workedpart-time(using the"o/o
within TRAINING" row). Of the individualswho did not work, 50o/ohad
no trainingand
50%hadtraining(usingthe"o/owithin work" row).
Practice Exercise
Using PracticeData Set I in AppendixB, createa contingencytable using the
Crosstabscommand.Determinethe numberof participantsin eachcombinationof the
variablesSEX andMARITAL. Whatpercentage
of participants
is married?Whatpercentparticipants
ageof
is maleandmarried?
Section3.3 Measuresof Central Tendencyand Measuresof Dispersion
for a SingleGroup
Description
Measuresof centraltendencyare valuesthat representa typical memberof the
sampleor population.Thethreeprimarytypesarethemean,median,andmode.Measures
of dispersiontell you the variabilityof your scores.The primarytypesare the range and
the standarddeviation.Together,a measure
of centraltendencyanda measureof dispersionprovidea greatdealof informationabouttheentiredataset.
2l
Chapter,l DescriptiveStatistics
We will discussthesemeasures
of central
tendencyand measuresof dispersionin the context of the Descriplives command. Note that
many of these statisticscan also be calculated
with several other commands (e.g., the
Frequenciesor Compare Means commandsare
required to compute the mode or median-the
Statisticsoption for the Frequenciescommandis
shownhere).
iffi{ltl*::l'.,xl
Fac*Vd*c-----:":'-'-"-"
"-
|7 Arruer
|* O*pai*furjF tqLteiotpr
F rac$*['*
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16-
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f- rlm
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:-^
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I
l- Vdsm$apn&bcirr
i0hx*ioo*".'*-'
lf Sld.dr',iitbnl* lli*nn
f.H**ntrn
]fV"iro
f.5.t.ncr
l fnxrgo
oidrlatin -- -r5tcffi:
; f Kutu{b
Assumptions
Each measureof central tendencyand measureof dispersionhas different assumptions associatedwith it. The mean is the most powerful measureof centraltendency,and it
has the most assumptions.For example,to calculatea mean, the data must be measuredon
an interval or ratio scale.In addition,the distribution shouldbe normally distributedor, at
least,not highly skewed.The median requiresat leastordinal data.Becausethe median
indicatesonly the middle score (when scoresare arrangedin order), there are no assumptions about the shapeof the distribution.The mode is the weakestmeasureof central tendency.There are no assumptionsfor the mode.
The standard deviation is the most powerful measureof dispersion,but it, too, has
severalrequirements.It is a mathematicaltransformationof the variance (the standard
deviation is the squareroot of the variance).Thus, if one is appropriate,the other is also.
The standard deviation requiresdata measuredon an interval or ratio scale.In addition,
the distribution should be normal. The range is the weakestmeasureof dispersion.To calculatea range, the variablemust be at leastordinal. For nominal scale data,the entire
frequencydistribution shouldbe presentedas a measureof dispersion.
Drawing Conclusions
A measureof central tendencyshouldbe accompaniedby a measureof dispersion,
Thus, when reporting a mean, you should also report a standard deviation. When presentinga median, you shouldalso statethe range or interquartilerange.
.SPSSData Format
Only one variable is required.
22
Running the Command

The Descriptives command will be the lA-dy* ct.dn Ltffibc
command you will most likely use for obtaining
measuresof centraltendencyand measuresof dispersion. This example uses the SAMPLE.sav data file
!
D
GonardtFra*!@
we have used in the previouschapters.
' cond*s
)
.
:
:
,t X
)
)
)
To run the command, click Analyze,

then Descriptive Statistics,then Descriptives.
n".d I This will bring up the main dialog box for the
cr*l I Descriptives command. Any variables you
f,"PI would like information about can be placed in
opdqr"..
I the right blank by double-clickingthem or by
selectingthem, then clicking on the anow.
qil
dlt
da.v
d**
?n-"*
?,r,qx
/t**ts
Rolrar*n
classfy
0tdRedrctitrt
S&r dr.d!r&!d
Y*rcr ri vdi.bb
By default, you will receive the N (number of

cases/participants),the minimum value, the maximum
value, the mean, and the standard deviation. Note that
some of thesemay not be appropriatefor the type of data
you have selected.
If you would like to changethe default statistics
that are given, click Options in the main dialog box. You
will be given the Optionsdialog box presented
here.
F Morr
l- Slm
F su aa**n
f u"or-
F, Mi*ilm
l- nrrcr
I- S.r.npur
F7 Maiilrn
r@t
qq..' I
,|' ?bl
*
I otlnyotdq:
Reading the Output

The output for the Descriptivescommand is quite straightforward.Each type of
output requestedis presentedin a column, and eachvariable is given in a row. The output
presentedhere is for the sampledata file. It showsthat we have one variable (GRADE) and
that we obtainedthe N, minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation for this
variable.
DescriptiveStatistics
Minimum Maximum
73.00
85.00
23
,l t
il
'i
I
I
:
I
r
I *car*re mar
i r Dccemdnnmre
4
4
'!t
"i
I r lpr,*an
{l
,l
I {f V;i*hlC
graoe
ValidN (listwise)
ltl
Mean
Std.Deviation
80.2500
5.25198
",
;i
I
;
Practice Exercise
Using PracticeData Set I in AppendixB, obtainthe descriptive statisticsfor the
ageof the participants.
What is the mean?The median?The mode?What is the standard
deviation?Minimum? Maximum?The range?
Section 3.4 Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of Dispersion
for Multiple Groups
Description
The measuresof centraltendencydiscussedearlierare often needednot only for
the entiredataset,but also for severalsubsets.One way to obtainthesevaluesfor subsets
would be to use the data-selection
techniquesdiscussedin Chapter2 and apply the Descriptivescommandto each subset.An easierway to perform this task is to use the Means
command.The Means commandis designedto provide descriptive statisticsfor subsets
ofyour data.
Assumptions
The assumptionsdiscussedin the sectionon Measuresof Central Tendencyand
Measuresof Dispersionfor a SingleGroup(Section3.3) alsoapply to multiplegroups.
Drawing Conclusions
A measureof centraltendencyshouldbe accompanied
by a measureof dispersion.
Thus,when giving a mean, you shouldalsoreporta standard deviation. When presenting
a median,you shouldalsostatethe range or interquartilerange.
SPSSData Format
Two variablesin the SPSSdata file are required.One representsthe dependent
variable and will be the variablefor which you receivethe descriptive statistics.The
other is the independentvariable and will be usedin creatingthe subsets.Note that while
SPSScalls this variablean independentvariable, it may not meet the strict criteriathat
definea true independentvariable (e.g.,treatmentmanipulation).Thus, someSPSSproceduresreferto it as the grouping variable.
Runningthe Command
This
example uses
the
SAMPLE.sav data file you created in
Chapterl. The Means commandis run by
clicking Analyze, then Compare Means,
thenMeans.
This will bring up the main dialog
box for the Means command. Place the
selectedvariablein the blank field labeled
DependentList.
! RnalyzeGraphs Utilities WindowHetp

F r.l
nsportt
' Descriptive
Statistirs )
-l
Firulbgt5il |
'
.
'
1A
LA
General
Linearftladel F
)
Csrrelata
I
Regression
(fassify
F
Ona-Sarnple
f feft.
Independent-Samdes
T Te
T Test,,,
Falred-SarnplEs
Ons-Way*|iJOVA,,,
Placethe grouping variable in the box labeledIndependentList.In this example,

through use of the SAMPLE.sav data file, measuresof central tendencyand measuresof
dispersion for the variable GRADE will be given for each level of the variable
MORNING.
ryl
List
Dependant
:I
tu
arv
r T ril
,du**
ll".i I
/wqrk
tr"ining
lLayarl al1*-
I :'r:rrt|
I
i
lr-,
r
l*i.rl
Heset
I
Cancel
I
Ii
..!'l?It.
l"rpI
Independent
Li$:
r:ffi
tffi,
I
L-:By default,the mean, numberof cases,and

standard deviation are given. If you would like
additional measures,click Options and you will be
presentedwith the dialog box at right. You can opt
to include any numberof measures.
Reading the Output
The output for the Means command is split
into two sections.The first section,called a case
processingsummary, gives informationabout the
data used. In our sample data file, there are four
students(cases),all of whom were included in the
analysis.
fd Stdirtlx:
mil'*-*
ofCa*o*
Medan
lltlur$u
5tt
Minirn"rm
Manimlrn
Rarqo
Fist
La{
VsianNc
ml
lStardad
Std.Enord Kutosis
Skemrcro
Sld.Eno ol $karm
HanorricMcan :J
Lqlry-l
Doviaion
I
x,r I
c""d I
GaseProcessingSummary
Cases
Excluded
N
Percent
lncluded
N
grade - morning
Percent
100.0%
25
.OYo
Total
N
4 |
Percent
100.0%
The secondsectionof the outRepott

put is the report from the Means comGRADE
mand.
MOR N IN G Mean
N
Std.Deviation
This report lists the name of
NO
82.5000
2
3.53553
the dependent variable at the top Yes
78.0000
7.07107
(GRADE). Every level of the indeTotal
80.2500
4
5.25198
pendent variable (MORNING) is
shown in a row in the table. In this example,the levels are 0 and l, labeledNo and Yes.
Note that if a variable is labeled,the labelswill be usedinsteadof the raw values.
The summary statisticsgiven in the report correspondto the data, where the level
of the independentvariable is equalto the row heading(e.g.,No, Yes). Thus,two participantswere includedin eachrow.
An additional row is added, named Total. That row contains the combined data.
and the valuesare the sameas they would be if we had run theDescriptiyescommandfor
the variableGRADE.
Extension to More Than One Independent Variable
If you have more than one
independent variable, SPSS can
break down the output even further. Rather than adding more
variables to the Independent List
section of the dialog box, you
need to add them in a different
layer. Note that SPSS indicates
with which layer you are working.
id
If you click Next, you will be presentedwith

Layer 2 of 2, and you can select a secondindependent
variable (e.g., TRAINING). Now, when you run the
command(by clicking On, you will be given summary
statistics for the variable GRADE by each level of
MORNING and TRAINING.
Your output will look like
the output at right. You now have
two main sections(No and yes),
along with the Total. Now, however, each main section is broken
down into subsections(No, yes,
and Total).
The variable you used in
Level I (MORNING) is the first
one listed, and it defines the main
sections.The variable you had in
Level 2 (TRAINING) is listed sec-
Report
ORADE
MORNING TRAINING
No
Yes
NO
Total
Yes
Yes
NO
Total
Total
Yes
NO
Total
26
Mean
85.0000
80.0000
82.5000
83.0000
73.0000
78.0000
84.0000
76.5000
80.2500
Std.Deviation
1
1
I
3. 53553
1
1
1
a
z
7.07107
1. 41421
4.54575
5. ?5198
ond. Thus,the first row represents

thoseparticipantswho were not morningpeopleand
participants
who werenot morningpeowho receivedtraining.The secondrow represents
ple anddid not receivetraining.The third row represents
who
the total for all participants
werenot morningpeople.
Noticethat standarddeviationsarenot givenfor all of the rows.This is because
thereis only oneparticipantpercell in thisexample.Oneproblemwith usingmanysubsets
is that it increases
requiredto obtainmeaningfulresults.Seea
the numberof participants
research
designtextor your instructorfor moredetails.
Practice Exercise
UsingPracticeDataSet I in AppendixB, computethe meanandstandarddeviation of agesfor eachvalueof maritalstatus.What is the averageageof the marriedparticipants?The singleparticipants?
Thedivorcedparticipants?
Section3.5 Standard Scores
Description
of differentscalesby transforming
thescores
Standardscoresallow thecomparison
into a commonscale.The mostcommonstandardscoreis the z-score.A z-scoreis based
on a standardnormal distribution(e.g.,a meanof 0 anda standarddeviationof l). A
z-score,therefore,represents
thenumberof standarddeviationsaboveor belowthe mean
(e.9.,a z-scoreof -1.5 represents
a scoreI % standarddeviationsbelowthemean).
Assumptions
Z-scoresare basedon the standardnormal distribution. Therefore,the distributionsthatareconverted
to z-scores
shouldbe normallydistributed,
andthescalesshouldbe
eitherinterval or ratio.
Drawing Conclusions
Conclusions
basedon z-scores
consistof thenumberof standarddeviationsabove
or belowthe mean.For example,a studentscores85 on a mathematics
examin a classthat
hasa meanof 70 andstandarddeviationof 5. The student'stestscoreis l5 pointsabove
z-scoreis 3 because
the classmean(85 - 70: l5). The student's
shescored3 standard
:3).
deviationsabovethe mean(15 + 5
If the samestudentscores90 on a readingexam,
with a classmeanof 80 anda standarddeviationof 10,thez-scorewill be I .0 because
she is one standard deviation abovethe mean. Thus,even thoughher raw scorewas
higheron thereadingtest,sheactuallydid betterin relationto otherstudentson the mathematicstestbecause
herz-scorewashigheron thattest.
.SPSSData Format
Calculatingz-scoresrequiresonly a singlevariablein SPSS.That variablemustbe
numerical.
27
Running the Command

Computingz-scoresis a componentof the
eqhs
Uti$tbl WMow Help
Myzc
Descriptivescommand.To accessit, click Analyze,
) b,lrstlK- al
then Descriptive Statistics, then Descriptives. This
example uses the sample data file (SAMPLE.sav)
createdin ChaptersI and2.
@nerdLlneuFbdel )
)
Correlate
This will bring up the standard dialog box for the Descrip/ives command. Notice the checkdoay
drnue
box in the bottom-left corner ladMonNtNs
tsr.dI beled Save standardized values as
dwnnn
c"od I variables.Check this box and move
drR$HtNs
HdpI the variable GRADE into the righthand blank. Then click OK to com19 Srva*ndudi3ad vduosts vcriaHas
plete
the analysis.You will be preldry |
sented with the standard output
from the Descriptivescommand.Notice that the z-scoresare not listed. They were inserted
into the data window as a new variable.
Switch to the Data View window and examine your data file. Notice that a new
variable, called ZGRADE, has been added.When you asked SPSS to save standardized
values,it createda new variable with the samename as your old variable precededby a Z.
The z-scoreis computedfor eachcaseand placedin the new variable.
t*l
Eb E*
Sw Qpt. lrnsfam
lr| -tsJX
end/2. gr$t6
elslel&l *il{|lelej sJglel ffilslffilfw,qlqj

11i-io-
rc
$citffrtirffi
Tua/Thulaiemoon
Yas
Yes
No
Mi-
Reading the Output

After you conductedyour analysis,the new variable was created.You can perform
any numberof subsequentanalyseson the new variable.
Practice Exercise
Using PracticeData Set 2 in Appendix B, determinethe z-scorethat correspondsto
each employee's salary.Determinethe mean z-scoresfor salariesof male employeesand
femaleemployees.Determinethe mean z-scorefor salariesof the total sample.
28
Chapter4
GraphingData
Section4.1 GraphingBasics
In addition to the frequency distributions,the measuresof central tendency and
measuresof dispersiondiscussedin Chapter3, graphingis a useful way to summarize,organize,and reduceyour data. It has been said that a picture is worth a thousandwords. In
the caseof complicateddatasets,this is certainlytrue.
With Version 15.0of SPSS,it is now possibleto make publication-qualitygraphs
using only SPSS.One importantadvantageof using SPSSto createyour graphsinsteadof
other software (e.g., Excel or SigmaPlot)is that the data have alreadybeen entered.Thus,
duplicationis eliminated,and the chanceof makinga transcriptionerror is reduced.
Section4.2 The New SPSSChart Builder

Data Set
For the graphingexamples,we will use a new set of data.Enter the databelow by
defining the three subject variablesin the Variable View window: HEIGHT (in inches),
WEIGHT (in pounds),and SEX (l = male, 2 = female).When you createthe variables,
designateHEIGHT and WEIGHT as Scale measuresand SEX as a Nominal measure(in
the far-rightcolumnof the VariableView).Switchto the Data Viewto

Measure
enterthe datavaluesfor the 16participants.
Now usethe SaveAs comScale
mandto savethefile,namingit HEIGHT.sav.
-HEIGHT
66
69
/5
72
68
63
74
70
66
64
60
67
64
63
67
65
WEIGHT
1 50
1 55
1 60
1 60
1 50
1 40
1 65
1 50
ll0
1 00
95
ll0
1 05
100
ll0
1 05
29
SEX
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
bCIb
iNiomiiiai
Chapter4 GraphingData
Make sure you have enteredthe data correctly by calculating a mean for each of
the three variables(click Analyze,thenDescriptive Statistics,thenDescriptives).Compare
your resultswith thosein the tablebelow.
Descrlptlve Statistics
srd.
Minimum Maximum
l-ttstuFl
I
WEIGHT
SEX
ValidN
(listwise)
16
16
16
60.00
06 nn
1.00
Mean
74.00 66.9375
165.00 129.0625
2.00
1.5000
Dpvi2lion
J.9Ub//
26.3451
.5164
16
Chart Builder Basics

Make sure that the HEIGHT.sav data file you createdabove is open. In order to
usethe chart builder, you must have a data file open.
NewwithV ersio n l5 . 0 o f S P S S is t h e Ch a rt B u ild e rc o m. W
mand. This command is accessedusing Graphs, then Chart rct"ph; Lulitieswindt
Builder in the submenu.This is a very versatilenew commandthat
can make graphsof excellentquality.
When you first run the Chart Builder command,you will
probably be presentedwith the following dialog box:
Bcforeyur rrc thlsdalog,moasuranar*hvel shold bc sct gecrh fw cadr vadabb

h yourdurt. In dtbn, f yow chartcodahs cataqo*d v6d&. v*re hbds
sha.rldbr &fhcd for eachcrtrgory
kass O( to doflrc yorr chart,
Pr6srDafineV.riaHafroportbs to mt masrcnrant brd or ddhe v*.te l&b for
rhart vsi$bs,
:,
f* non't*row $rUdalogagaFr
ol(
Ocfknvubt# kopcrtcr.,.
This dialog box is

askingyou to ensurethatyour
variables are properly defined. Refer to Sections1.3
and2.1 if you had difficulty
definingthe variablesusedin
creatingthe datasetfor this
example,or to refreshyour
knowledge
of thistopic.Click
oK.
The Chart Builder allows you to make any kind of graph that
is normally used in publication or presentation,and much of it is beyond the scopeof this text. This text, however,will go over the basics
of the Chart Builder so that you can understandits mechanics.
On the left side of the Chart Builder window are the four main
tabs that let you control the graphsyou are making. The first one is
the Gallery tab. The Gallery tab allows you to choosethe basic format
ofyour graph.
30
cc[ffy
Eesknotnents
l"ry{Y:_
litleo/Footndar
Chapter4 Graphing Data
For example, the screenshothere

showsthe different kinds of bar chartsthat
the Chart Builder can create.
After you have selectedthe basic
0rr9 a 63llst ctrt fsg b re it e
form of graph that you want using the
y* 6t'fig pohr
Gallery tab, you simply drag the image
OR
from the bottom right of the window up to
Clkl m f 86r Ele|mb * b tulH
r dwt lsffirt bf ele|Ft
the main window at the top (where it
@9Pk8:
reads,"Drag a Gallery chart here to use it
as your startingpoint").
Chrtpftrbv [43 airr?b deb
Alternatively, you can use the Badnsrfiom:
sic Elemenlstab to drag a coordinatesys- 8arts ElpnF&
Ll3
tem (labeledChooseAxes) to the top winAroa
PleFokr
dow, then drag variables and elements
Scalbillot
Hbbqran
into the window.
HUH-ot,
8oph
The other tabs (Groups/Point ID
DJ'lAm
and Titles/Footnotes)can be used for adding other standard elements to your
graphs.
,bh I
n"ct I
cror |
The examples in this text will
cover some of the basic types of graphs
you can make with the Chart Builder. After a little experimentationon your own, once you
have masteredthe examplesin the chapter,you will soon gain a full understandingof the
ChartBuilder.
Section4.3 Bar Charts, Pie Charts, and Histograms

Description
represent
thenumberof timeseachscoreocBar charts,pie charts,andhistograms
cursthroughthevaryingheightsof barsor sizesof pie pieces.Theyaregraphicalrepresenin Chapter3.
tationsof thefrequency
discussed
distributions
Drawing Conclusions
TheFrequencies
outputthatindicatesboththenumberof cases
commandproduces
particular
in the samplewith a
valueand the percentage
of caseswith that value.Thus,
for the
conclusionsdrawn shouldrelateonly to describingthe numbersor percentages
regardingthe cumulativepersample.If the dataareat leastordinal in nature,conclusions
centages
and/orpercentilescanalsobedrawn.
SPSSData Format
You needonlv onevariableto usethiscommand.
3l
Running the Command

The Frequenciescommand will produce *nalyze Gr;pk Udties Window Hdp
|
graphicalfrequencydistributions.Click Analyze,
t LiwL lW .a'fJul
then Descriptive Statistics, then Frequencies.
You will be presentedwith the main dialog box
(6fnpSg MBan*
)
for the Frequencies command, where you can
GeneralLinearMsdel)
enter the variables for which vou would like to
creategraphsor charts.(SeeChapter3 for other optionswith this command.)
);,r.:
Click the Charts button at the bottom to producefrequencydistributions.This

will give you the Chartsdialog box.
n"*dI
There are three types of chartsavailc"!q I able with this command: Bar charts, Pie
l1t"l charts, andHistograms. For each type, the I
axis can be either a frequency count or a
percentage(selectedwith the Chart Values
option).
xl
0Kl
You will receive the charts for any variables

lectedin the main Frequenciescommanddialog box.
Output
The bar chart consistsof a I'axis, representing
the
frequency,and an Xaxis, representingeachscore.Note that
the only values representedon the X axis are those values
with nonzero frequencies(61, 62, and 7l are not represented).
h.lgtrt
G
a
,
I
a
65.00 66.!0
67.m
68.00
h.lght
70.s
NEUMAf{l{COLLEiSE
Lt*i:qARy
pA .igU14
A$TO|',J,
hclght
s0.00
t3r0
alr
05!0
66.00
67.!0
Gen0
!9.!0
tos
nfit
13!o
il.m
The Histogram commandcreatesa groupedfrequencydistribution.

Therangeof scoresis splitintoevenly
spacedgroups.The midpointof each
groupis plottedon theX axis,andthe
I axisrepresents
the numberof scores
for eachgroup.
If you select With Normal
Curve,a normalcurve will be superimposedover the distribution.
This is
very useful in determiningif the distribution you have is approximately
normal. The distributionrepresented
here is clearly not normaldue to the
asymmetryof thevalues.
The pie chart shows the percentageof the whole that is representedby eachvalue.
h166.9l
S. Oae,.lr07
flrl0
h.lght
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set I in Appendix B. After you have enteredthe data,constructa
histogramthat representsthe mathematicsskills scoresand displaysa normal curve, and a
bar chart that representsthe frequenciesfor the variableAGE.
Section4.4 Scatterplots
Description
Scatterplots(also called scattergramsor scatterdiagrams)display two values for
eachcasewith a mark on the graph.The Xaxis representsthe value for one variable.The I
axis representsthe value for the secondvariable.
JJ
Ch a p te -1
r Gra p h i n gD a ta
Assumptions
Both variablesshouldbe interval or ratio scales.If nominalor ordinal dataare
used,be cautiousaboutyour interpretation
of thescattergram.
.SPSSData Format
You needtwo variablesto performthiscommand.
Running the Command
You can produce scatterplotsby clicking Graphs, then Chart I 6raph* ulfftlqs Wnd
Builder. (Note: You can also use theLegacyDialogs. For this method,
pleaseseeAppendixF.)
ln Gallerv Choose
r l 0l
select
Scatter/Dol.Then drag the Simple
from:
Scatter icon (top left) up to the main chart
areaas shown in the screenshotat left. Disreorrq a 6ilby (h*t fes b & it e
gard
the ElementPropertieswindow that pops
tl ".:' ;o on,
l
ln
up by choosingClose.
iLs
clr* s fE Bs[ pleitbnb t b b krth
Next, dragthe HEIGHT variableto the
3 cfst Bleffit by l8ffit
X-Axis area,and the WEIGHT variable to the
Y-Axisarea(rememberthat standardgraphing
(& mtrpb dstr
Chrifrwr*
conventions indicate that dependent variCtffii'w:
Frwih
ables shouldbe I/ and independentvariables
Si
LtE
shouldbe X. This would mean that we are trylr@
Fb/Fq|n
ing to predict weights from heights).At this
gnt$rrOol
l,lbbgran
point, your screenshould look like the examHlgfFl"tr
l@bt
Ral Ars
ple below. Note that your actual data are not
shown-just a set of dummy values.
,, .Jol
Wrilitll'.,:
V*l&bi:
^ry.J Y*J - '"? |

Click OK. You shouldget your new
graph(nextpage)asOutput.
8n
Lh
PlrifsLa
Scfflnal
xbbrs
Hg||rd
iEbM{
Ffip*t!4.,
opbr.,
, x**J " s*J ...ryFl
34
Output
Theoutputwill consistof a markfor eachparticipant
at theappropriate
X and
levels.
arlo
i?Jo
hdtht
?0.00
t:.${
Adding a Third Variable

Even thoughthe scatterplotis a
two-dimensional
graph,it canplot a third
variable.To make it do so, selectthe
Groups/PointID tab in the ChartBuilder.
Click the Grouping/stacking
variable option. Again,disregardtheElementProperties window that pops up. Next, drag
thevariableSEX into theupper-rightcorner where it indicatesSet Color. When
this is done,your screenshouldlook like
the imageat right. If you are not ableto
dragthe variableSEX,it may be because
it is not identifiedas nominalor ordinal
in the VariableViewwindow.
Click OK to have SPSSproduce
thegraph.
!|||d
d*|er
l- cotrnrcpr:tvr$
I- aontpl*rt
35
btrdtn-
b$tdl
Now our output will have two different setsof marks. One set representsthe male
participants,and the secondset representsthe female participants.Thesetwo setswill appear in two different colors on your screen.You can use the SPSSchart editor (seeSection
4.6) to make them different shapes,as shown in the examplebelow.
sPx
iil
os
60.00
67.50
65,00
helght
Practice Exercise
to examinetherelaUsePracticeDataSet2 in AppendixB. Constructa scatterplot
tionshipbetweenSALARY andEDUCATION.
Section4.5 Advanced Bar Charts
Description
command(see Section4.3).
Bar chartscan be producedwith the Frequencie.s
I/ axis is not a frequency.
where
the
in a bar chart
however.we are interested
Sometimes.
To producesucha chart,we needto usetheBar chartscommand.
SPSS Data Format
You need at least two variables to perform this command. There are two basic
kinds of bar charts-those for between-subjectsdesignsand those for repeated-measures
methodif one variableis the independentvariable and
designs.Use the between-subjects
method if you have a dethe other is the dependent variable. Use the repeated-measures
pendent variable for eachvalue of the independentvariable (e.g.,you would havethree
36
variablesfor a designwith threevaluesof the independentvariable). This normally occurs when you make multiple observationsover time.
This exampleusesthe GRADES.savdata file, which will be createdin Chapter6.
Pleaseseesection6.4 for the dataif you would like to follow along.
Running the Command
Open the Chart Builder by clicking Graphs, then Chart
Builder. In the Gallery tab, select Bar. lf you had only one inde- tG*ptrl uti$Ueswh&
pendent variable, you would selectthe Simple Bar chart example
(top left corner).If you have more than one independentvariable
(as in this example),
tfldr(
select the Clustered Bar Chart example
l?i;ffitF.td'd{4rfr trrd...
from the middle of the top row.
/ft,Jthd)
/l*n*|ts,.,
Drag the example to the top workdq*oAtrm, ,
h4 | G.lary ahd lsr to @ t 6 p
cfwxry
ing area. Once you do, the working area
m
should look like the screenshotbelow.
ffi * $r 0* dds
t bto h.td. drr
drrrl by.lr!*
(Note that you will need to open the data
file you would like to graph in order to run
this command.)
9{
m
hlpd{
sc.ffp/Dat
tffotm
tldrtff
60elot
oidA#
:gi
y"J
.*t I
r,* |
yu vttdld {a b. rsd te grmt!

lh. y*rfts
yw d.t,
qa..dr vrt d. {db. Edr.*6ot.'
rh ffi
h *. dst,
vtlB enpcr*.dby
|SddSri,lARV
vrtdb cdon d b
Ur Y d. Vrtdrr U* d.ftr (&gqb
n.ryst
d !d c
**h o b. red o. c&eskd d q 6
*rdd nDe(rd*L,
. gdslo a F Ftrg Yrt aic.
Cdtfry
LSdrl
o,-l
ryl
*. r! " l
If you are using a repeated-measures

design like our example here using
GRADES.sav from Chapter 6 (three different variablesrepresentingthe i values that we
want), you needto selectall threevariables(you can <Ctrl>-click them to selectmultiple
variables)and then drag all threevariablenamesto the Y-Axisarea.When you do. vou will
be given the warning messageabove. Click OK.
JI
,'rsji,. *lgl$
r*dlF*...
dnif*ntmld,..
/tudttbdJ
{i*rEkucrt}&".,
&rcqsradtrcq,,.
Next, you will need to

drag the INSTRUCT variable to
the top right in the Cluster: set
color area (see screenshot at
left).
i: Jr g;? i
I'
'!
;:Nl
iai
Note: The Chart Builder pays

attention to the types of variables that you ask it to graph. If
you are getting etTor messages
or unusual results, be sure that
your categorical variables are
properly designatedas Nominal
in the Variable View tab (See
Chapter2, Section2.l).
*rrrt plYkrlur.r ollmbdaa.

8{
Lll.
,fat
H.JPd.,
t(.&|rih
Krtogrqn
HCtstoef
loxpbt
orrl Axas
n"i*
l.
crot J
rr!
Output
inilrut
lr
nt
&t:
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set I in Appendix B. Constructa clusteredbar graph examining
the relationshipbetweenMATHEMATICS SKILLS scores(as the OepenOentvariabtej
and MARITAL STATUS and SEX (as independentvariables). Make sure you classify
both SEX and MARITAL STATUS as nominalvariables.
38
Section4.6 Editing SPSSGraphs

Whatever command you
rI
use to create your graph, you will cFtA$-qli*LBul0l al ll
probably want to do some editing
$r
to make it appear exactly as you
want it to look. In SPSS,you do
this in much the sameway that you
edit graphs in other software
programs(e.g., Excel). After your
*.
graph is made, in the output
window, select your graph (this
will createhandlesaround the outside of the entire object) and rightclick. Then. click SPSS Chart
Object, and click Open. Alternatively, you can double-clickon
the graphto open it for editing.
When you open the graph, the Chart Editor window and the correspondingProperlies window will appear.
FFF,Ffu FF|* "'4 F&'E'
qb li. lin.tlla.
,, ; l 61f
ltliL&{
*rll..!!lflE.!l
L: lr ! . H; gb. t c t - ] pu1 r i
;l
Jxr
il.dk'nl
F4*.it.r":!..*
r--."1
:,-
IE
Ittttr
tlttIr
tllrwel
w&&$!{!rJ
JJJJ-JJ
r 9-,rt
JJJJJJ
.nlqrl
cnl,f,,!sl
fil
mlryl
OnceChart Editor is open,you can easily edit eachelementof the graph.To select
an element,just click on the relevantspot on the graph. For example,if you have addeda
title to your graph ("Histogram" in the examplethat follows), you may selectthe element
representingthe title of the graphby clicking anywhereon the title.
39
jn
Ex Yt
Once you have selected

an element, you can tell
whether the correct element is
selectedbecauseit will have
handlesaroundit.
If the item you have
selectedis a text element(e.g.,
the title of the graph), a cursor
will be presentand you can edit
the text as you would in a word
processing program. If you
would like to change another
attribute of the element (e.g.,
the color or font size), use the
Propertiesbox. (Text properties
are shownbelow.)
With a linle practice,
you can make excellent graphs
using SPSS.Once your graph
is formatted the way you want
it, simply select File, Save,
then Close.
l tb " : k l g tH ,U:;
Li
.
A:
r::-'
t
'
'*
trTT.":.TJ *"
^' ir sGssir
:J*r o :l
A I
3 *l.A-I,--
o,tl*" ffiln*fot*.1
P?*l!r
h ?frtmd
Sa
$o gdt lbw gsion Ek

$vr {hat Trm$tr,,,
Spdy$a*Tmpt*c.,.
flpoft {bdt rf'.|1,,,
. .
AaBbCc123
gltaridfu;
Ua*tr$Sie
40
Chapter5
PredictionandAssociation
Section5.1 PearsonCorrelation Coefficient
Description
The Pearson
product-moment
correlationcoefficient(sometimes
calledthe Pearson
correlationcoefficientor simplythe Pearsonr) determines
the strengthof the linearrelationshipbetween
two variables.
Assumptions
Both variables
on intervalor ratio scales(or a dichotomous
shouldbe measured
nominalvariable).If a relationship
them,thatrelationship
existsbetween
shouldbe linear.
Becausethe Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientis computedwith z-scores,both variables
shouldalsobe normallydistributed.If your datado not meettheseassumptions,
consider
usingthe Spearman
rho correlationcoefficientinstead.
SP.SSData Format
Two variablesarerequiredin your SPSSdatafile. Eachsubjectmusthavedatafor
bothvariables.
Running the Command
To selectthe Pearsoncorrelationcoefficient, lfratyil qapnsUtl&i*s t#irdow Heb
click Analyze, then Conelate, then Bivariate
)
Reportr
(bivariate refers to two variables).This will bring
DescripHve
Salirtk* )
)
Ccmpara
Hranr
up the Bivariate Correlations dialog box. This
)
ue"qer:d
lirwar
mo{d
example uses the HEIGHT.sav data file enteredat
the startof Chapter4.
rqsl
Vdri.blcr
I
.
.i
lwolalad
Move at leasttwo variablesfrom the

box at left into the box at right by using the
transfer arrow (or by double-clicking each
variable). Make sure that a check is in the
Pearson
box
under
Correlation
Cofficients. It is acceptableto move more
than two variables.
n"."tI
ry{l
i*l
{. 0rG-tr8.d
9@,. 1
4l
n
1
..
Chapter5 Predictionand Association
For our example,we will move

all threevariablesover and click OK.
-N-
Vdi{$b*
OX I
lsffi
m l/'*
Reading the Output
nql
The output consists of a

:rydl
!4 1
correlation matrix. Every variableyou
entered in the command is represented
as both a row and a column. We entered
three variables in our command. I Tc* d $lrfmma*--*=*-*:-**-*l
Therefore,we have a 3 x 3 table. There
are also three rows in each cell-the
17 Flag{flbrrcorda&rn
correlation,the significance level, and
the N. If a correlation is signifiCorrelations
cant at less than the .05 level, a
single * will appear next to the
heioht
weioht
sex
netgnt Pearsonuorrelalron
1
.806'
-.644'
correlation.If it is significant at
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.007
the .01 level or lower, ** will apN
16
16
16
pear next to the correlation. For
weight PearsonCorrelation
.806'
.968'
example, the correlation in the
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.000
output at right has a significance
N
16
16
16
PearsonCorrelation
1
-.644'
-.968'
level of < .001, so it is flagged sex
Sig. (2-tailed)
.007
.000
with ** to indicatethat it is less
N
16
16
16
than.0 1 .
". Correlationis significantat the 0.01 levet(2-tailed).
To read the correlations.
select a row and a column. For
example,the correlationbetweenheight and weight is determinedthrough selectionof the
WEIGHT row and the HEIGHT column (.806).We get the sameanswerby selectingthe
HEIGHT row and the WEIGHT column. The correlationbetween a variable and itself is
always l, so thereis a diagonalsetof I s.
l_i::x-
.--i
Drawing Conclusions
The correlationcoefficientwill be between-1.0 and +1.0. Coefficientscloseto 0.0
representa weak relationship.Coefficientscloseto 1.0or-1.0 representa strongrelationship. Generally,correlationsgreaterthan 0.7 are consideredstrong. Correlationsless than
0.3 are consideredweak. Correlationsbetween0.3 and 0.7 are consideredmoderate.
Significant correlationsare flagged with asterisks.A significant correlation indicatesa reliable relationship,but not necessarilya strong correlation.With enoughparticipants,a very small correlationcan be significant.PleaseseeAppendix A for a discussion
of effect sizesfor correlations.
Phrasinga SignificantResult
In the example above, we obtained a correlation of .806 between HEIGHT and
WEIGHT. A correlationof .806 is a strongpositivecorrelation,and it is significantat the
.001level.Thus,we could statethe following in a resultssection:
4/
A Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientwas calculatedfor the relationshipbetween

participants' height and weight. A strong positive correlation was found
(r(14) : .806,p < .001),indicatinga significantlinear relationshipbetween
the two variables.Taller participantstendto weigh more.
The conclusionstatesthe direction(positive),strength(strong),value (.806), degreesof freedom(14), and significancelevel (< .001) of the correlation.In addition,a
statementof direction is included(taller is heavier).
is 14. The output indicatesan
Note that the degreesof freedomgiven in parentheses
the correlationcommand
of
freedom,
N of 16. While most SPSSproceduresgive degrees
gives only the N (the numberof pairs).For a correlation,the degreesof freedomis N - 2.
Phrasing Results That Are Not Significant
Using our SAMPLE.savdataset
from the previous chapters,we could
calculatea correlationbetweenID and
GRADE. If so, we get the outPut at
right. The correlationhasa significance
level of .783. Thus, we could write the
following in a resultssection(note that
the degreesof freedomis N - 2):
Correlations
lD
GMDE
PearsonUorrelatlon
Sig.(2{ailed)
N
PearsonCorrelation
Sig.(2-tailed)
N
ID
1.000
GRADE
.217
7A?
4
.217
.783
4
1.000
4
A Pearsoncorrelation was calculatedexamining the relationshipbetween

participants' ID numbers and grades. A weak correlation that was not
significantwas found(, (2): .217,p > .05).ID numberis not relatedto grade
in the course.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in Appendix B. Determinethe value of the Pearsonconelation coefficient for the relationshipbetweenSALARY and YEARS OF EDUCATION.
Section5.2 SpearmanCorrelationCoeflicient
Description
The Spearmancorrelationcoefficientdeterminesthe strengthof the relationshipbetween two variables.It is a nonparametricprocedure.Therefore,it is weakerthan the Pearson correlationcoefficient.but it can be usedin more situations.
Assumptions
Becausethe Spearmancorrelationcoefficient functions on the basisof the ranks of
data,it requiresordinal (or interval or ratio) data for both variables.They do not needto
be normally distributed.
43
Cha p te r5 Pre d i c ti o na n dA s s o c i a ti on
SP.SSData Format
Two variablesarerequiredin your SPSSdatafile. Eachsubjectmustprovidedata
for bothvariables.
Running the Command
Click Analyze, then Correlate, then
Grapk Utilitior wndow Halp
|;,rfiy*
Bivariate.This will bring up the main dialog box
)
RrFarts
for Bivariate Correlations(ust like the Pearson
)
Statistics
Oescri$ive
I
correlation). About halfway down the dialog
ComparcMeans )
box, there is a section for indicating the type of " GenerdLinearf{udel )
correlation you will compute. You can selectas
many correlationsas you want. For our example,
removethe check in the Pearsonbox (by clicking
on it) and click on theSpearmanbox.
i* CsreldionCoefficients
j f f"igs-"jjl- fienddrs
tzu.b
Use the variablesHEIGHT and WEIGHT

from our HEIGHT.savdatafile (Chapter4). This is
also one of the few commandsthat allows you to
choosea one-tailedtest.if desired.
Reading the Output

Correlations
The output is essentially the sameas for the PearH E IGH T
WEIGHT
tr-4.
Spearman'srho HEIGHT CorrelationCoeflicient
1.000
son correlation.Each pair of
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
variables has its correlation
N
16
16
coefficient indicatedtwice. The
ffi
.883
1.000
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
Spearman rho can range from
't6
N
16
-1.0 to +1.0,just like the Pear". Correlationis significantat the .01 level (2-tailed)
son r.
The output listed above indicatesa correlationof .883 between HEIGHT and
WEIGHT. Note the significancelevel of .000,shown in the "Sig. (2-tailed)"row. This is,
in fact, a significancelevel of <.001. The actualalpha level roundsout to.000, but it is
not zero.
Drawing Conclusions
The correlationwill be between-1.0 and +1.0. Scorescloseto 0.0 representa weak
relationship.Scorescloseto 1.0or -1.0 representa strongrelationship.Significantcorrelations are flagged with asterisks.A significant correlation indicatesa reliable relationship,
but not necessarilya strong correlation.With enoughparticipants,a very small correlation
can be significant. Generally,correlationsgreaterthan 0.7 are consideredstrong. Correlations less than 0.3 are consideredweak. Correlationsbetween0.3 and 0.7 arc considered
moderate.
44
PhrasingResultsThatAre Significant
In the exampleabove,we obtaineda correlationof .883 betweenHEIGHT and
WEIGHT. A correlationof .883 is a strongpositivecorrelation,and it is significantat the
.001level.Thus,we could statethe following in a resultssection:
A Spearmanrho correlationcoefficient was calculatedfor the relationship
betweenparticipants'height and weight. A strong positive correlationwas
t la t io n s h ip
found (rh o (1 4 ):.883, p <. 0 0 1 ), in d ic a t in ga s ig n if ic a n re
participants
weigh
more.
tend
to
Taller
betweenthe two variables.
The conclusionstatesthe direction(positive),strength(strong),value (.883), degreesof freedom(14), and significancelevel (< .001) of the correlation.In addition,a
statementof directionis included(talleris heavier).Note that the degreesof freedomgiven
is 14.The outputindicatesan N of 16.For a correlation,the degreesof freein parentheses
dom is N- 2.
Correlations
Using our SAMPLE.sav
to
GRADE
data set from the previouschapters,
.UUU
CorrelationCoenicten
Spearman'srho lD
000
we could calculatea Spearmanrho
1.000
S i g. (2{ai l ed)
and
correlation between ID
N
1.000
ffi
.000
GRADE. If so, we would get the
Sig. (2{ailed)
1.000
output at right. The correlationcoN
4
efficient equals.000 and has a significance level of 1.000.Note that thoughthis value is roundedup and is not, in fact, exactly 1.000,we could statethe following in a resultssection:
A Spearmanrho correlationcoefficient was calculatedfor the relationship

betweena subject's ID number and grade.An extremely weak correlation
that was not significantwas found (r (2\ = .000,p > .05).ID numberis not
relatedto gradein the course.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in AppendixB. Determinethe strengthof the relationship
by calculatingthe Spearmanr&o correlation.
betweensalaryandjob classification
Section 5.3 Simple Linear Regression
Description
allowsthe predictionof one variablefrom another.
Simplelinearregression
Assumptions
Simple linear regressionassumesthat both variablesare interval- or ratio-scaled.
In addition,the dependentvariable shouldbe normally distributedaroundthe prediction
line. This, of course,assumesthat the variablesare relatedto each other linearly.Typi-
45
Ch a p te 5
r P re d i c ti o na n dA s s o c i ati on
cally, both variablesshould be normally distributed.Dichotomous variables (variables

with only two levels)are alsoacceptable
as independentvariables.
.SPSSData Format
Two variablesare required in the SPSSdata file. Each subject must contribute
to
both values.
Running the Command
Click Analyze, then Regression,then
Linear. This will bring up the main diatog Aulyze Graphs LJtl$ties Whdow Help
R;porte
box for Linear Regression.
On the left sideof
'
Descrptive5tatistkf >
the dialog box is a list of the variablesin
Comparc
)
Mems
your data file (we are using the HEIGHT.sav
Generallinear frlod l
data file from the start of this section). On '
Corrolate
the right are blocks for the dependent
variable (the variable you are trying to
Clasifu
)
predict),and the independent variable (the
DataReductbn
)
variablefrom which we are predicting).
lt{*rt*
0coandart
t '-J ff*r,'-j iL,:,,,r,,,'l

Itd.p.nd6r(rl
u* I i -Iqil
I
Crof
rrr
r { r l PmUcitbd
lErra
i E
:J
We are interestedin predicting

someone'sweight on the basisof his or
her height. Thus, we should place the
variable WEIGHT in the dependent
variable block and the variable
HEIGHT in the independent variable
block. Then we can click OK to run the
analysis.
SdrdhVui.bh
Ar-'"1
Reading the Output
Est*6k
I'J
For simple linear regressions,

we are interestedin three components
of the output. The first is called the
sui*br...I pbr.. I Srrs... I Oaly*..I
Model Summary,and it occursafter the
Variables Entered/Removed section.
For our example,you shouldseethis output.R Square(calledthe coeflicient
of determination) gives you the proportionof the variance of your dependentvariable
(yEIGHT)
that can be explainedby variationin your independentvariable (HEIGHT).
Thus, 649%
of the variation in weight can be explainedby differencesin height (talier
individuals
weigh more).
The standard error of
Modetsummarv
ModelSummary
WLSWaidrl:
estimategivesyou a measure
Adjusted Std.Errorof
of dispersionfor your predic- Model
R
R Square R Souare the Estimate
tion equation. When the
1
.E06
.649
.624
16.14801
predictionequationis used.
a. Predictors:
(Constant),
height
68%of thedatawill fall within
46
one standard error of estimate (predicted)value. Just over 95ohwill fall within two standard errors.Thus, in the previous example,95o/oof the time, our estimatedweight will be
within 32.296poundsof beingcorrect(i.e.,2 x 16.148:32.296).
ANOVAb
Sumof
Model
Sorrares
df
Kegressron 6760.323
Residual
3650.614
Total
10410.938
I
14
15
Mean
Souare
6760.323
260.758
25.926
Sio.
.0004
a' Predictors:
(Constant),
HEIGHT
b. Dependent
Variable:
WEIGHT
The secondpart of the output that we are interestedin is the ANOVA summarytable, as shown above.The important numberhere is the significance level in the rightmost
column. If that value is lessthan .05, then we have a significantlinear regression.If it is
largerthan .05,we do not.
The final sectionof the output is the table of coefficients.This is wherethe actual
predictionequationcan be found.
Coefficientt'
Standardized
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
Beta
B
Std.Error
Model
1
(Constant) -234.681
71.552
height
1.067
.806
5.434
-3.280
5.092
S i o.
.005
.000
a. Dependent
weight
Variable:
In most texts, you learn that Y' : a + bX is the regressionequation.f' (pronounced

"Y prime") is your dependent variable (primes are normally predictedvalues or dependent variables),and X is your independentvariable. In SPSSoutput,the valuesof both a
andb are found in the B column.The first value,-234.681,is the value of a (labeledConstant).The secondvalue,5.434,is the value of b (labeledwith the name of the independent variable). Thus, our prediction equation for the example above is WEIGHT' :
-234.681+ 5.434(HEIGHT). In otherwords,the averagesubjectwho is an inch taller than
anothersubjectweighs 5.434 poundsmore. A personwho is 60 inchestall shouldweigh
-234.681+ 5.434(60):91.359pounds.Givenour earlierdiscussion
of standarderror of
estimate,95ohof individualswho are 60 inchestall will weigh between59.063(91.35932.296: 59.063)and 123.655(91.359+ 32.296= 123.655)pounds.
47
/:
"
Drawing Conclusions
Conclusionsfrom regressionanalysesindicate(a) whether or not a significant prediction equation was obtained,(b) the direction of the relationship,and (c) the equation
itself.
Phrasing Results That Are Significant
In the exampleson pages46 and 47, we obtainedan R Squareof .649 and a regression equationof WEIGHT' : -234.681 + 5.434(HEIGHT). The ANOVA resultedin .F =
25.926 with I and 14 degreesof freedom.The F is significant at the less than .001 level.
Thus, we could statethe following in a resultssection:
A simple linear regressionwas calculatedpredicting participants' weight
basedon their height.A significantregressionequationwas found (F(1,14) :
25.926,p < .001),with an R' of .649.Participants'predictedweight is equal
to -234.68 + 5.43 (HEIGHT) pounds when height is measuredin inches.
Participants'averageweight increased5.43poundsfor eachinch of height.
The conclusion statesthe direction (increase),strength(.649), value (25.926), degreesof freedom(1,14), and significancelevel (<.001) of the regression.In addition,a
statementof the equationitself is included.
Phrasing ResultsThatAre Not Significant
If the ANOVA is not significant
(e.g.,seethe output at right), the section
of the output labeled SE for the
ANOVA will be greaterthan .05, and the
regressionequationis not significant.A
results section might include the
following statement:
A simple linear regression was
calculatedpredicting participants'
ACT scoresbasedon their height.
The regressionequation was not
significant(F(^1,14): 4.12, p >
.05) with an R' of .227.Height is
not a significantpredictor of ACT
scores.
llorlol Srrrrrrry
Hodel
attt
R Souare
221
Std.Eror of
Adjuslsd
R Souare
lh.
112
Fsl i m a l e
3 06696
a. Predlclors:(Constan0,h8lghl
rt{)vP
Sumof
xean Souare
dl
Xodel
Rssldual
Tolal
J U/?U
r 31 688
170t38
t
4.12U
1a
t5
Slo
0621
I 408
a. Prodlclors:(Conslan0.h8lghl
b. OependentVarlableracl
Cootlklqrrr
Unstandardizd
ts
Hodl
(u0nslan0
hei9hl
| 9.35I
-.411
Std. Erol
13590
203
Slandardizsd
Sio
Bsta
J OJI
. r 17
.2 0 3 0
003
062
a. OBDendsnlva.iable:acl
Note that for resultsthat are not significant,the ANOVA results and R2resultsare
given,but the regressionequationis not.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in Appendix B. If we want to predict salary from years of
education,what salary would you predict for someonewith l2 years of education?What
salarywould you predict for someonewith a collegeeducation(16 years)?
48
Section5.4 Multiple Linear Regression

Description
The multiple linear regressionanalysisallows the prediction of one variable from
severalother variables.
Assumptions
Multiple linear regressionassumesthat all variablesare interval- or ratio-scaled.
In addition, the dependent variable should be normally distributedaround the prediction
line. This, of course,assumesthat the variablesare relatedto eachother linearly. All variablesshouldbe normally distributed.Dichotomousvariables are also acceptableas independentvariables.
,SP,S,S
Data Format
At least three variablesare required in the SPSSdata file. Each subject must contributeto all values.
Running the Command

Click Analyze,thenRegression,
thenLinear. At"h* eoptrc utiltt 5
I
This will bring up the main dialog box for Linear
Regression.
On the left sideof the dialog box is a i &ry!$$sruruct
list of the variablesin your datafile (we are using Cglpsaftladls
GarnrdLhcar ldd
the HEIGHT.savdata file from the start of this
chapter).On the right side of the dialog box are
blanksfor thedependentvariable(thevariableyou
aretrying to predict)andthe independentvariables
(thevariablesfrom whichyou arepredicting).
l-...G
Dmmd*
.roj I
LLI l&-*rt
n{.rI
ryl
tb.l
SlcdirnVdir*
fn f*---*--
,it'r:,I
Cs Lrbr&:
Er'---
ti4svlit{
Li-J rsr"u*t. I Pr,rr...

I s*
| oei*. I
t{,lrdq., }l+
We are interested in predicting

someone'sweight basedon his or her height
and sex. We believe that both sex and
height influence weight. Thus, we should
place the dependent variable WEIGHT in
the Dependentblock and the independent
variables HEIGHT and SEX in the Independent(s)block. Enterboth in Block l.
This will perform an analysisto determine if WEIGHT can be predicted from
SEX and/or HEIGHT. There are several
methods SPSS can use to conduct this
analysis. These can be selected with the
Method box. Method Enter. the most widely
49
Cha p te 5
r Pre d i c ti o n
a n dA s s o c i a ti on
used,puts all variablesin the equation, whether they are significant or not. The other
methodsuse various meansto enter only those variables that are significant predictors.
Click OK to run the analvsis.
UethodlE,rt-rl
Readingthe Output
For multiplelinearregression,therearethreecomponents
of
the output in which we are interested.The first is calledthe Model
Summary,which is foundafterthe
ModelSummary
Model
R Souare
Adjusted
R Square
.992
.99
.993
a. Predictors:
(Constant),
sex,height
Std.Errorof
the Estimate
2.29571
VariablesEntered/Removedsection.For our example,you should get the output above.R

Square(calledthe coefficientof determination) tells you the proportionof the variance
in the dependentvariable (WEIGHT) that can be explainedby variationin the independent variables (HEIGHT and SEX, in this case).Thus, 99.3%of the variationin weight can
be explained by differencesin height and sex (taller individuals weigh more, and men
weigh more). Note that when a secondvariable is added,our R Squaregoes up from .649
to .993.The .649was obtainedusingthe SimpleLinear Regressionexamplein Section5.3.
The StandardError of the Estimategives you a margin of error for the prediction
equation.Using the predictionequation,68%o
of the datawill fall within one standard error of estimate (predicted)value.Just over 95% will fall within two standard errors of
estimates.Thus, in the exampleabove,95ohof the time, our estimatedweight will be
within 4.591 (2.296 x 2) poundsof being correct.In our Simple Linear Regressionexample in Section5.3, this numberwas 32.296.Note the higherdegreeof accuracy.
The secondpart of the output that we are interestedin is the ANOVA summarytable. For more information on readingANOVA tables,refer to the sectionson ANOVA in
Chapter6. For now, the importantnumberis the significancein the rightmostcolumn. If
that value is lessthan .05,we havea significantlinearregression.
If it is largerthan .05,we
do not.
eHoveb
Sum of
Souares
Model
xegresslon
Residual
Total
03424 24
68.514
10410.938
df
z
13
Mean Souare
5171.212
5.270
F
v61.ZUZ
S i o.
.0000
15
a. Predictors:(Constant),sex, height
b. DependentVariable:weight
The final sectionof output we are interestedin is the table of coefficients.This is

wherethe actualpredictionequationcan be found.
50
Coefficientf
Standardized
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Model
1
(Constant)
height
sex
Coefficients
B
Std.Error
14.843
47j38
.198
2 .1 0 1
1.501
-3 9 .1 3 3
Beta
Sio.
.007
.000
.000
176
.312
-.767
10.588
-26.071
a. DependentVariable:weight
In most texts, you learn that Y' = a + bX is the regressionequation.For multiple regression,our equationchangesto l" = Bs + B1X1+ BzXz+ ... + B.X.(where z is the number
of IndependentVariables). I/' is your dependent variable, and the Xs are your independent variables. The Bs are listed in a column. Thus, our predictionequationfor the example
aboveis WEIGHT' :47.138 - 39.133(SEX)+ 2.101(HEIGHT)(whereSEX is codedas
I : Male, 2 = Female,and HEIGHT is in inches).In other words, the averagedifferencein
weight for participantswho differ by one inch in height is 2.101 pounds.Males tend to
weigh 39.133 pounds more than females.A female who is 60 inchestall should weigh
47.138- 39.133(2)+ 2.101(60):94.932 pounds.Given our earlierdiscussionof the standard error of estimate,95o/oof femaleswho are 60 inchestall will weigh between90.341
(94.932- 4.591: 90.341)and99.523(94.932+ 4.591= 99.523)pounds.
Drawing Conclusions
Conclusionsfrom regressionanalysesindicate(a) whether or not a significant prediction equation was obtained,(b) the direction of the relationship,and (c) the equation
itself. Multiple regressionis generallymuch more powerful than simple linear regression.
Compareour two examples.
you must alsoconsiderthe significancelevel of eachinWith multiple regression,
dependentvariable. In the exampleabove,the significancelevel of both independent
variables is lessthan .001.
Morbl Sratrtny
In our example,we obtainedan
equaR Squareof.993 anda regression
tion of WEIGHT' = 47.138
39 . 1 3 3 ( S E X+) 2.1 0 1 (H E IGH TT).he
ANOVA resultedin F: 981.202with 2
and 13 degreesof freedom.F is significantat the lessthan.001level.Thus.we
couldstatethe followinein a resultssection:
xodsl
R Souars
Adlusted Std.Eror of
R Souare lhe Estimatg
992
2 2C 5r 1
.997.
a Prsdictorsr
(Conslan0,
sex,hsighl
ANr:rVAD
Sumof
XeanSouare
5171212
Sd r r r r a q
Xodel
dt
Heorsssron r u3t2.424
I
2
R es i dual
68.5t4
Tutal
| 0410.938
15
a. Predlctors:
(Conslan0,
ser,hoighl
981202
000r
b. OspBndontVariablo
reighl
Coefllcldasr
Unslanda.dizsd
Xodel
at 38
hei0hl
2.101
.39.133
sex
a. Depsndenl
Varlabl:
rei0hl
5l
Std.Eror
Slandardizad
Beta
.198
L501
Sio
4 843
.312
t6
10.588
- 26.071
007
000
000
A multiple linear regressionwas calculatedto predict participants' weight

basedon their height and sex. A significantregressionequationwas found
(F(2,13): 981.202,p < .001),with an R' of .993. Participants'predicted
weightis equalto 47.138- 39.133(SEX)
+ 2.10l(HEIGHT),whereSEX is
=
:
coded as I
Male, 2
Female, and HEIGHT is measuredin inches.
Participantsincreased2.101 pounds for each inch of height, and males
weighed 39.133 pounds more than females. Both sex and height were
significantpredictors.
The conclusionstatesthe direction(increase),strength(.993), value (981.20),degreesof freedom(2,13),and significancelevel (< .001) of the regression.In addition,a
statementof the equationitself is included.Becausethere are multiple independent variables,we havenotedwhetheror not eachis significant.
If the ANOVA does not find a
significantrelationship,the Srg section
of the output will be greaterthan .05,
and the regressionequation is not significant. A resultssectionfor the output
at right might include the following
statement:
llorlel Surrrwy
XodBl
Notethatfor resultsthatare
R Souare
AdtuslBd
R Souare
Std Eror of
528.
t68
(ConslanD.
a Prsdlclors:
se4 hel9ht
3 07525
ANI]VIP
gum of
qin
dt
A multiple linear regressionwas

calculated predicting participants' ACT scoresbasedon their
height and sex. The regression
equation was not significant
(F(2,13): 2.511,p > .05)with an
R" of .279. Neither height nor
weight is a significant predictor
of lC7" scores.
Reoressron
Rssidual
Total
1t.191
122.9a1
't70.t38
23.717
9.a57
l3
't5
2.5rI
i tn.
(ConslanD,
a Prdictors:
se( hsight
o. OoDendBnl
Vaiabloracl
Coetllc lst 3r
Unstandardizsd
Cosilcisnls
Sld E.rol
Yo d e l
(Constan0
hl9hl
sx
,ir";;;;ilJlovA
"o,
given,but theregression
equation
is not.
oJ ttl
- 576
-t o??
19.88{
.266
2011
Standardized
Coeilcionts
Beia
std
- .668
- 296
3.102
2.168
- s 62
007
019
35{
resultsandR2resultsare
Practice Exercise
UsePracticeDataSet2 in AppendixB. Determinethe predictionequationfor predictingsalarybasedon education,
yearsof service,andsex.Whichvariablesaresignificant
predictors?If you believethat men were paid more than womenwere,what would you
conclude
afterconducting
thisanalysis?
52
Chapter6
ParametricInferentialStatistics
Parametricstatisticalproceduresallow you to draw inferencesabout populations
basedon samplesof those populations.To make theseinferences,you must be able to
makecertainassumptions
aboutthe shapeof the distributionsof the populationsamples.
Section6.1 Reviewof BasicHypothesisTesting

TheNull Hypothesis
In hypothesistesting,we createtwo hypothesesthat are mutually exclusive(i.e.,
both cannotbe true at the sametime) and all inclusive(i.e.,one of them must be true).We
refer to thosetwo hypothesesas the null hypothesisand the alternative hypothesis.The
null hypothesis generallystatesthat any differencewe observeis causedby random error.
The alternative hypothesis generallystatesthat any differencewe observeis causedby a
systematicdifferencebetweengroups.
TypeI and TypeII Eruors
REAL
WORLD
NullHypothesisFalse
All hypothesistesting attemptsto
draw conclusions about the real world
basedon the resultsof a test (a statistical
test, in this case).There are four possible
zdi
TypeI Error I
No Error
combinationsof results (see the figure at
<.r) 6a
right).
= ETwo of the possibleresultsare corA
rect test results.The other two resultsare
enors. A Type I error occurs when we U
;
- ^6
reject a null hypothesis that is, in fact,
6!u
fr trO
true, while a Type II error occurs when l- o>
No Error
I Typell Error
we fail to reject the null hypothesis that
'F:
n2
is, in fact,false.
Significance tests determine the
probabilityof making a Type I error. In
other words, after performing a seriesof calculations,we obtain a probability that the null
hypothesisis true. If there is a low probability,suchas 5 or less in 100 (.05), by convention, we rejectthe null hypothesis.In other words,we typically use the .05 level (or less)
as the maximumType I error ratewe are willing to accept.
When there is a low probability of a Type I error, such as .05, we can statethat the
significancetest has led us to "reject the null hypothesis."This is synonymouswith saying that a difference is "statistically significant." For example,on a reading tesr, suppose
you found that a random sampleof girls from a school district scoredhigher than a random
Null Hypothesis
True
53
Chapter6 ParametricInferentialStatistics
sampleof boys. This result may have been obtainedmerely becausethe chanceenors associatedwith random sampling createdthe observeddifference (this is what the null hypothesis asserts).If there is a sufficiently low probability that random errors were the
cause(as determinedby a significance test),we can statethat the differencebetweenboys
and girls is statisticallysignificant.
SignificanceLevelsvs.Critical Values
Moststatistics
textbooks
present
hypothesis
testingby usingtheconcept
of a critical value. With such an approach,we obtain a value for a test statisticand compareit to a
critical value we look up in a table.If the obtainedvalue is larger than the critical value, we
reject the null hypothesis and concludethat we have found a significant difference(or relationship).If the obtainedvalue is lessthan the critical value, we fail to reject the null hypothesisand concludethat there is not a significantdifference.
The critical-value approachis well suited to hand calculations.Tables that give
critical valuesfor alpha levels of .001, .01, .05, etc., can be created.tt is not practicalto
createa table for every possiblealpha level.
On the other hand, SPSScan determinethe exact alpha level associatedwith any
value of a test statistic.Thus, looking up a critical value in a table is not necessary.
This,
however,doeschangethe basic procedurefor determiningwhetheror not to reject the null
hypothesis.
The sectionof SPSSoutput labeledSrg.(sometimesp or alpha) indicatesthe likelihood of making a Type I error if we rejectthe null hypothesis.A value of .05 or lessindicatesthat we should reject the null hypothesis(assumingan alpha level of .05). A value
greaterthan .05 indicatesthat we shouldfail to reject the null hypothesis.
In other words, when using SPSS,we normally reject the null hypothesis if the
output value under Srg. is equal to or smaller than .05, and we fail to reject the null hypothesisif the outputvalueis largerthan .05.
One-Tailed vs. Two-Tailed Tests
SPSSoutput generally includes a two-tailed alpha level (normally labeled Srg. in
the output). A two-tailed hypothesisattemptsto determinewhether any difference (either
positive or negative)exists.Thus, you have an opportunity to make a Type I error on either of the two tails of the normal distribution.
A one-tailedtest examinesa differencein a specificdirection.Thus, we can make a
Type I error on only one side (tail) of the distribution.If we have a one-tailedhypothesis,
but our SPSSoutput gives a two-tailed significance result, we can take the significance
level in the output and divide it by two. Thus, if our differenceis in the right direction,and
if our output indicatesa significance level of .084 (two-tailed), but we have a one-tailed
hypothesis,we can report a significance level of .042 (one-tailed).
Phrasing Results
Resultsof hypothesistestingcan be statedin different ways, dependingon the conventionsspecifiedby your institution.The following examplesillustrate someof thesedifferences.
54
Degreesof Freedom
Sometimesthe degreesof freedom are given in parenthesesimmediately after the
symbol representingthe test,as in this example:
(3):7.0 0 ,p<.0 1
Other times, the degreesof freedomare given within the statementof results,as in
this example:
t:7.0 0 , df :3, p < .01
SignificanceLevel
When you obtain results that are significant, they can be describedin different
ways. For example,if you obtaineda significancelevel of .006 on a t test, you
could describeit in any of the following threeways:
(3 ):7 .00,p <.05
(3 ):7 .00,p <.01
(3 ) : 7.0 0 ,p : .006
Notice that becausethe exactprobabilityis .006,both .05 and .01 are alsocorrect.
There are also variousways of describingresultsthat are not significant.For example, if you obtaineda significancelevel of .505, any of the following three statementscould be used:
t(2 ): .8 0 5 ,ns
t(2):.8 0 5 , p > .05
t(2 )=.8 0 5 ,p:.505
Statementof Results
Sometimesthe resultswill be statedin terms of the null hypothesis,as in the following example:
The null hypothesis
wasrejected1t: 7.00,df :3, p:.006).
Other times,the resultsare statedin terms of their level of significance,as in the
following example:
A statistically
significantdifferencewas found:r(3):7.00,p <.01.
StatisticalSymbols
Generally,statisticalsymbolsare presentedin italics. Prior to the widespreaduse of
computersand desktop publishing, statisticalsymbols were underlined.Underlining is a signal to a printer that the underlinedtext should be set in italics. Institutions vary on their requirementsfor student work, so you are advised to consult
your instructoraboutthis.
Section 6.2 Single-Sample I Test
Description
The single-sampleI test comparesthe mean of a single sampleto a known population mean. It is useful for determiningif the current set of data has changedfrom a long-
55
term value (e.g., comparing the curent year's temperaturesto a historical averageto determine if global wanning is occuning).
Assumptions
The distributions from which the scoresare taken should be normally distributed.
However, the t test is robust and can handleviolations of the assumptionof a normal distribution. The dependentvariable must be measuredon an interval or ratio scale.
.SP,SS
Data Format
The SPSSdata file for the single-sample
/ test requiresa single variablein SPSS.
That variablerepresentsthe set of scoresin the samplethat we will compareto the population mean.
Running the Command
The single-sample/ test is locatedin the CompareMeans submenu,under theAnalyze menu.The dialog box for the single-sample/ test requiresthat we transferthe variable
representing
the currentset ofscores ry
to the Test Variable(s) section. We i Ardvze Graphswllties Wiidnru nrb
)
Reports
must also enter the population averI Sescriplive
Stati*icr ]
age in the Test Value blank. The exMcrns.,,
ample presentedhere is testing the
General
linearModel )
variable LENGTH againsta popula- '
)
CorrElata
Indegrdant-SrmplCs
T
tion meanof 35 (this exampleusesa ' Regrossion
)
Paired-Samples
T Tert.,,
hypotheticaldata set).
)
Clasdfy
0ne-WeyANOVA,..
Readingthe Output
The output for the single-samplet test consistsof two sections.The first section
lists the samplevariable and somebasic descriptive statistics (N, mean, standard deviation, and standarderror).
56
T-Test
One-SampleS'tatistics
Mean
10
LENGTH
35.9000
Std.Enor
std.
Deviation Mean
1.1972
.3786
One-SampleTes{
TeslValue= 35
LENGTH
2.377
df
95%gsnl i 6sngg
Interual
ofthe
Difierence
Mean
sis.
(2-tailed) DitTerence Lowef
U pner
7564
.041
.9000 4.356E -02
The secondsection of output containsthe results of the t test. The example presentedhere indicatesa / value of 2.377,with 9 degreesof freedomand a significance level
of .041.The mean differenceof .9000is the differencebetweenthe sampleaverage(35.90)
and the populationaveragewe enteredin the dialog box to conductthe test (35.00).
Drawing Conclusions
The I test assumesan equality of means.Therefore, a significant result indicates
that the sample mean is not equivalentto the population mean (hence the term "significantly different"). A result that is not significantmeansthat there is not a significantdifference betweenthe means.It doesnot mean that they are equal. Refer to your statisticstext
for the sectionon failure to reject the null hypothesis.
The aboveexamplefound a significantdifferencebetweenthe populationmean and
the samplemean.Thus, we could statethe following:
A single-samplet test compared the mean length of the sample to a
populationvalue of 35.00. A significantdifferencewas found (t(9) = 2.377,
p <.05).The samplemeanof 35.90(sd: 1.197)was significantlygreater
than the population mean.
57

If the significance level
had been greaterthan .05, the differencewould not be significant.
For example,if we receivedthe
output presentedhere, we could
statethe following:
L{n-S.I|pla Sl.llsllcs
Std.Eror
tean
tempetalure
OU .OOD T
Sld Deviation
9.11013
L'|D.S.Ittte
3.03681
Tesi
TsstValue= 57.1
A single-sample / test
95% Contldsnc6
Inlsryalofthe
comparedthe mean tempOit8rsnce
llean
t
dt
Sro (2-laild) DilTernce Lowsr
UDOEI
erature over the past year
lemplatute
1 ?6667
I
688
8.2696
- 5.736 2
to the long-term average.
The difference was not significant (r(8) = .417, p > .05). The mean
temperatureover the past year was 68.67(sd = 9.1l) comparedto the longterm averageof 67.4.
Practice Exercise
The averagesalary in the U.S. is $25,000.Determine if the averagesalary of the
participantsin PracticeData Set 2 (Appendix B) is significantlygreaterthan this value.
Note that this is a one-tailedhypothesis.
Section6.3 Independent-samples
I Test
Description
The independent-samples
I test comparesthe meansof two samples.The two samples are normally from randomly assignedgroups.
Assumptions
The two groupsbeing comparedshouldbe independentof eachother. Observations
are independentwhen information about one is unrelated to the other. Normally, this
meansthat one group of participantsprovidesdata for one sampleand a different group of
participants provides data for the other sample (and individuals in one group are not
matchedwith individualsin the other group).One way to accomplishthis is throughrandom assignmentto form two groups.
The scoresshould be normally distributed,but the I test is robust and can handle
violationsof the assumptionof a normal distribution.
The dependent variable must be measuredon an interval or ratio scale.The independentvariable shouldhaveonly two discretelevels.
SP,S,S
Data Format
The SPSSdata file for the independentI test requirestwo variables.One variable,
grouping
the
variable, representsthe value of the independentvariable. The grouping
variable should have two distinct values (e.g., 0 for a control group and I for an experi-
58
mental group). The secondvariablerepresentsthe dependent variable, such as scoreson a

test.
Conducting an Independent-Samples t Test
For our example,we will use
6adrs Utltties window Heh
[n;y*
the SAMPLE.savdatafile.
Click Analyze, then Compare
Std{ic* l
Means, then Independent-SamplesT
?"est.This will bring up the main diaI
log box. Transfer the dependent
)
Can*bto
variable(s) into the Test Variable(s)
l
Regf6s$isl
t
ctaseff
blank. For our example,we will use
ls elrl
thevariableGRADL,.
Transfertheindependentvariableinto the GroupingVariablesection.For our example,we will usethevariableMORNING.
Next, click Define Groups and enter the
values of the two levels of the independent
variable. Independent t tests are capable of
comparingonly two levels at a time. Click Continue, then click OK to run the analysis.
it
dry
lim
mk
lr*iT
Outputfrom the Independent-Samples t Test

The output will have a sectionlabeled"Group Statistics."This sectionprovidesthe
basicdescriptivestatisticsfor the dependentvariable(s)for eachvalue of the independent variable. It shouldlook like the outputbelow.
Group Statistics
mornrnq
grade No
Yes
2
2
Std.Deviation
Mean
82.5000
3.53553
78.0000
7.07107
59
Std.Error
Mean
2.50000
5.00000
'1
Next, there will be a sectionwith the resultsof the I test. It should look like the
outputbelow.
lnd6pondent Samplo! Telt
Leveng's Tost for
Fdlralitv
ltest for Eoualitv of Msans
df Variencac
Sio .
graoe
Sio. (2{ailed}
df
tqual vanances
assum6d
.805
Equal variances
not assumed
.805
2
1.471
Mean
Diff6rence
Sld. Error
Ditforenc6
95% Confidenco
lntsrual of the
Diffornc6
Uooer
Lower
505
4.50000
5.59017 -19.55256 28.55256
530
4.50000
5.59017 -30.09261 39.09261
The columns labeledt, df, and Sig.(2-tailed) provide the standard"answer" for the
I test.They provide the value of t, the degreesof freedom(number of participants,minus 2,
in this case),and the significancelevel (oftencalledp). Normally, we usethe "Equal variancesassumed"row.
Drawing Conclusions
Recall from the previous section that the , test assumesan equality of means.
Therefore,a significant result indicatesthat the means are not equivalent.When drawing
conclusionsabouta I test,you must statethe directionof the difference(i.e., which mean
was larger than the other). You should also include information about the value of t, the
degreesof freedom,the significancelevel,and the meansand standard deviationsfor the
two groups.
For a significant / test (for example,the output below), you might statethe following:
6adO slil|llk!
'.do,.ilhrh!
sc0r9
0r0uD
conlfol
rDoflmontal
xan
al 0000
Sld. Odiation
a.7a25a
2osr67
Sld Eror
xaan
2 121J2
| 20185
hlapdrlra
S,uplcr lcsl
Lmno's Tsl for

l l a sl fo r Fo u e l l to o t l n a n s
95(f, Contld9n.e
Inlryalofthe
xsan
dT
Si d
sc0re
EqualvarlencSs
assumd
Equalvaiancos
nol assumgd
5 058
071
31tl
Std Error
Sio a2-laile(n
a 53l
U Jb
029
7 66667
2 70391
2 138't2
71605
I r. 6 17 2 8
I 20060
r r. r 3 2 7 3
An independent-samplesI test comparing the mean scores of the

experimental and control groups found a significant difference between the
means of the two groups ((5) = 2.835, p < .05). The mean of the
experimentalgroup was significantlylower (m = 33.333,sd:2.08) than the
meanof the control group (m: 41.000,sd : 4.24).
60
Phrasing Results That Are Not Signifcant

In our example at the start of the section,we comparedthe scoresof the morning
peopleto the scoresof the nonmorningpeople.We did not find a significant difference,so
we could statethe following:
t test was calculatedcomparingthe mean score of
An independent-samples
participantswho identified themselvesas morning people to the mean score
of participants who did not identi$ themselvesas morning people. No
significant difference was found (t(2) : .805, p > .05). The mean of the
morning people (m : 78.00,sd = 7.07) was not significantly different from
the meanof nonmomingpeople(m = 82.50,sd = 3.54).
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set I (AppendixB) to solvethis problem.We believethat young
individualshave lower mathematicsskills than older individuals.We would test this hypothesisby comparingparticipants25 or younger(the "young" group) with participants26
or older (the "old" group). Hint: You may need to createa new variable that represents
which age group they are in. SeeChapter2 for help.
/ Test
Section6.4 Paired-Samples
Description
The paired-samplesI test (also called a dependent/ test) comparesthe means of
two scoresfrom relatedsamples.For example,comparinga pretestand a posttestscorefor
I test.
a group of participantswould requirea paired-samples
Assumptions
The paired-samplesI test assumesthat both variablesare at the interval or ratio
levels and are normally distributed.The two variablesshould also be measuredwith the
samescale.If the scalesare different. the scoresshouldbe convertedto z-scoresbefore the
, testis conducted.
.SPSSData Format
Two variablesin the SPSSdata file are required.These variablesshould represent
two measurements
from eachparticipant.
Running the Command
We will createa new data file containing five variables:PRETEST, MIDTERM,
FINAL, INSTRUCT, and REQUIRED. INSTRUCT representsthree different instructors
for a course.REQUIRED representswhether the coursewas required or was an elective
(0 - elective, I : required).The other threevariablesrepresentexam scores(100 being the
highestscorepossible).
6l
PRETEST
56
79
68
59
64
t.+
t)
47
78
6l
68
64
53
7l
6l
57
49
7l
6l
58
58
MIDTERM
64
9l
77
69
77
88
85
64
98
77
86
77
67
85
79
77
65
93
83
75
74
Enter the data and save it as

GRADES.sav.You can check your
data entry by computinga mean for
each instructor using the Means
command (see Chapter 3 for more
information). Use INSTRUCT as
the independentvariable and enter
PRETEST,
MIDTERM,
ANd
FINAL as your dependent variables.
Once you have entered the
data,conducta paired-samplesI test
comparing pretest scores and final
scores.
Click Analyze, then Compare Means, then Paired-SamplesT
?nesr.This will bring up the main
dialog box.
i;vr*;
'
6r5db trl*lct
Bsi*i
l)06ctftlv.s44q
l
t
@Cdnrdur*Modd
tilkrdo|
FINAL
69
89
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7l
REQUIRED
0
0
0
INSTRUCT
I
I
I
IJ
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
86
86
69
100
85
93
87
76
95
97
89
83
100
94
92
92
0
0
0
0
0
0
J
J
J
J
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t
J
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Report
INSTRUCT
Mean
N
1.00
std.
Deviation
2.00
3.00
Total
tbb
q8-sdndo T Tart...
i c*@
i lryt'sn
i'w
62
Mean
N
std.
Deviation
Mean
N
std.
Deviation
Mean
N
std.
Deviation
PRETEST MIDTERM
67.5714 (6.t'l 4J
7
7
FINAL
79.5714
7
8.3837
9.9451
7.9552
63.1429
7
79.1429
7
86.4286
7
10.6055
11.7108
10. 9218
59.2857
7
78.0000
7
92.4286
7
6.5502
8.62',t7
5.5032
63.3333
21
78.6190
21
86. 1429
21
8.9294
9.6617
9.6348
You must select pairs of

variables to compare. As you select them, they are placed in the
Current Selections area.
Click once on PRETEST.
then once on FINAL. Both variableswill be moved into the Cnrrent Selections area.Click on the
right anow to transfer the pair to
the Paired Variablessection.Click
OK to conductthe test.
m
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Reading the Output

The output for
PairedSamplesStatistics
paired-samples
the
t test
std.
Std.Error
consists of three comMean
N
Deviation Mean
ponents. The first part
Pair PRETEST 63.3333
21
8.9294
1.9485
givesyou basicdescrip1
rtNet
86.1429
21
9.6348
2.1025
tive statistics for the
pair of variables.The PRETESTaveragewas 63.3,with a standard deviation of 8.93.The
FINAL averagewas 86.14,with a standarddeviationof 9.63.
PairedSamplesGorrelations
Correlation
N
PaIT1
PRETEST
& F IN A L
21
.535
S i o.
.013
The secondpart ofthe

output is a Pearson correlation coefficientfor the pair of
variables.
Within the third part of the output (on the next page),the sectioncalled paired Differences contains information about the differencesbetweenthe two variables.you miy
have learnedin your statisticsclassthat the paired-samples
/ test is essentiallya singlesamplet testcalculatedon the differencesbetweenthe scores.The final threecolumnscontain the value of /, the degreesof freedom,and the probability level. In the examplepresentedhere,we obtaineda I of -11.646,with 20 degreesof freedomand a significance
level of lessthan.00l. Note that this is a two-tailedsignificancelevel. Seethe startof this
chapterfor more detailson computinga one-tailedtest.
63
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
95%Confidence
Inlervalof the
srd,
Mean
Pair1
PRETEST
-22.8095
. FINAL
l)iffcrcncc
Std.Errot
Dcvirl
Lower
Maan
8.9756
sig
U D oer
1.9586 -26.8952 -18.7239
df
'|1.646
l)Jailatl\
20
.000
Drawing Conclusions
Paired-samplesI testsdeterminewhetheror not two scoresare significantly different from each other. Significant values indicate that the two scoresare different. Values
that are not significant indicatethat the scoresare not significantly different.
When statingthe resultsof a paired-samples
I test,you shouldgive the value of t,
the degreesof freedom,and the significancelevel. You should also give the mean and
standard deviation for each variable.as well as a statementof results that indicates
whetheryou conducteda one- or two-tailedtest.Our exampleabovewas significant,so we
could statethe following:
A paired-samples
I test was calculatedto comparethe mean pretestscoreto
the mean final exam score.The mean on the pretestwas 63.33 (sd : 8.93),
and the mean on the posttestwas 86.14(sd:9.63). A significantincrease
from pretestto final was found (t(20) : -ll .646,p < .001).
If the significancelevel had beengreaterthan .05 (or greaterthan .10 if you were
conductinga one-tailedtest),the resultwould not have beensignificant.For example,the
hypotheticaloutput below representsa nonsignificantdifference.For this output, we could
state:
P.l crl Sdr{ror St.rtlstkr
Sld.Etrof
x6an
Patr
1
midlsrm
nnal
r B t1a3
79.571
1
I 9.509
7 95523
P.rl c(l Sxtlro3
3 75889
3.00680
Cq I olrlqt6
ts4trI
Sl d D d a l l o n
mtdtrm&flnal
Cotrelali
96S
5 to
000
P.*od Silrlta!
Tcrl
ParredOrflerences
x s an
. 8571a
Std Oryiation
2 96808
Std.Eror
Xan
I 12183
64
95%ConidBncs
lnlsNrlotth
DilYerenca
u008r
Lmt
1 88788
tl
- 76a
Sio (2-lailad)
a7a
A paired-samples
t testwascalculatedto comparethe meanmidtermscoreto
themeanfinal examscore.Themeanon the midtermwas78.71(sd: 9.95),
difference
andthe meanon the final was79.57(sd:7.96). No significant
=
>.05).
from midtermto finalwasfound((6) -.764,p
Practice Exercise
datafile, andcomputea paired-samples
Usethe sameGRADES.sav
/ testto determineif scoresincreased
from midtermto final.
Section6.5 One-Wav ANOVA
Description
Analysisof variance(ANOVA) is a procedurethat determines
the proportionof
variabilityattributedto eachof severalcomponents.
It is oneof the mostusefulandadaptablestatistical
techniques
available.
the meansof two or moregroupsof participants
The one-wayANOVA compares
that vary on a singleindependentvariable (thus,the one-waydesignation).
When we
havethreegroups,we couldusea I testto determinedifferencesbetweengroups,but we
wouldhaveto conductthreet tests(GroupI comparedto Group2, Group I comparedto
Group3, andGroup2 compared
to Group3). Whenwe conductmultipleI tests,we inflate
the Type I error rate and increaseour chanceof drawingan inappropriate
conclusion.
gives
ANOVA compensates
multiple
comparisons
and
for these
us a singleanswerthat
tellsus if anyof thegroupsis differentfrom anyof theothergroups.
Assumptions
The one-wayANOVA requiresa singledependentvariable and a singleindependentvariable. Which groupparticipants
belongto is determinedby the valueof the
independentvariable. Groupsshouldbe independent
of eachother.If our participants
belong to more than one group each,we will have to conducta repeated-measures
ANOVA. If we havemorethanone independentvariable,we would conducta factorial
ANOVA.
ANOVA alsoassumes
thatthedependentvariableis at the intervalor ratio levis
elsand normallydistributed.
SP,S,S
Data Format
Two variablesare requiredin the SPSSdatafile. One variableservesas the dependentvariable andtheotherasthe independentvariable.Eachparticipantshouldprovideonly onescorefor thedependentvariable.
Running the Command
datafile we createdin the previous
For this example,we will usetheGRADES.sav
section.
65
To conduct a one-way ANOVA, click Analyze, then Compare Means, then One-I7ay ANOVA.
This will bring up the main dialog box for the Onelltay ANOVA command.
i An$tea &ryhr l.{lith; wr$|f

)
R;pa*tr
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DrrsFfivsft#l|'
f,'',I
xrded
f *wm
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c*"d I
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Hdp I
miqq|4^__
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fqiryt,,,l odiors"'
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l|1|J46tddg.5arylarT16t,.,
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You should place the independent variable in the Factor box. For our
example, INSTRUCT representsthree
different instructors.and it will be used
as our independentvariable.
Our dependentvariable will be
FINAL. This test will allow us to determine if the instructor has any effect
on final sradesin the course.
-rl
ToKl
pela$t
/n*Jterm
d
'cqfuda
f- Fncdrdr*dcndlscls
l* Honroga&olvairre,* j *_It
Ro"t I
c*ll
H& l
mrffi,.*-
Pqyg*-I odi"*.'.I
"?s'qt,.,l
Click on the Options box to
get the Options dialog box. Click
Descriptive. This will give you
meansfor the dependentvariable at
each level of the independentvariable. Checkingthis box preventsus
from having to run a separatemeans
command. Click Continue to return
to the main dialog box. Next, click
Post Hoc to bring up the Post Hoc
Multiple Comparisonsdialog box.
Click Tukev.then Continue.
, Eqiolvdirnccs NotfudfiEd
r TY's,T2
Sigflber!
l,?."*:,_:
t or*ol::
_l6{''6:+l.'od
h,v!t tffi-
rc"'*i.'I r"ry{-l" H* |
Post-hoctests are necessaryin the event of a significant ANOVA. The ANOVA

only indicatesif any group is different from any other group. If it is significant,we needto
determinewhich groupsare different from which other groups.We could do I teststo determine that, but we would have the sameproblem as before with inflating the Type I error rate.
There are a variety of post-hoccomparisonsthat correct for the multiple comparisons.The most widely used is Tukey's HSD. SPSSwill calculatea variety of post-hoc
testsfor you. Consult an advancedstatisticstext for a discussionof the differencesbetween
thesevarioustests.Now click OK to run the analvsis.
66
Readingthe Output
(i.e.,levelof the independDescriptivestatisticswill be givenfor eachinstructor
ent variable)andthe total.For example,in hisftrerclass,InstructorI hadan averagefinal
examscoreof 79.57.
Descriptives
final
N
UU
2.00
3.00
Total
7
7
2'l
95% ConfidenceIntervalfor
Mean
Std. Deviation Std.Enor LowerBound UooerBound Minimum Maximum
Mean
72.2',t41
6Y.UU
tiv.uu
86 9288
7.95523 3.00680
79.5714
100.00
69.00
76.3276
96.5296
1 0 .9 2180 4.12805
86.4286
100.00
83.00
87.3389
97.5182
5.50325 2.08003
92.4286
100.00
69.00
81.7572
90.5285
9.63476 2.10248
86. 1429
The next section of

the output is the ANOVA
sourcetable. This is where
579.429
the various componentsof
1277. 143
the variance have been
1856.571
listed,along with their relative sizes. For a one-way ANOVA, there are two componentsto the variance: Between
Groups (which representsthe differencesdue to our independent variable) and Within
differenceswithin eachlevel of our independentvariable). For
Groups(which represents
our example,the BetweenGroups variancerepresentsdifferencesdue to different instructors. The Within Groupsvariancerepresentsindividual differencesin students.
The primary answeris F. F is a ratio of explainedvariance to unexplainedvariance. Consult a statisticstext for more informationon how it is determined.The F has two
different degreesof freedom,one for BetweenGroups(in this case,2 is the number of levels of our independentvariable [3 - l]), and anotherfor Within Groups(18 is the number
of participantsminusthe numberof levelsof our independentvariable [2] - 3]).
The next part of the output consistsof the results of our Tukey's ^EISDpost-hoc
comparison.
This table presentsus with every possiblecombinationof levels of our independent variable. The first row representsInstructor I comparedto Instructor 2. Next is Instructor I compared to
Multlple Comparlsons
Instructor
3. Next
is In-
structor 2 compared to
Instructor l. (Note that
this is redundantwith the
first row.) Next is Instructor 2 comparedto Instructor 3, and so on.
The column labeled Sig. representsthe
Type I error (p) rate for
the simple (2-level) comparison in that row. In our
F,NAL
variabre:
Dooendenr
HS D
95% Confidence
Mean
(J)
Difference
( t)
Il-.tl
INSTRUCT INSTRUCT
1 .0 0
2.OU
.8571
3.00
2.00
-12.8571'
6.8571
1.00
3.00
3.00
-6.0000
12.8571'
6.0000
1.00
2.00
Sld. Enor
4.502
4.502
4.502
4.502
4.502
4.502
'. The mean differnceis significantat the .05 level.
67
Sia
JU4
.027
.304
.396
.027
.396
Lower
B ound
-16.J462
-24.3482
-4.6339
-17.4911
1.3661
-5.4911
Upper
R6r rn.l
4.6339
-1.3 661
18.3 482
5,49 11
24.3482
17.49 11
exampleabove,InstructorI is significantlydifferentfrom Instructor3, but InstructorI is

not significantlydifferentfrom Instructor2, andInstructor2 is not significantlydifferent
from Instructor3.
Drawing Conclusions
Drawing conclusionsfor ANOVA requiresthat we indicate the value of F, the degreesof freedom,and the significance level. A significantANOVA should be followed by
the resultsof a post-hocanalysisand a verbal statementof the results.
In our exampleabove,we could statethe following:
We computed a one-way ANOVA comparing the final exam scores of
participantswho took a course from one of three different instructors.A
significant difference was found among the instructors (F(2,18) : 4.08,
p < .05). Tukey's f/SD was usedto determinethe natureof the differences
between the instructors. This analysis revealed that students who had
InstructorI scoredlower (m:79.57, sd:7.96) than studentswho had
Instructor3 (m = 92.43,sd: 5.50).Studentswho had Instructor2 (m:86.43,
sd : 10.92) were not significantly different from either of the other two
groups.
If we had conductedthe
analysis using PRETEST as
our dependent variable instead of FINAL, we would
have received the following
output:
The ANOVA was not significant. so there is no need to refer to the Multiple Comparisons table. Given this result,
we may statethe following:
Ocrcr lriir
95$ Conlldanc0 Inloml

Sld Ddaton
200
300
Tolel
1
21
63.1r 29
592857
633333
10.605r8
7
6.5501
I 92935
Sld Eiror
LMf
4.00819
2.at5t1
I gasa
Bo u n d
tol
Uooer gound
5333r a
53 2278
592587
7? 95r 3
55 3a36
67 3979
1700
r9.00
at 0 0
All:'Vl
sumof
wrlhinOroups
Tol.l
210.667
135a.000
t 594667
t8
20
120 333
15222
1 600
229
The pretest means of students who took a course from three different
instructors were compared using a one-way ANOVA. No significant
differencewas found (F'(2,18)= 1.60,p >.05).The studentsfrom the three
different classesdid not differ significantlyat the start of the term. Students
who had Instructor I had a mean scoreof 67.57 (sd : 8.38). Studentswho
had Instructor2 had a mean scoreof 63.14(sd : 10.61).Studentswho had
lnstructor3 had a meanscoreof 59.29(sd = 6.55).
68
78 00
71 00
79 00
Practice Exercise
UsingPracticeDataSet I in AppendixB, determineif the averagemathscoresof
of
are significantlydifferent.Write a statement
single,married,and divorcedparticipants
results.
Section6.6 Factorial ANOVA
Description
The factorialANOVA is one in which thereis morethan one independentvariable.A 2 x 2 ANOVA, for example,hastwo independentvariables,eachwith two levels.A 3 x 2 x 2 ANOVA hasthreeindependentvariables.Onehasthreelevels,andthe
othertwo havetwo levels.FactorialANOVA is very powerfulbecauseit allowsus to assesstheeffectsof eachindependentvariable,plustheeffectsof the interaction.
Assumptions
of one-wayANOVA (i.e.,the
FactorialANOVA requiresall of the assumptions
ratio
or
levels
interval
at
the
and normallydistributed).In
dependentvariable mustbe
of eachother.
variablesshouldbe independent
addition,theindependent
.SPSSData Format
SPSSrequiresonevariablefor the dependentvariable,andone variablefor each
variablethatis represented
asmultiindependent
variable.If we haveanyindependent
ple variables(e.g., PRETESTand POSTTEST),we must use the repeated-measures
ANOVA.
Runningthe Command
This exampleuses the GRADES.savI Rnalyze Graphs USiUas llilindow Halp
data file from earlierin this chapter.Click AnaRepsrts
lyze, then GeneralLinear Model. then UnivariDescrbtiwStatFHcs
ate.
!!{4*,l
R{'dsr! F.dclt}
?**" I
-..fP:.J
fi*"qrJ
!t,, I
9*ll

box for Univariate ANOVA. Select the
dependent variable and place it in the
DependentVariableblank (use FINAL for
this example). Select one of your independent variables (INSTRUCT, in this
case) and place it in the Fixed Factor(s)
box. Place the secondindependent variable (REQUIRED) in the Fixed Factor(s)
box. Having defined the analysis, now click

Options.
When the Options dialog box comes up,
move INSTRUCT, REQUIRED, and INSTRUCT
x REQUIRED into the Display Means for blank.
This will provide you with means for each main
effect and interaction term. Click Continue.
If you were to selectPost-Hoc,SPSSwould
run post-hoc analysesfor the main effects but not
for the interaction term. Click OK to run the
analvsis.
Reading the Output
1 .IN S T R U C T
At the bottom of the

output, you will find the means
95oloConfidencelnterval
for each main effect and inLower
Upper
you selected with the
Bound
teraction
Error
Bound
Mean
Std.
I NS T R U C T
1 .UU
72.240
86.926
79.583
3.445
Optionscommand.
2.00
78.865
93.551
3.445
86.208
three
were
There
3.00
99.426
3.445
84.740
92.083
instructors, so there is a mean
FINAL for each instructor. We
2. REQUIRED
also have means for the two
values of REQUIRED. FinallY,
ariable:FINAL
Interval we have six means representing
95%Confidence
the interaction of the two
Upper
Lower
Rorrnd
Bound
Std.
Error
variables (this was a 3 x 2
REOUIRED Mean
,UU
91.076
78.257
3.007
84.667
design).
1.00
92.801
2.604
81.699
87.250
had
Participants who
Instructor I (for whom the class
Studentswho had Instructor I
79.67.
of
was not required) had a mean final exam score
(for whom it was required)had a mean final exam scoreof 79.50,and so on.
The example we just
3. IN S TR U C T' R E QU IR E D
ran is called a two-way
Variable:FINAL
ANOVA. This is becausewe
Interval
95%Confidence
had two independent variUpper
Lower
Bound
Bound
ables. With a two-way
INSTRUCTREQUIRED Mean Std.Error
90.768
68.565
5.208
1.00
.00
79.667
ANOVA, we get three an89. 114
69.886
4.511
1.00
79.500
swers: a main effect for
95.768
73.565
5.208
.00
84.667
2.00
INSTRUCT, a main effect
78.136
97.364
4.511
1.00
87.750
for REQUIRED, and an in100.768
78.565
5.208
.00
89.667
3.00
for
result
teraction
104.114
84.886
4.511
1.00
94.500
INSTRUCT ' REQUIRED
(seetop ofnext page).
ariable:FINAL
70
Tests of Between-SubjectsEffects
Dependent
Variable:FINAL
635.8214
5
Intercept
1s1998.893
1 151998.893 1867.691
INSTRUCT
536.357
2
268.179
3.295
REQUIRED
34.32'l
1
34.321
.422
INSTRUCT
' REQUIRED
22.071
2
11.036
.136
Error
1220.750
15
81.383
Total
157689.000
21
CorrectedTotal
1856.571
20
a. R Squared= .342(Adjusted
=
R Squared .123)
.000
.065
.526
.874
The source-table above gives us these three answers (in

the INSTRUCT,
REQUIRED, and INSTRUCT * REQUIRED rows). In the
example,none of the main effects or interactions was significant.tn the statementsof results,
you must indicate two
^F,
degreesof freedom (effect and residual/error),the significance'level,
and a verbal statement for each of the answers(three, in this case).uite
that most statisticsbooks give a
much simpler version of an ANOVA sourcetable where the
CorrectedModel, Intercept,
and CorrectedTotal rows are not included.
If we had obtainedsignificantresultsin this example,we
could statethe following
(Theseare fictitious results.For the resultsthat correspona
to the example above, please
seethe sectionon phrasingresultsthat are not significant):
A 3 (instructor) x 2 (requiredcourse)between-subjects
factorial ANOVA
was calculatedcomparingthe final exam scoresfor participants
who had one
of three instructorsand who took the courseeither as a required
courseor as
an elective. A significant main effect for instructor was found (F(2,15) :
l0.ll2,p < .05). studentswho had InstructorI had higher
final .*u- r.o16
(m = 79.57,sd:7.96) thanstudents
who had Instructor3 (m:92.43, sd:
5.50). Studentswho had Instructor2 (m : g6.43,sd :'10.92)
weie not
significantlydifferent from eitherof the other two groups.A significant
main
effect for whetheror not the coursewas requiredwas found (F(-1,15):3g.44,
p < .01)'Studentswho took the coursebecauseit was required
did better(z :
9l '69, sd : 7.68)thanstudentswho took thecourseas an electi (m :
ve
77.13,
sd:5.72). The interaction
wasnot significant(F(2,15)= l.l5,p >.05). The
effect of the instructorwas not influencedby whetheror not the
studentstook
the coursebecauseit was required.
Note that in the above exampre,we would have had to conduct
Tukey,s HSD to
determinethe differencesfor INSTRUCT (using thePost-Hoc
command).This is not nec-
7l
t Variable:FINAL
Typelll
Sumof
Source
Souares
uorrecleoMooel
635.8214
Intercept
151998.893
INSTRUCT
536.357
REQUIRED
34.321
INSTRUCT
22.071
- REQUIRED
Error
1220.750
Total
157689.000
't856.571
CorrectedTotal
Mean
Souare
df
5
1
2
1
2
1E
127.164
1.563
151998.893 1867.691
268.179
3.295
34.321
.422
11.036
.136
81.383
siq.
.230
.000
.065
.526
.874
21
20
a. R Squared= .342(AdjustedR Squared= .123)
The source table above gives us these three answers (in the INSTRUCT,
REQUIRED, and INSTRUCT * REQUIRED rows). In the example,none of the main effects or interactions was significant.In the statementsof results,you must indicatef', two
degreesof freedom (effect and residual/error),the significance level, and a verbal statement for each of the answers(three,in this case).Note that most statisticsbooks give a
much simpler versionof an ANOVA sourcetable where the CorrectedModel, Intercept,
and CorrectedTotal rows are not included.
Phrasing Results That Are Signifcant
If we had obtainedsignificantresultsin this example,we could statethe following
(Theseare fictitious results.For the resultsthat correspondto the exampleabove,please
seethe sectionon phrasingresultsthat arenot significant):
A 3 (instructor) x 2 (required course)between-subjects
factorial ANOVA
was calculatedcomparingthe final exam scoresfor participantswho had one
of three instructorsand who took the courseeither as a requiredcourseor as
an elective. A significant main effect for instructor was found (F(2,15\ :
l0.l 12,p < .05). Studentswho had InstructorI had higher final exam scores
(m : 79.57,sd : 7.96) than studentswho had Instructor3 (m : 92.43,sd :
5.50). Studentswho had Instructor 2 (m : 86.43, sd : 10.92) were not
significantlydifferent from eitherof the othertwo groups.A significantmain
effect for whetheror not the coursewas requiredwas found (F'(1,15):38.44,
p < .01). Studentswho took the coursebecauseit was requireddid better(ln :
91.69,sd:7.68) thanstudentswho took the courseas an elective(m:77.13,
sd : 5.72).The interactionwas not significant(,F(2,15): I . 15,p > .05).The
effect of the instructorwas not influencedby whetheror not the studentstook
the coursebecauseit was required.
Note that in the above example,we would have had to conduct Tukey's HSD to
determinethe differencesfor INSTRUCT (using the Post-Hoc command).This is not nec-
71
Chapter6 Parametriclnferential Statistics
essaryfor REQUIREDbecauseit hasonly two levels(andonemustbe differentfrom the

other).
Our actualresultswerenot significant,sowe canstatethe following:
factorial ANOVA
A 3 (instructor)x 2 (requiredcourse)between-subjects
who hadone
participants
wascalculatedcomparingthe final examscoresfor
of threeinstructorsand who took the courseas a requiredcourseor as an
elective.The maineffectfor instructorwasnot significant(F(2,15): 3.30,p
> .05).The maineffectfor whetheror not it wasa requiredcoursewasalso
wasalsonot
(F(1,15)= .42,p > .05).Finally,the interaction
not significant
=
significant(F(2,15) .136,p > .05). Thus, it appearsthat neitherthe
instructornor whetheror not thecourseis requiredhasany significanteffect
on finalexamscores.
Practice Exercise
Using PracticeDataSet 2 in AppendixB, determineif salariesare influencedby
Write a stateor an interactionbetweensexandjob classification.
sex,job classification,
mentof results.
ANOVA
Section6.7 Repeated-Measures
Description
ANOVA extendsthe basicANOVA procedureto a withinRepeated-measures
providedatafor morethanonelevelof
subjectsindependentvariable (whenparticipants
/ test when more thantwo
an independentvariable).It functionslike a paired-samples
levelsarebeingcompared.
Assumptions
on an interThe dependentvariableshouldbe normallydistributedandmeasured
of the dependentvariable shouldbe from the
val or ratio scale.Multiple measurements
same(or related)participants.
Data Format
SP,S^S
At leastthreevariablesarerequired.Eachvariablein the SPSSdatafile shouldrepvariable'Thus,an
resenta singledependentvariableat a singlelevelof theindependent
analysisof a designwith four levelsof an independentvariable would requirefour variablesin the SPSSdatafile.
ANOVA
effect,usethe Mixed-Design
a between-subjects
If any variablerepresents
commandinstead.
72
Runningthe Command
sample
ThisexampleusestheGRADES.sav
three
includes
data set. Recall that GRADES.sav
sets of grades-PRETEST, MIDTERM, and
threedifferenttimesduring '@
FINAL-that represent
This allowsus to analyzethe effects t{!idf-!de
the semester.
of time on the test performanceof our sample f,txrd*r
gp{|ssriori
population(hencethe within-groupscomparison). tSoar
Click Analyze,then GeneralLinear Model, then
r
)
!8*vxido"'
$.dryrigp,,,
garlrr! Cffiporur&'..
RepeatedMeasures.
Note that this procedure requires an optional module. If you do not have this
command, you do not have the proper module installed. This procedure is NOT included
in the student version o/SPSS.
After selectingthe command, you will be
W,;,
-xl presented with the Repeated Measures Define
Factor
Nanc ffi*
,,.,. I Factor(s)dialog box. This is where you identify the
Ui**tSubioct
qllcv6ls:
Nr,nrbar
l3*
B"*, I within-subjectfactor (we will call it TIME). Enter 3
cr,ca I for the numberof levels (threeexams) and click Add.
Now click Define. If we had more than one
Hsl
independent variable that had repeatedmeasures,
we could enter its name and click Add.
You will be presentedwith the Repeated
Mea*lxaNsre: I
Measures dialog box. Transfer PRETEST,
MIDTERM, and FINAL to the lhthin-Subjects
Variables section. The variable names should be
orderedaccordingto when they occurredin time (i.e.,
tl
the values of the independent variable that they
represent).
--J
l'or I
-Ff? l
I
-9v1"
h{lruc{
-ssl
U"a* | cro,r"*.I
nq... I pagoq..I S""a.. I geb*.. I
Click Options,and SPSSwill computethe meansfor the TIME effect (seeone-way

ANOVA for more detailsabouthow to do this). Click OK to run the command.
/J
Readingthe Output
This procedureusesthe GLM command. fil sesso,.rtput
Model
GLM standsfor "GeneralLinearModel." It is a H &[ GeneralLinear
Title
very powerful command,and many sectionsof
Notes
outputarebeyondthe scopeofthis text (seeoutWlthin-Subject
s Factors
put outlineat right). But for the basicrepeatedMultivariate
Tests
measures
ANOVA, we are interested
only in the
Mauchly'sTes{ol Sphericity
Testsol Wthin-SubjectsEflecls
Testsof l{ithin-SubjectsEffects. Note that the
Contrasts
Tesisol \ /lthin-Subjects
SPSSoutputwill includemanyothersectionsof
Tests
ol
Between-Subjects
Ellec{s
output,whichyou canignoreat thispoint.
Tests of WrllrilFstil)iects Effecls
Measure:
MEASURE
1
TypelllSum
ofSouares
time
Sphericity
Assumed
5673.746
Gre e n h o u s e -Ge
i s se r
5673.746
Huynh-Feldt
5673.746
Lower-bound
5673.746
Error(time)SphericityAssumed
930.921
Greenhouse-Geisser 930.921
Huynh-Feldt
930.921
Lower-bound
930.921
Source
df
2
1.211
1.247
1.000
40
24.218
24.939
20.000
MeanSouare
2836.873
4685.594
4550.168
5673.746
23.273
38.439
37.328
46.546
F
121.895
121.895
121.895
121.895
Siq.
000
000
000
000
The TPesls
of l{ithin-SubjectsEffectsoutput shouldlook very similar to the output
from the otherANOVA commands.
In the aboveexample,the effect of TIME has an F
value of 121.90with 2 and 40 degreesof freedom(we use the line for SphericityAssumed).It is significantat less than the .001 level. When describingtheseresults,we
shouldindicatethetypeof test,F value,degrees
of freedom,andsignificancelevel.
Phrasing ResultsThatAre Significant
Because
the ANOVA resultsweresignificant,we needto do somesortof post-hoc
analysis.One of the main limitationsof SPSSis the difficulty in performingpost-hoc
analysesfor within-subjects
factors.With SPSS,the easiestsolutionto this problemis to
protected
conduct
dependentt testswith repeated-measures
ANOVA. Thereare more
powerful(andmoreappropriate)
post-hocanalyses,
but SPSSwill not computethem for
us.For moreinformation,consultyour instructoror a moreadvanced
statisticstext.
To conductthe protectedt tests,we will comparePRETESTto MIDTERM,
MIDTERM to FINAL, andPRETESTto FINAL, usingpaired-samples
we
I tests.Because
areconductingthreetestsand,therefore,inflatingour Type I error rate,we will usea significancelevelof .017(.05/3)instead
of .05.
74
Paired Samples Test
Mean
Yatr 1
PairedDifferences
950/o
Confidence
Intervalof the
l)ifferance
Std.Error
std.
Dcvietior
Lower
UoDer
Mean
sig
{2-tailed)
df
l,KE I E5 |
-15.2857
3 .9 6 41
.8650
-17.0902 - 1 3 . 4 8 1 3
-'t7.670
20
.000
M IDT ERM
Pai 2
PRETEST
. F INAL
-22.8095
8.97s6
1 . 9 5 8 6 -26.8952
-18.7239
-11.646
20
.000
P a i r3
M IDT ERM
. F INAL
-7.5238
6.5850
1 . 4 3 7 0 - 1 0 . 5 231
4.5264
-5.236
20
.000
The three comparisonseachhad a significancelevel of less than.017, so we can

concludethat the scoresimproved from pretestto midterm and again from midterm to final. To generatethe descriptive statistics, we have to run the Descriptivescommand for
eachvariable.
Becausethe resultsof our exampleabovewere significant,we could statethe following:
A one-way repeated-measures
ANOVA was calculatedcomparingthe exam
scoresof participantsat three different times: pretest,midterm, and final. A
significant effect was found (F(2,40) : 121.90,p < .001). Follow-up
protectedI testsrevealedthat scoresincreasedsignificantlyfrom pretest(rn :
63.33,sd: 8.93)to midterm(m:78.62, sd:9.66), andagainfrom midterm
to final (m = 86.14,sd:9.63).
With resultsthat are not significant,we could statethe following (the F valueshere
havebeenmadeup for purposesof illustration):
ANOVA was calculatedcomparingthe exam
A one-way repeated-measures
scoresof participantsat threedifferent times: pretest,midterm, and final. No
significant effect was found (F(2,40) = 1.90, p > .05). No significant
differenceexistsamongpretest(m: 63.33,sd = 8.93),midterm(m:78.62,
sd:9.66), andfinal(m:86.14, sd: 9.63)means.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 3 in Appendix B. Determine if the anxiety level of participants changedover time (regardlessof which treatmentthey received) using a one-way
repeated-measures
ANOVA and protecteddependentI tests.Write a statementof results.
Section 6.8 Mixed-Design ANOVA
Description
The mixed-designANOVA (sometimescalled a split-plot design) teststhe effects
of more than one independentvariable. At leastone of the independentvariables must
75
be within-subjects(repeatedmeasures).
At leastone of the independentvariables must be
between-subjects.
Assumptions
The dependent variable shouldbe normally distributedand measuredon an interval or ratio scale.
SPSS Data Format
The dependent variable shouldbe representedas one variable for each level of the
within-subjectsindependentvariables.Anothervariableshouldbe presentin the datafile
for each between-subjectsvariable. Thus, a 2 x 2 mixed-designANOVA would require
three variables,two representingthe dependent variable (one at each level), and one representingthe between-subjects
independentvariable.
Running the Command
The GeneralLinear Model commandruns
the Mixed-Design ANOVA command. Click Analyze, then General Linear Model, then Repeated
Measures. Note that this procedure requires an
optional module. If you do not have this command, you do not have the proper module installed. This procedure is NOT included in the
st u dent versi on o/,SPSS.
lAnqtr:l g{hs Udear Add-gnr Uhdorn

Rqprto
r oitc|hfiy. $rtBtlca
i T.d*t
Cocpa''UF46
ilrGdtilod6b
iifr.{*r
&rfcrgon
tAdhraf
}
l
i
The RepeatedMeasures command

shouldbe used if any of the independent
gfitsrf*|drvdbbht
IK
variables are repeatedmeasures(withinter I
subjects).
s*i I
This example also uses the
t*.,
GRADES.sav data file. Enter PRETEST,
34 1
MIDTERM, and FINAL in the lhthinSubjects Variables block. (See the
RepeatedMeasuresANOVA command in
Section 6.7 for an explanation.) This
exampleis a 3 x 3 mixed-design.There
are two independent variables (TIME
and INSTRUCT), each with three levels.
Uoo*..I cotrl... I 8q... I Podg*. I Sm.. | 8e4.. I
We previously enteredthe information for
TIME in the RepeatedMeasures Define
Factorsdialog box.
We needto transferINSTRUCT into the Between-Subjects
Factor(s) block.
Click Options and selectmeansfor all of the main effectsand the interaction (see
one-way ANOVA in Section6.5 for more details about how to do this). Click OK to run
the command.
mT-
76
Readingthe Output
measures
command,the GLM procedureprovidesa
As with the standardrepeated
ANOVA, we are interestedin two secwe
will
For
mixed-design
lot of output
not use.
a
Effects.
tions.The first is Testsof Within-Subjects
Tests ot Wrtlrilr-SuuectsEflects
M eas u re :
Typelll Sum
of Squares
sphericity
Assumed
6
5673.74
Gre e n h o u s e -Ge i s s el 5673.746
Huynh-Feldt
6
5673.74
Lower-bound
6
5673.74
time' instruct Sphericily
Assumed
806.063
0 re e n h o u s e -Ge i s s e r 806.063
Huynh-Feldt
3
806.06
Lower-bound
806.063
Erro(time)
Sphericity
Assumed
124857
Gre e n h o u sGe
e- isser
124.857
Huynh-Feldt
124.857
Lower-bound
124.857
S our c e
time
df
1.181
1.356
1.000
4
2.363
2.f' t2
2.000
36
21.265
24.41'.|
18.000
MeanS ouare
2836.873
4802.586
4' t83.583
5673.746
201.516
341.149
297.179
403.032
3.468
5.871
5.115
6.S37
817.954
817.954
817.954
817.954
58.103
58.103
58.103
58.103
sis
000
000
000
000
.000
.000
.000
.000
This sectiongives two of the threeanswerswe need (the main effect for TIME and
the interactionresult for TIME x INSTRUCTOR). The secondsectionof output is Testsof
Between-subjectsEffects (sample output is below). Here, we get the answersthat do not
contain any within-subjects effects. For our example, we get the main effect for
INSTRUCT. Both of thesesectionsmust be combinedto oroduce the full answer for our
analysis.
Eltecls
Testsot Betryeen-Sill)iects
Me a s u re
M:EA SU R1E
ransformed
Variable:
Typelll Sum
S o u rc e
of Squares
Intercepl 3 6 4 19 2 .0 6 3
inslrucl
18 .6 9 8
En o r
43 6 8 .5 7 1
df
I
2
18
F
MeanS ouare
364192.063 1500.595
9.349
.039
242.6S 8
Siq.
.000
.962
If we obtain significant effects, we must perform some sort of post-hoc analysis.

Again, this is one of the limitations of SPSS.No easyway to perform the appropriatepost(within-subjects)factors is available. Ask your instructor
hoc test for repeated-measures
for assistance
with this.
When describingthe results,you should include F, the degreesof freedom,and the
significancelevel for eachmain effect and interaction.In addition,somedescriptivestatistics must be included(eithergive meansor includea figure).
There are three answers(at least) for all mixed-designANOVAs. Pleasesee Section 6.6 on factorial ANOVA for more detailsabouthow to interpretand phrasethe results.
77
For the aboveexample,we could statethe following in the resultssection(note that this
assumesthat appropriatepost-hoctestshave beenconducted):
A 3 x 3 mixed-designANOVA was calculatedto examinethe effectsof the
instructor(Instructors1,2, and,3)and time (pretest,midterm, and final) on
scores.A significant time x instructor interactionwas present(F(4,36) =
58.10, p <.001). In addition,the main effect for time was significant
(F(2,36): 817.95,p < .001). The main effect for instructor was not
significant(F(2,18): .039,p > .05).Upon examinationof the data,it appears
that Instructor3 showedthe most improvementin scoresover time.
With significant interactions, it is often helpful to provide a graph with the descriptive statistics.By selectingthe Plotsoption in the main dialog box, you can make
graphsof the interaction like the one below. Interactionsadd considerable
complexityto
the interpretationof statisticalresults.Consult a researchmethodstext or ask your instructor for more help with interactions.
ilme
E@rdAs
I, I lffi---_
sw&t.tc
f Crtt"-l
-l
cd.r_J
s.Cr&Plob:
L:J r---r
-3
x
E
i
I
-==-
-z
o0
ia
E
, ,,,:;',,1.
"l ","11::::J
I
!
-gr!
I
E
t
UT
2(Il
inrt?uct
Phrasing Results That Are Not SigniJicant

If our resultshad not beensignificant,we could statethe following (note that the .F
valuesare fictitious):
A 3 x 3 mixed-designANOVA was calculatedto examinethe effectsof the
instructor(lnstructors1,2, and 3) and time (pretest,midterm, and final) on
scores.No significant main effects or interactionswere found. The time x
instructor interaction(F(4,36) = 1.10,p > .05), the main effect for time
(F(2,36)= I .95,p > .05),andthe main effectfor instructor(F(2,18): .039,p
> .05) were all not significant.Exam scoreswere not influencedby either
time or instructor.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 3 in AppendixB. Determineif anxiety levels changedover
time for each of the treatment(CONDITION) types. How did time changeanxiety levels
for eachtreatment?Write a statementof results.
78
Section6.9 Analysisof Covariance

Description
Analysis of covariance(ANCOVA) allows you to remove the effect of a known
covariate. In this way, it becomesa statisticalmethod of control. With methodological
controls (e.g., random assignment),internal validity is gained.When such methodological controlsare not possible,statisticalcontrolscan be used.
ANCOVA can be performed by using the GLM command if you have repeatedmeasuresfactors. Becausethe GLM commandis not included in the Base Statisticsmodule, it is not includedhere.
Assumptions
ANCOVA requiresthatthe covariatebe significantlycorrelatedwith the dependent variable.The dependentvariableandthecovariateshouldbe at theinterval or ratio
levels.In addition.bothshouldbe normallydistributed.
SPS,SData Format
The SPSSdatafile mustcontainonevariablefor eachindependentvariable,one
variablerepresenting
thedependentvariable,andat leastonecovariate.
Running the Command
The Factorial ANOVA commandis tsr.b"" GrqphrUUnbr,wrndowl.lab
usedto run ANCOVA. To run it, click AnaReports
lyze, then General Linear Model, then UniDascrl$lveSt$stks
variate. Follow the directionsdiscussedfor
factorial ANOVA, using the HEIGHT.sav
sampledata file. Placethe variableHEIGHT
as your DependentVariable.Enter SEX as
your Fixed Factor, then WEIGHT as the CoDogrdrfvdirt{c
variate.This last stepdeterminesthe differt{od.L. I
l-.:-r
[7mencebetweenregularfactorialANOVA and
c**-1
ANCOVA. Click OK to run theANCOVA.
llr,.. I
|'rii l.ri
till
Crd{'r.t{r}
td
f-;-'l wlswc0't
l '|ffi
j.*.1,q*J*lgl
79
*l*:" I
q&,, I
Reading the Output

The outputconsistsof onemain sourcetable(shownbelow).This tablegivesyou
the main effects and interactionsyou would have receivedwith a normal factorial
ANOVA. In addition,thereis a row for eachcovariate.In our example,we haveonemain
effect(SEX)andonecovariate(WEIGHT).Normally,we examinethe covariateline only
to confirmthatthecovariateis significantlyrelatedto thedependentvariable.
Drawing Conclusions
This sampleanalysiswas performedto determineif malesand femalesdiffer in
height,afterweightis accounted
for. We knowthatweightis relatedto height.Ratherthan
matchparticipants
or usemethodological
controls,we canstatisticallyremovethe effectof
weight.
When giving the resultsof ANCOVA, we must give F, degreesof freedom,and
significancelevelsfor all main effects,interactions,and covariates.If main effectsor
interactions are significant,post-hoctests must be conducted.Descriptive statistics
(meanandstandarddeviation)for eachlevelof theindependentvariable shouldalsobe
given.
Va ri a b l e :H EIGH T
Typelll
Sumof
Mean
Source
S orrare
Souares
df
9orrecreoMooel
215.0274
1U /.D 'tJ
2
lntercept
5.580
I
5.580
WEIGHT
1 1 9.964
1't9.964
1
SEX
66.367
66.367
1
Error
1 3.91
1
13
1.070
Total
7 1 9 1 9.000
16
CorrectedTotal
228.938
15
a. R Squared= .939(AdjustedR Squared= .930)
100.476
5.215
112.112
62.023
Siq.
.000
.040
.000
.000
Theaboveexample
obtained
a significant
result,sowecouldstatethefollowing:
A one-waybetween-subjects
ANCOVA wascalculatedto examinethe effect
of sexon height,covaryingout theeffectof weight.Weightwassignificantly
relatedto height(F(1,13): ll2.ll,p <.001). The maineffectfor sexwas
significant
(F(1,13): 62.02,p< .001),with malessignificantl!taler (rn:
69.38,sd:3.70) thanfemales
(m = 64.50,
sd = 2.33\.
If the covariateis not significant,we needto repeatthe analysiswithoutincluding
thecovariate(i.e.,run a norrnalANOVA).
For ANCOVA resultsthat are not significant,you could statethe following (note
thattheF valuesaremadeup for thisexample):
80
ANCOVA was calculatedto examinethe effect

A one-waybetween-subjects
of sex on height,covaryingout the effect of weight. Weight was significantly
relatedto height(F(1,13)= ll2.ll, p <.001). The main effectfor sexwas not
significant(F'(1,13)= 2.02,p > .05),with malesnot beingsignificantlytaller
(m : 69.38, sd : 3.70) than females (m : 64.50, sd : 2.33\, even after
covaryingout the effect of weight.
Practice Exercise
Using Practice Data Set 2 in Appendix B, determine if salariesare different for
males and females.Repeatthe analysis,statisticallycontrolling for years of service.Write
a statementof resultsfor each.Compareand contrastyour two answers.
Section6.10 MultivariateAnalysisof Variance(MANOVA)

Description
Multivariatetestsare thosethat involve more than one dependentvariable. While
it is possible to conduct severalunivariatetests (one for each dependent variable), this
causesType I error inflation.Multivariatetestslook at all dependentvariables at once,
in much the sameway that ANOVA looks at all levels of an independent variable at
once.
Assumptions
MANOVA assumesthat you havemultipledependentvariables that are relatedto
each other. Each dependent variable should be normally distributedand measuredon an
interval or ratio scale.
SPSS Data Format
The SPSSdatafile shouldhavea variablefor eachdependentvariable. One addiindependent variable. It is also postional variable is required for eachbetween-subjects
MANOVA and a repeated-measures
sible to do a MANCOVA, a repeated-measures
additional
variablesin the data file.
MANCOVA as well. Theseextensionsrequire
Running the Command
Note that this procedure requires an optional module. If you do not have this
command, you do not have the proper module installed. This procedure is NOT included
in the student version o/SPSS.
The following data representSAT and GRE scoresfor 18 participants.Six participants receivedno specialtraining, six receivedshort-termtraining before taking the tests,
and six receivedlong-term training. GROUP is coded0 : no training, I = short-term,2 =
lons-term.Enter the dataand savethem as SAT.sav.
8l
Chapter6 Parametriclnferential Statistics
SAT
580
520
500
410
650
480
500
640
500
500
580
490
520
620
550
500
540
600
GRE
600
520
510
400
630
480
490
650
480
510
570
500
520
630
560
510
560
600
GROUP
0
0
0
0
0
0
I
I
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
2
gaphs t$ltt6t Ad$tfrs

Locate the Multivariate commandby ffi;
I
RrW
clickingAnalyze,thenGeneralLinearModel,
)
: , Wq$nv*st*rus
thenMultivariate.
t
i ,1$lie
(onddc
Bsrysrsn
Lgdrcs
)
)
)
,
WNry
Iqkrcc cocporpntr'.,

box. Enter the dependentvariables (GRE
and SAT, in this case)in theDependentVariables blank. Enter the independent variable(s)(GROUP,in this case)in the Fixed
Factor(s)blank. Click OK to run the command.
Readingthe Output
We are interested
in two primarysectionsof output.The first onegivesthe results
of the multivariatetests.The sectionlabeledGROUPis the one we want. This tells us
whetherGROUPhadan effecton anyof our dependentvariables.Fourdifferenttypesof
multivariatetestresultsaregiven.The mostwidely usedis Wilks'Lambda.Thus,the answerfor theMANOVA is a Lambdaof .828,with 4 and28 degrees
of freedom.Thatvalue
is not significant.
82
hIIltiv.T i.ile Teslsc

Efiecl
Value
F
Hypothesis
df
Enordf
sis.
Intercept Pillai'sTrace
87.
.988 569.1
2.000
4.000
000
Wilks'Lambda
.012 569.1
97.
2.000
4.000
000
Hotelling's
Trace
81.312 569.187:
2.000
4.000
000
Roy'sLargestRoot
81.31
2
569.1
87!
2.000
4.000
000
group
Pillai's
Trace
1t4
.713
4.000
30.000
590
Wilks'Lambda
828
.693:
1.000
28.000
603
Holelling's
Trace
.669
206
4.000
26.000
619
't.469b
Roy'sLargestRool
196
2.000
15.000
261
a. Exactstatistic
b. Theslatistic
is an upperbound
onFthatyields
a lowerbound
onthesignificance
level.
c. Design:
Intercept+group
The secondsectionof output we want gives the resultsof the univariatetests

(ANOVAs)for eachdependentvariable.
Tests ot BelweerFs[l)iectsEflects
Typelll Sum
S our c e
Dependen
Vta ri a b l e of Squares
df
ConecledModel sat
3077.778'
2
gre
5200.000b
2
Intercept
sat
5 2 05688.889
1
gre
5 2 48800.000
1
group
sat
307t.t78
2
gre
5200.000
I
Enor
sal
64033.333
15
gre
66400.000
15
Total
sat
5272800.000
18
g te
5320400.000
18
4'
Corrected
Total sat
ta
67111.111
qre
71600.000
17
a. R S qu a re=d .0 4 6(A d j u s teRd S q u a re=d -.081)
Mean
Suuare
F
1538.889
.360
2600.000
.587
5205688.889 1219.448
5248800.000 1185.723
1538.889
.360
2600.000
.597
4268.889
4426.667
Sio.
.703
.568
.000
.000
.703
.568
b. R S qu a re d = .0 7(Ad
3 j u s teRdSq u a re d=051)
-
Drawing Conclusions
We interpretthe resultsof the univariatetestsonly if the group Wilks'Lambdais
significant.Our resultsare not significant,but we will first considerhow to interpretresultsthataresignificant.
83

If we had received
the following output instead,
we would have had a
significant MANOVA, and
we could statethe following:
llldbl.Ielrc
Ertscl
Inlercepl PillaIsTrace
Wilks'Lambda
Holsllln0's
Tcs
RoYsLargsslRoot
group
piilai's Trec
Wllks'Lambda
value
d]
.989
.0tI
91.912
91.912
.579
.123
HolellingbTrace
613.592.
6a3.592.
6t3.592.
613.592.
1 n{o
Frr6t
2.000
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dl
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28.000
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Roy's Largsst Rool

t .350
a Exatlslalistic
b. Thestaustic
is an uppsrboundon F halyisldsa lffisr boundonthesiqnitcancB
lml
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c. Desi0n:
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4281.11 ',l
1561.,|'rr
l7
A one-wayMANOVA wascalculated
examiningthe effectof training(none,
short-term,
long-term)on MZand GREscores.A significanteffectwasfound
= ,423,p: .014).Follow-upunivariateANOVAs indicated
(Lambda(4,28)
thatSATscoresweresignificantlyimprovedby training(F(2,15): 7.250,p :
.006).GRE scoreswere also significantlyimprovedby training(F(2,15):
9'465,P = '002).
Phrasing ResultsThat Are Not Significant
The actualexamplepresented
wasnot significant.Therefore,
we couldstatethefollowingin theresultssection:
A one-wayMANOVA wascalculated
examiningtheeffectof training(none,
short-term,or long-term)on SIZ andGREscores.No significanteffect was
= .828,p > .05).NeitherSAT nor GRE scoreswere
found (Lambda(4,28)
significantlyinfluenced
by training.
84
Chapter7
NonparametricInferentialStatistics
procedure
is inapparametric
testsareusedwhenthecorresponding
Nonparametric
propriate.Normally,this is becausethe dependentvariable is not interval- or ratioscaled.It can alsobe becausethe dependentvariable is not normallydistributed.If the
statisticsmayalsobe appropriate.
dataof interestarefrequencycounts,nonparametric
Section7.1 Chi-square Goodnessof Fit
Description
whetheror not sampleproportions
of fit testdetermines
The chi-squaregoodness
values.For example,it couldbe usedto determineif a die is "loaded"
matchthe theoretical
It
be
or fair. couldalso usedto comparethe proportionof childrenborn with birth defects
has a statistically
to the populationvalue (e.g.,to determineif a certainneighborhood
rateof birth defects).
higher{han-normal
Assumptions
aboutthe shape
Thereareno assumptions
We needto makevery few assumptions.
for eachcategoryshouldbe at leastl, andno
of the distribution.The expectedfrequencies
of lessthan5.
shouldhaveexpectedfrequencies
morethan20%o
of thecategories
Data Format
SP,S,S
onlya singlevariable.
SPSSrequires
Runningthe Command
We will createthe following dataset and call it COINS.sav.The following data
represent
theflippingof eachof two coins20 times(H is codedasheads,T astails).
C o i NI: H T H H T H H T H HHTTTHTHTTH
C O i N 2:T T H H T H T H TTHHTH HTHTHH
Namethe two variablesCOINI andCOIN2,andcodeH as I andT as 2. The data
file thatyou createwill have20 rowsof dataandtwo columns,calledCOINI andCOIN2.
85
Chapter7 NonparametricInferentialStatistics
To run the Chi-Square comman{

)
click Analyze,then Nonparametric Tests, ,le*l 1-l RePsts
I
Dascri*hrcststistict
then Chi-Square. This will bring up the :Y,:f
l
Cdmec lihnt
main dialog box for the Chi-SquareTest.
t
6nsrdlhcir$,lo*l
t
Csrd*c
Transfer the variable COINI into
,
RiErcrskn
the Test Variable List. A "fair" coin has
I
d.$dfy
an equal chance of coming up heads or
,
O*ERadwllon
t
ft.k
tails. Therefore, we will leave the E'"r@tkfta 5*b,
pected Values setto All categories equal.
)
We could test a specific set of
}
Qudry{onbd
ROCCt vi,,.
proportions by entering the relative freTail
quencies in the Expected Values area.
Click OK to run the analysis.
Haad
i***- xeio'
akrdoprdc* 5unphg.,.
KMgerdant Sffrpbs,,,
2Rddldtudcs",,
KRd*ad Ssrpbs,,.
.r...X
pKl
n3nI
iryd I
3Ll
'
i E$cOrURutClc
6
Garrna*c
;
r (. Usarp.dirdrarr0o
l
:
i
: . i) iir ' l
i r t , t , i, t
Reading the Output

The output consistsof two sections. The first sectiongives the frequencies (observed1f) of each value of the
variable. The expectedvalue is given,
along with the differenceof the observed
from the expectedvalue (called the residual).In our example,with 20 flips of a
coin, we shouldget l0 of eachvalue.
cotNl
Head
Tail
Total
Observed Expected
Residual
N
N
1. 0
11
10.0
10.0
9
-1. 0
20
The second section of the

output gives the resultsof the chisquaretest.
Test Statistics
coinl
unt-uquareo
df
.200
Asymp. Sig.
.655
a. 0 cells(.0%)haveexpected
frequencies
lessthan
5. The minimumexpected
cellfrequency
is 10.0.
86
Drawing Conclusions
A significantchi-square
testindicatesthat the datavary from the expected
values.
A testthatis not significaniindicatesthatthedata
areconsistent
with theexpectedvalues.
Phrasing ResultsThat Are Significant
In describingtheresults,you shouldstatethe v.alue
of chi-square
(whosesymbolis
the
1'1' degrees.of
dt.aot, it.'rignin.ance level,anaa description
of
the
results.For example'with a significantchi-square
(for,a sample'different
from the exampleabove,such
asif we haduseda "loaded"die),we courdstati
the foilowing:
A chi-square
goodness
of fit testwascalculated
comparingthe frequencyof
occurrence
of eachvalueof a die.It washypothesized
thateachvaluewould
occuran equalnumberof times.Significanideviation
nor trtr rtypothesized
valueswasfoundfXlSl :25.4g,p i.OS).Thedie
appears
to be.,loaded.,,
Notethatthisexampleuseshypothetical
values.
Phrasing ResultsThatAre NotSignificant
If the analysisproducesno significantdifference,
as in the previousexample,we
couldstatethefollowing:
A chi-square
goodness
of fit testwascalculated
comparingthe frequencyof
occulrence
of headsandtailson a coin.It washypothesized
would occur an equalnumberof times.No significant thateachvalue
deviationfrom the
hypothesized
valueswasfound(xre): .20,p rlOsl. The coin
apfearsto be
fair.
Practice Exercise
Use Practice Data Set 2 in Appendix B. In the entire population from which the
sample was drawn , 20yo of employees are clerical, 50Yo are technical, and 30%oare profes-
sional.Determinewhetheror not thesampledrawnconformsto thesevalues.HINT: Enter

therelative proportionsof thethreesamplesin order(20, 50, 30) in the"ExpectedValues"
afea.
Section 7.2 Chi-Square Test of Independence

Description
The chi-squaretest of independencetests whether or not two variables are independent of each other. For example, flips of a coin should be independent events, so
knowing the outcome of one coin toss should not tell us anything about the secondcoin
toss.The chi-squaretest of independenceis essentiallya nonparametricversion of the interaction term in ANOVA.
87
Drawing Conclusions
A significant chi-squaretest indicatesthat the data vary from the expectedvalues.
A test that is not significantindicatesthat the dataare consistentwith the expectedvalues.
Phrosing Results That Are Significant
In describingthe results,you shouldstatethe value of chi-square(whosesymbolis
th"
degreesof freedom,the significance level, and a descriptionof the results.For ex1t;,
ample, with a significant chi-square(for a sampledifferent from the example above,such
as if we had useda "loaded"die), we could statethe following:
A chi-squaregoodnessof fit test was calculatedcomparingthe frequencyof
occunenceof eachvalue of a die. It was hypothesizedthat eachvalue would
occur an equal numberof times. Significantdeviationfrom the hypothesized
< .05).The die appearsto be "loaded."
valueswas foundC6:25.48,p
Note that this exampleuseshypotheticalvalues.
If the analysisproducesno significantdifference,as in the previousexample,we
could statethe following:
A chi-squaregoodnessof fit test was calculatedcomparingthe frequencyof
occurrenceof headsand tails on a coin. It was hypothesizedthat eachvalue
would occur an equal number of times. No significant deviation from the
hypothesized
valueswas found (tttl:
.20,p > .05).The coin appearsto be
fair.
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in Appendix B. In the entire populationfrom which the
samplewas drawn, 20o of employeesare clerical, 50Yoaretechnical, and30o/oare professional. Determinewhetheror not the sampledrawn conformsto thesevalues.HINT: Enter
the relativeproportionsof the threesamplesin order(20, 50,30) in the "ExpectedValues"
area.
Section7.2 Chi-SquareTestof Independence

Description
The chi-squaretest of independencetests whether or not two variables are independentof each other. For example,flips of a coin should be independent events, so
knowing the outcome of one coin toss should not tell us anything about the secondcoin
toss.The chi-squaretest of independenceis essentiallya nonparametricversion of the interaction term in ANOVA.
87
Assumptions
Very few assumptionsare needed.For example,we make no assumptionsaboutthe
shapeof the distribution. The expectedfrequenciesfor each categoryshould be at least l,
and no more than 20o/oof the categoriesshouldhave expectedfrequenciesof lessthan 5.
Data Format
.SP,SS
At leasttwo variablesare required.
Running the Command
The chi-square test of independenceis a llfr}1,* qrg" l.[fltias llllnds* Heb
component of the Crosstabscommand. For more
Rpports
fraqrerrhs,,,
details, see the section in Chapter 3 on frequency
l&nllt
Compali
distributionsfor more than one variable.
This exampleusesthe COINS.savexample. ' 6nn*rEll."f,rsarMMd
ConeJat*
COINI is placed in the Row(s) blank, and COIN2
R*lo;,.
Reqn*e$uh
is placedin the Column(s)blank.
P+ P{att,,.
Clarsfy
.
OaioRrductlon
Scala
*QPlotr,.,
*:51
.!rd I
siJ
H'b I
Click Statistics.then check the Chi- p&ffi

square box. Click Continue. You may also , x\iref CedilgacycodlU*r
want to click Cel/s to select expected fre[,
quenciesin addition to observedfrequencies, f FiadCrrm#rv
Llrnbda
as we will do on the next page.Click OK to
ruTa'rvYY
run the analysis.
-Ndridblrttavc --
88
l{do}Hlcse6l
Coc*rgrfs
'| '.r ''
i lrYa'*o
'. f[qea
, TnFr
f- Uatcru
- *,
f-Eta
l-
$,iii1ilr'tirir
':l
|- Cqrddionc
-*-,
Or*ut
i
larna
il*
,
: i f- lalar'd
f Kcnddrldr!
'ld
.::'t':,:;,
d.ridbs
l t-
.w . l
H +l
Readingthe Output
The output consistsof two
parts.The first part gives you the
counts.In this example,the actual
are shown
and expectedfrequencies
becausethey were selectedwith the
Cel/soption.
I
?r{t$t,,,.l!{h I l?ry1!,,,
!
Ccrr*c
;l? 0b*cvcd
1v rxpccico
N
P"cc*$or
il* npw
;l" Colrm
t|* ral
fq.rrt
,--!
:
Cr"*
fron
Rrdd'Alc
i if uttlaltddtu
I lf $.n*rtu
I ll* n4,a"e*aru*Auco
i
I
I
I
1.,..-...-..-..--,..----".*.J
i.-*-..--.--.--.'***--*--***-l
- ' - ""- "- ^ ' - " ' - "- l
: N o d r l c $a W{ t*t
l^
r
8o.ndc..trradtr
no,"u.or"or*r
i
i
l. Innc*cr*vralrf*
I f Trurlccalcorntr
|
I r Xor4.r*rprr
I
COINI' GOIN2Crosstabulatlon
corN2
golNl
Fleao
Tail
Total
uounl
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Total
Tail
Head
6.1
11
11.0
EN
5.0
4.1
9 .0
11
20
11.0
on
20.0
Note that you can also use the Cells option to

display the percentagesof each variable that are each
value. This is especiallyuseful when your groups are
different sizes.
The secondpart of the output gives the results
of the chi-squaretest.The most commonlyusedvalue
is the Pearson chi-square, shown in the first row
(valueof .737).
Chi-SquareTests
Value
PearsonL;nr-!'quare
ContinuityCorrectiorf
LikelihoodRatio
Fisher'sExactTest
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of ValidCases
{3t"
165
740
700
Asymp.Sig
(2-sided)
df
I
1
1
ExactSig,
(2-sided)
ExactSig.
(1-sided)
.653
.342
.391
.684
.390
.403
20
a' ComputedonlYfor a 2x2lable

b. 3 cells(75.0%)haveexpectedcountlessthan 5. The minimumexpectedcountis 4.
05.
Drawing Conclusions
A significantchi-squaretest resultindicatesthat the two variablesare not independent.A valuethatis not significantindicatesthatthe variablesdo not vary significantly
from independence.
89

the degreesof
In describingthe results,you shouldgive the valueof chi-square,
with a sigFor
example,
results.
the
of
freedom,the significancelevel,and a description
above),we couldstate
(for a datasetdifferentfrom the one discussed
nificantchi-square
thefollowing:
A chi-squaretestof independence
wascalculatedcomparingthe frequencyof
wasfound(f(l) :
heartdisease
in menandwomen.A significantinteraction
(68%)thanwere
23.80,p < .05).Men weremorelikely to get heartdisease
women(40%\
assumes
thata testwasrun in whichparticipants'sex,as
Notethatthis summarystatement
wascoded.
well aswhetheror not theyhadheartdisease,
A chi-square
testthatis not significantindicatesthatthereis no significantdependenceof onevariableon the other.The coin exampleabovewasnot significant.Therefore,
we couldstatethefollowing:
A chi-squaretest of independencewas calculatedcomparing the result of
flipping two coins.No significantrelationshipwas found (I'(l) = .737,p>
events.
.05).Flipsof a coinappearto be independent
Practice Exercise
wantsto knowwhetheror not individualsaremorelikely to helpin an
A researcher
emergencywhen they are indoorsthan when they are outdoors.Of 28 participantswho
who wereindoors,8helpedand
wereoutdoors,19helpedand9 did not.Of 23 participants
15 did not. Enterthesedata,and find out if helpingbehavioris affectedby the environment.The key to this problemis in the dataentry.(Hint: How many participantswere
there,andwhatdo you knowabouteachparticipant?)
Section7.3 Mann-Whitnev UTest
Description
t test.
equivalentof the independent
The Mann-WhitneyU testis thenonparametric
It testswhetheror not two independent
samplesarefrom thesamedistribution.The Mannweaker
independent
t test,and the / testshouldbe usedif you
WhitneyU testis
thanthe
canmeetits assumptions.
Assumptions
The Mann-WhitneyU testusesthe rankingsof the data.Therefore,the datafor the
aboutthe shapeof the distwo samplesmustbe at leastordinal. Thereareno assumptions
tribution.
90
!il;tIFfFF".
,SPS,S
Data Format
This command
requiresa singlevariablerepresenting
thedependentvariableand
a second
variableindicating
groupmembership.
Running the Command
This example will use a new data
file. It representsl2 participantsin a series
of races. There were long races, medium
races, and short races. Participants either
had a lot of experience (2), some
experience(l), or no experience(0).
Enter the data from the figure at
right in a new file, and savethe data file as
RACE.sav. The values for LONG.
MEDIUM, and SHORT represent the
results of the race, with I being first place
and 12 being last.
WMw
I Andy* qaphr U*lx
,
R.po.ti
Doroht*o1raru.r ,
t
Cd||olaaMcrfE
| 6on ralthccl'lodd I
)
C*ru|*c
j
r Rooa!33hn
)'
cta*iry
i
j
)
DatrRoddton
i
I
:@e@
J llrsSarfr
Q.s*y Cr*rd
BOCCuv.,,,
I
I
nl
nl
'
n]'
bl
[6 gl*l
Sada
'
To run the command,click Analyze, then Nonparametric Tests, then 2 Independent Samples. This
willbring up the maindialog box.
Enter the dependentvariable (LONG, for this
example) in the Test Variable List blank. Enter the independentvariable (EXPERIENCE)as the Grouping
Variable.Make surethat Mann-WhitneyU is checked.
Click Define Groupsto selectwhich two groups
you will compare.For this example,we will compare
those runners with no experience(0) to those runners
with a lot of experience(2). Click OK to run the
analvsis.
lbb
t
t
3
--ei--'
rf
2:
O$squr.,..
thd|*rl...
Rur...
1-sdTpbX-5,..
rl@ttsstpht,.,
e Rlnand5{ndnr,,,
KRdetcdsrmplo*.,,
liiiriil',,,
-5J
IKJ
],TYTI
GnuphgVadadr:
fffii0?r-*
l ;
..'
fry* |
l*J
,''r 1,
iTod Tiryc**il7 Mxn.\dWn6yu
I_ Ko&nonsov'SrnirnovZ
I
l- Mosasa<tcnproactkmc l- W#.Wdrowfrznnrg
9l
| &r*!r*l
C.,"*
ryl
Reading the Output

The output consistsof two
sections.The first sectiongivesdeexDenence
scriptive statisticsfor the two sam- rong .uu
2.OO
ples. Becausethe data are only reTotal
quiredto be ordinal, summaries
relatingto their ranksareused.Those
participantswho had no experienceaveraged6.5 as
their placein the race.Thoseparticipants
with a lot of
experience
averaged
2.5astheirplacein therace.
The secondsectionof the outputis the resultof
the Mann-WhitneyU test itself. The value obtained
was0.0,with a significance
levelof .021.
Ranks
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
o.cu
2.50
Zb.UU
4
8
10.00
Test Statisticsb
lono
Mann-wnrrney
u
WilcoxonW
.000
10.000
-2.309
.021
z
Asymp.Sig.(2-tailed)
ExactSig.[2'(1-tailed
.029
sis.)l
a. Notcorrectedfor ties.
b. Grouping
Variable:
experience
Drawing Conclusions
A significantMann-WhitneyU resultindicatesthatthetwo samplesaredifferentin
termsof theiraverageranks.
Our exampleaboveis significant,sowe couldstatethefollowing:
A Mann-Whitney
Utestwascalculated
examiningtheplacethatrunnerswith
varyinglevelsof experience
took in a long-distance
race.Runnerswith no
experience
did significantlyworse(m place: 6.50)thanrunnerswith a lot of
(m place: 2.5A;U = 0.00,p < .05).
experience
If we conductthe analysison the short-distance
raceinsteadof the long-distance
race,we will getthefollowingresults,whicharenot significant.
T..t St tlttlct
Ranks
shorl
short
exDerience
.00
2.00
Total
4
4
I
MeanRank Sumof Ranks

4.63
18.50
4.38
17.50
Manrr-wtltnoy u
Wilcoxon W
z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tail6d)
Exact Sig. [2'(1-tailed
sis.)l
/.cuu
17.500
-.145
.885
t
.886
a. Not corscled for ties.

b GrouprngVanabb: sxporience
92
Therefore,we could statethe following:

A Mann-Whitney U test was used to examine the difference in the race
performance of runners with no experience and runners with a lot of
race.No significantdifferencein the resultsof
experiencein a short-distance
:7.50,p
> .05).Runnerswith no experienceaveraged
(U
the racewas found
a placeof 4.63. Runnerswith a lot of experienceaveraged4.38.
Practice Exercise
Assumethat the mathematicsscoresin PracticeExercise I (Appendix B) are measured on an ordinal scale.Determineif youngerparticipants(< 26) have significantly lower
mathematicsscoresthan older participants.
Section7.4 Wilcoxon Test

Description
(dependequivalentof the paired-samples
The Wilcoxontestis the nonparametric
ent) t test.It testswhetheror not two relatedsamplesare from the samedistribution.The
I test,so the I testshouldbe usedif you can
Wilcoxontestis weakerthanthe independent
meetits assumptions.
Assumptions
The Wilcoxontestis basedon thedifferencein rankings.The datafor the two samplesmustbe at leastordinal. Thereareno assumptions
aboutthe shapeof thedistribution.
SP^SS
Data Format
The testrequirestwo variables.Onevariablerepresents
the dependentvariable at
the dependentvarionelevelof the independentvariable.The othervariablerepresents
ableat thesecondlevelof theindependentvariable.
Running the Command
lrnil$ re*|r u*t
Crrd*!
Locate the command by clicking Analyze, then Nonparametric Tests,then 2 Related Samples.This example uses
the RACE.savdataset.
;l ;
'.;,'{'
sd*
--f---""
o*sqr'.., '
*!!fd...
ffi
I log box
r r r :t^^- .^
| wilcoxon
for the
test.
li*.1;X.**".. I Note the similar-
-35+i
This will
bring up the dia-
-.lggg*g,lggj=l
.W
itv hetween it and
tne dialog box
for the dependentt test. If you have trouble,
(pairedreferto Section6.4 on the dependent

samples)
I testin Chapter6.
93
lcucf8drcdomivti*r,
, Vrnra2
- " -"-l
9$l
,Hrl
*
- --f l.dltf. --: ip ulte!
sip l- xrNdil :
',I
oetm..I
Transferthe variablesLONG andMEDIUM as a pair andclick OK to run the test.

This will determineif the runnersperformequivalentlyon long- and medium-distance
races.
Readingthe Output
The outputconsistsof two parts.The first partgivessummarystatisticsfor thetwo
variables.The secondsectioncontainstheresultof theWilcoxontest(givenas4.
Ranks
TestStatisticsb
Mean
Rank
N
MEUTUM
- NegaUVe
LONG
Ranks
Positive
Ranks
Ties
Total
Sumof
Ranks
5.38
21.50
4.70
23.50
3c
12
MEDIUM LONG
-1214
Asymp.
sig.
(2-tailed)
.904
a' Basedon
negativeranks.
b'wilcoxon
SignedRanks
Test
A . M ED IU M< L ON G
b. tr,lgOtUtr,it>
LONG
c . LON G = M ED IU M
The exampleaboveshowsthatno significantdifferencewasfoundbetweenthe resultsof the long-distance

andmedium-distance
races.
A significantresultmeansthat a changehasoccurredbetweenthe two measurements.If thathappened,
we couldstatethefollowing:
A Wilcoxon test examinedthe resultsof the medium-distance
and longdistance
races.A significantdifference
wasfoundin theresults(Z = 3.40,p <
.05).Medium-distance
results.
resultswerebetterthanlong-distance
Notethattheseresultsarefictitious.
In fact,the resultsin the exampleabovewerenot significant,so we couldstatethe
following:
A Wilcoxon test examinedthe resultsof the medium-distance
and longdistance
races.No significantdifference
wasfoundin theresults(Z:4.121,
p > .05).Medium-distance
resultswerenot significantlydifferentfrom longdistance
results.
Practice Exercise
Use the RACE.savdata file to determinewhetheror not the outcomeof shortraces.Phraseyour results.
distanceracesis differentfrom thatof medium-distance
94
Section7.5 Kruskal-WallisIl Test

Description
The Kruskal-Wallis .F/ test is the nonparametric equivalent of the one-way
ANOVA. It testswhetheror not severalindependentsamplescome from the samepopulation.
Assumptions
Becausethe test is nonparametric,there are very few assumptions.However, the
for the dependentvariable. The indetest doesassumean ordinal level of measurement
pendentvariable shouldbe nominal or ordinal.
,SPS,S
Data Format
SPSSrequiresone variableto representthe dependentvariable and anotherto representthe levelsof the independentvariable.
Running the Command
This exampleusesthe RACE.savdatafile. To run ffi
the command,click Analyze, then Nonparametric Tests,
Co,rpftlbfF
then K IndependentSamples.This will bring up the main | 6;?Cl"tsilodd
Canl*t
i
dialog box.
Ratatdan
i
Enter the independentvariable (EXPERIENCE) ; d # r t
0d! ildrdoft
as the Grouping Variable, and click Define Range to de- Ii scdi
fine the lowest (0) and highest(2) values.Enter the de- l@
J thr Sarbr
pendent variable (LONG) in the Test VariableList, and ) qr.nr(o.*rd
I nOCArs,.,
click OK.
)
r
I
'
I
I
('$5*|..,.
l
ffudd,,.
RrJf.,.
l-Samda(-5.,.
2
(nC*dsdd.r.,,
t c"{h.I
+ry{ |
RangpforEm{*tEVrri*lt
Mi{run
l0
Mrrdlrrrn
la
Hdp I
Ranks
Reading the Output
exoerience
The output consists of two parts.

The first part gives summary statisticsfor
each of the groups defined by the groupvariable.
ing (independent)
rong
95
.uu
1.00
2.00
Total
MeanRank
4
4
4
12
1 0. 5 0
6.50
2.50
The secondpart of the outputgivesthe results

value,
of the Kruskal-Wallistest(givenas a chi-square
but we will describeit as an II).The examplehereis a
significant
valueof 9.846.
Test Statisticf,b
lonq
unr-uquare
9.846
2
.007
df
Asymp. Sig.
a' KruskalWallis
Test
b. GroupingVariable:experience
Drawing Conclusions
Like the one-wayANOVA, the Kruskal-Wallistest assumesthat the groupsare
equal.Thus,a significantresultindicatesthatat leastoneof the groupsis differentfrom at
leastone othergroup.Unlike the One-llayANOVAcommand,however,thereareno optionsavailablefor post-hocanalysis.
Theexampleaboveis significant,sowe couldstatethe following:
A Kruskal-Wallistest was conductedcomparingthe outcomeof a longdistancerace for nmnerswith varying levels of experience.A significant
resultwas found(H(2): 9.85,p < .01),indicatingthat the groupsdiffered
from eachother.Runnerswith no experience
a placement
of 10.50,
averaged
while runnerswith someexperience
6.50andrunnerswith a lot of
averaged
experienceaveraged2.50. The more experiencethe runnershad, the better
theyperformed.
Phrasing ResultsThqtAre Not Significant
race,we would
If we conducted
the analysisusingthe resultsof the short-distance
getthefollowingoutput,whichis not significant.
Teet Statlstlc$'b
Ranks
exoenence
snon .uu
1.00
2.00
Total
4
4
4
12
short
MeanRank
6.3E
7.25
5.88
unFuquare
df
Asymp.Sig.
.299
2
.861
a. KruskalWallisTest
b. Grouping
Variable:
experience
This resultis not significant,sowe couldstatethe following:

A Kruskal-Wallistest was conductedcomparingthe outcomeof a shortdistancerace for runnerswith varying levelsof experience.No significant
differencewasfound(H(2):0.299,p > .05),indicatingthat the groupsdid
averaged
not differ significantlyfrom eachother.Runnerswith no experience
placement
7.25 and
averaged
a
of 6.38,while nmnerswith someexperience
did not seemto
nmnerswith a lot of experience
5.88.Experience
averaged
influencethe resultsof the short-distance
race.
96
Chapter7 NonparametricInfbrentialStatistics
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set 2 in AppendixB. Job classificationis ordinal (clerical<
technical< professional).
Determineif malesandfemaleshavedifferinglevelsofjob classifications.Phraseyourresults.
Section7.6 Friedman Test
Description
The Friedmantestis thenonparametric
equivalentof a one-wayrepeated-measures
ANOVA. It is usedwhenyou havemorethantwo measurements
from relatedparticipants.
Assumptions
The testusesthe rankingsof thevariables,so the datamustbe at leastordinal. No
otherassumptions
arerequired.
SP,SSData Format
SPSSrequiresat leastthreevariablesin the SPSSdatafile. Eachvariablerepresentsthedependentvariableat oneof thelevelsof theindependentvariable.
Running the Command
Locatethe commandby clickingAnalyze,then
NonparametricTests,thenK RelatedSamples.This will
bringup themaindialogbox.
f r;'ld{iv
f* Cdi#ln
Placeall the variablesrepresenting

the levelsof the independentvariable in the
TestVariablesarea.For this example,usethe RACE.savdatafile andthevariablesLONG,
MEDIUM. andSHORT.Click O1(.
97
Readingthe Output
The outputconsistsof two sections.
The first sectiongivesyou summarystatistics
for eachof the variables.The secondsectionof the outputgivesyou the resultsof the test
as a chi-squarevalue. The examplehere has a value of 0.049 and is not significant
(Asymp.Sig.,otherwise
knownasp,is .976,whichis greater
than.05).
Ranks
Test Statisticf
Mean
Rank
LUNU
MEDIUM
SHORT
Chi-Square|
2.00
2.04
1.96
12
.049
d f lz
Asymp.Sis.
.976
a. Friedman
Test
Drawing Conclusions
The Friedmantest assumesthat the threevariablesare from the samepopulation.A
significantvalue indicatesthat the variablesare not equivalent.
If we obtained a significant result, we could state the following (these are hypotheticalresults):
A Friedman test was conductedcomparingthe averageplace in a race of
nrnnersfor short-distance,
medium-distance,
and long-distanceraces.A significant differencewas found C@:
0.057,p < .05). The length of the race
significantlyaffectsthe resultsof the race.
PhrasingResultsThatAre Not Significant

In fact,theexampleabovewasnot significant,sowe couldstatethe following:
A Friedmantest was conductedcomparingthe averageplacein a raceof
runnersfor short-distance,
races.No
medium-distance,
and long-distance
=
>
significantdifferencewas founddg
0.049,p .05).The lengthof the
racedid not significantly
affecttheresultsof therace.
Practice Exercise
Usethedatain PracticeDataSet3 in AppendixB. If anxietyis measured
on an ordinal scale,determineif anxietylevelschangedovertime.Phraseyour results.
98
Chapter8
$
't,
s
TestConstruction
.fi
i$
j
Section 8.1 ltem-Total Analvsis
Description
Item-totalanalysisis a way to assessthe internal consistencyof a data set. As
such,it is one of many testsof reliability. Item-totalanalysiscomprisesa numberof items
that make up a scaleor testdesignedto measurea singleconstruct(e.g.,intelligence),and
determinesthe degreeto which all of the items measurethe sameconstruct.It doesnot tell
you if it is measuringthe correctconstruct(that is a questionof validity). Before a test can
be valid, however,it must first be reliable.
Assumptions
All the itemsin the scaleshouldbe measuredon an interval or ratio scale.In addition, eachitem shouldbe normallydistributed.If your itemsare ordinal in nature,you can
conduct the analysisusing the Spearmanrho correlationinsteadof the Pearsonr correlation.
SP.SSData Forrnat
SPSSrequiresone variablefor each item (or I Andyle Grrphs Ulilities Window Help
question)in the scale.In addition,you must have a
RPpo*s
, Ds$rripllvoStatirlicc )
variablerepresentingthe total scorefor the scale.
iilrliililrr'
Vuiabla*
.q ! l
I"1l
J13l
F
Ccmpar*Msans
GtneralLinearMadel I
WRiqression
!:*l', ."
Conducting the Test
analysisuses the
. ry1 PearsonItem-total
Coruelation command.
, Condation
Coalfubr*c
l- Kcndafsta*
l|7 P"as*
To
conduct it,
open the
you crefile
data
l * * - * _ _ . -_ ^ _ _
QUESTIONS.sav
,'. Tsd ot SlJnific&cs
ated in Chapter 2. Click Analyze,
f ona.{atud
I rr r'oorxaa
I
then Coruelate, then Bivariate.
Place all questionsand the
|7 nag ris{icsitqorrcldimr
total in the right-hand window, and
click OK. (For more help on conductingconelations,seeChapter5.) The total can be calculatedwith the techniquesdiscussedin Chapter2.
f- Spoamm
99
Chapter8 Test Construction
Readingthe Output
The output consistsof a
correlation matrix containingall
questionsand the total. Use the
column labeledTOTAL, and locate the correlationbetweenthe
total scoreand each question.In
the exampleat right, QuestionI
hasa correlationof 0.873with the
totalscore.Question2 hasa correlation of -0.130 with the total.
Question3 has a correlationof
0.926with thetotal.
Correlatlons
o2
o1
l'oarson \,orrelallon
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
PearsonCorrelalion
UZ
Si9.(2-tailed)
N
ParsonCorrelation
Q3
Sig.(2-tailed)
N
TOTAL PearsonConelation
Sig.(2-tailed)
N
Lll
1.000
t to
.553
4
-.447
.553
4
.718
.?82
4
.873
.127
4
TOTAL
Q3
cll
1.000
4
..229
.771
4
-.130
.870
4
.282
4
-.229
.771
4
1.000
4
.926
.074
4
o/J
.127
4
- .130
.870
4
.YZ O
.074
4
1 .000
4
Interpreting the Output

Item-totalcorrelations
shouldalwaysbe positive.If you obtaina negativecorrelation, that questionshouldbe removedfrom the scale(or you may considerwhetherit
shouldbe reverse-keyed).
Generally,item-totalcorrelationsof greaterthan 0.7 are considereddesirable.
Thoseof lessthan 0.3 are considered
weak.Any questionswith correlationsof lessthan
0.3 shouldbe removedfrom thescale.
After thetoNormally,theworstquestionis removed,thenthetotal is recalculated.
tal is recalculated,
the item-totalanalysisis repeatedwithout the questionthat was removed.Then,if anyquestions
havecorrelations
of lessthan0.3,the worstoneis removed,
andtheprocessis repeated.
When all remainingcorrelationsare greaterthan 0.3, the remainingitems in the
scaleareconsidered
to be thosethatareinternallyconsistent.
Section8.2 Cronbach's Alpha
Description
Cronbach's
As such,it is oneof many
alphais a measure
of internalconsistency.
testsof reliability. Cronbach'salphacomprisesa numberof itemsthat makeup a scale
designedto measurea singleconstruct(e.g.,intelligence),
the degreeto
and determines
whichall the itemsaremeasuring
the sameconstruct.It doesnot tell you if it is measuring
the correctconstruct(thatis a questionof validity). Beforea testcanbe valid,however,it
mustfirst be reliable.
Assumptions
All the itemsin thescaleshouldbe measured
on an interval or ratio scale.In addition, eachitem shouldbe normallydistributed.
100
Data Format
,SP,SS
SPSSrequiresonevariablefor eachitem(or question)in the scale.
Running the Command
This example uses the QUESTIONS.savdatafile we first createdin Chapter
2. Click Analyze,thenScale,then Reliability
Analysis.
This will bring up the maindialogbox
for Reliability Analysis.Transferthe questions from your scaleto the Itemsblank,and
click OK. Do not transferany variablesrepre'
sentingtotal scores.
Udtbr Wh&* tbb

)
f:
l,
it.
)
)
Notethatwhenyou changethe oPof

tionsunderModel,additionalmeasures
(e.9.,
can
split-half)
internal consistency
be calculated.
ql
q3
Readingthe Output
In this example,the reliability coefficientis 0.407.
Numberscloseto 1.00are very good,but numberscloseto
poorinternal consistency.
0.00represent
RelLrltilityStntistics
Cronbach's
N of ltems
Aloha
3
.407
Section8.3 Test-RetestReliability
Description
Test-retestreliabilityis a measureof temporal stability. As such,it is a measure
thattell you theextentto whichall
of internal consistency
of reliability. Unlikemeasures
of temporal
of the questionsthat makeup a scalemeasurethe sameconstruct,measures
overtime and/orovermultiple
stability tell you whetheror not the instrumentis consistent
administrations.
Assumptions
The total scorefor the scaleshouldbe an interval or ratio scale.The scalescores
shouldbe normallydistributed.
l 0l
.SP,S,S
Data Format
SPSSrequiresa variablerepresenting
thetotalscorefor the scaleat the timeof first
administration.
A secondvariablerepresenting
at a
thetotal scorefor the sameparticipants
differenttime (normallytwo weekslater)is alsorequired.
Running the Command
The test-retestreliabilitycoefficientis simplya Pearsoncorrelationcoefficientfor
the relationship
To computethe coefbetweenthetotal scoresfor the two administrations.
ficient,follow the directionsfor computinga Pearsoncorrelationcoefficient(Chapter5,
Section5.1).Usethetwo variablesrepresenting
of thetest.
thetwo administrations
Readingthe Output
The correlationbetweenthe two scoresis the test-retestreliabilitycoeffrcient.It
shouldbe positive.Strongreliability is indicatedby valuescloseto 1.00.Weakreliability
is indicated
by valuescloseto 0.00.
Section 8.4 Criterion-Related Validitv
Description
Criterion-related
validity determines
the extentto which the scaleyou are testing
correlates
with a criterion.For example,ACT scoresshouldcorrelatehighly with GPA. If
theydo, thatis a measure
of validity forACT scores.If theydo not,thatindicatesthatACT
scoresmaynot be valid for theintendedpurpose.
Assumptions
All of the sameassumptions
for the Pearson
correlationcoefficientapplyto measuresof criterion-related
validity(intervalor ratio scales,normal distribution,etc.).
.SP,S,S
Data Format
Two variablesarerequired.Onevariablerepresents
thetotal scorefor the scaleyou
aretesting.Theotherrepresents
thecriterionyou aretestingit against.
Running the Command
Calculatingcriterion-related
validity involvesdeterminingthe Pearsoncorrelation
valuebetweenthe scaleandthecriterion.SeeChapter5, Section5.1 for completeinformation.
Readingthe Output
The correlationbetweenthe two scoresis the criterion-related
validity coefficient.
It shouldbe positive.Strongvalidity is indicatedby valuescloseto 1.00.Weakvalidity is
indicated
by valuescloseto 0.00.
102
AppendixA
Effect Size
Many disciplines are placing increasedemphasison reporting effect size. While
statisticalhypothesistestingprovidesa way to tell the odds that differencesare real, effect
sizesprovide a way to judge the relative importanceof thosedifferences.That is, they tell
us the size of the differenceor relationship.They are alsocritical if you would like to estimatenecessarysamplesizes,conducta power analysis,or conducta meta-analysis.
Many
professionalorganizations(e.g.,the AmericanPsychologicalAssociation)are now requiring or strongly suggestingthat effect sizesbe reportedin addition to the resultsof hypothesis tests.
Becausethere are at least 4l different types of effect sizes,reach with somewhat
different properties,the purposeof this Appendix is not to be a comprehensiveresourceon
effect size, but ratherto show you how to calculatesomeof the most common measuresof
effectsizeusingSPSS15.0.
Co h e n ' s d
One of the simplest and most popular measuresof effect size is Cohen's d.
Cohen's d is a memberof a classof measurements
called"standardized
meandifferences."
In essence,
d is the differencebetweenthe two meansdivided by the overall standard deviation.
It is not only a popularmeasureof effect size,but Cohenhasalso suggested
a simple basisto interpretthe value obtained.Cohen'suggested
that effect sizesof .2 aresmall,
.5 are medium,and .8 are large.
We will discussCohen's d as the preferredmeasureof effect size for I tests.Unfortunately,SPSSdoes not calculateCohen's d. However,this appendixwill cover how to
calculateit from the output that SPSSdoesproduce.
EffectSizefor Single-Sample
t Tests
Although SPSSdoesnot calculateeffect size for the single-sample
/ test,calculating Cohen's d is a simplematter.
' Kirk, R.E. (1996). Practicalsignificance:A conceptwhose time has come. Educational & Psychological
Measurement,56, 7 46-7 59.
' Cohen,J. (1992). A power primer. PsychologicalBulletin, t t 2, 155-159.
103
Appendix A Effect Size
T-Test
Om'S$da
sltb.tr
std
xoan
LENOIH
Cohen's d for a single-sampleI test is equal

to the mean differenceover the standard deviation. If SPSSprovidesus with the following output,we calculated as indicatedhere:
Std Eror
Ygan
Dflalon
16 qnnn
| 9?2
o'r..Srt!-
d-
Iad
sD
TsstValuo= 35
95$ Conld6nca
lhlld.t ottho
d
71r'
slg
(2-lailsd)
I
Igan
Dill6f6nao
.90
t.t972
d = .752
d-
uo00r
sooo
I l 5 5 F- 0 7
In this example,using Cohen's guidelinesto judge effect size, we would have an effect
size betweenmedium and large.
EffectSizefor Independent-Samples
t Tests
Calculating
effectsizefromtheindependent
t testoutputis a little morecomplex
becauseSPSSdoesnot provideus with the pootedstandard deviation. The uppersection
of the output, however, does provide us with the information we need to calculateit. The
output presentedhere is the sameoutput we worked with in Chapter6.
Group Statlltlcr
graoe
morntno
No
yes
S pooled =
z
2
Mean
Std. Oeviation
J.JJIDJ
UZ.SUUU
7.07107
78.0000
Std.Error
Mean
Z,SUUUU
s.00000
(n ,-1 )s , 2+ (n , -l)s r2
n r+ n r-2
- tlr.Sr552+ (2 -t)7.07| (
rp o o te d-\ /12
2+ 21
S pool"d
Spooted= 5'59
Once we have calculatedthe pooled standard deviation (spooud),

we can calculate
Cohen'sd.
, x ,-x ,
Q=- -
S pooled
- 78.00
82.50
5.59
=.80
d
,
o =-
104
Appendix A
Effect Size
So, in this example,using Cohen's guidelinesfor the interpretationof d, we would have

obtaineda large effect size.
EffectSizefor Paired-Samples
t Tests
As you have probably learned in your statisticsclass, a paired-samplesI test is
just
really
I test.Therefore,the procedurefor calculata specialcaseof the single-sample
ing Cohen's d is also the same.The SPSSoutput,however,looks a little different,so you
will be taking your valuesfrom different areas.
PairdSamplosTest
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Intervalof the
std.
Mean
YAlt 1
|'KE ttss I
. FINAL
f)eviatior
-22.809s
A OTqA
Std.Error
Mean
f)iffcrcnne
Lower
sig
Upper
1.9586 -26.8952 -18.7239
(2-tailed)
df
11.646
20
.000
,D
u --
JD
- 22.8095
8.9756
d = 2.54
Notice that in this example,we representthe effect size (d; as a positive number
eventhoughit is negative.Effect sizesare alwayspositivenumbers.In this example,using
Cohen'sguidelinesfor the interpretationof d, we have found a very large effect size.
12(Coefficient of Determination)
While Cohen's d is the appropriatemeasureof effect size for / tests, correlation
and regressioneffect sizes should be determinedby squaringthe correlation coefficient.
This squaredcorrelationis called the coefficient of determination. Cohen' suggestedhere
that correlationsof .5, .3, and.l corresponded
to large,moderate,and small relationships.
Thosevaluessquaredyield coefficientsof determination of .25,.09, and .01 respectively.
It would appear,therefore,that Cohen is suggestingthat accounting for 25o/oof the variability representsa large effbct, 9oha moderateeffect, and lo/oa small effect.
EffectSizefor Correlation
Nowhere is the effect of sample size on statisticalpower (and therefore significance) more apparentthan with correlations.Given a large enoughsample,any correlation
can becomesignificant.Thus, effect size becomescritically important in the interpretation
of correlations.
'Cohen, J. (1988). Statisticalpower analysisfor the behavioral sciences(2"d ed). New Jersey:Lawrence
Erlbaum.
105
Appendix A
Effect Size
The standardmeasureof effect size for correlationsis the coefficient of determination (r2) discussedabove. The coefficient should be interpretedas the proportion of
variance in the dependent variable that can be accountedfor by the relationshipbetween
the independentand dependentvariables.While Cohenprovidedsomeusefulguidelines
for interpretation,each problem should be interpretedin terms of its true practical significance. For example,if a treatmentis very expensiveto implement,or has significant side
effects,then a larger correlationshould be required before the relationshipbecomes"important." For treatmentsthat are very inexpensive,a much smaller correlationcan be considered"important."
To calculatethe coefficientof determination, simply take the r value that SPSS
providesand squareit.
EffectSizefor Regression
TheModelSummary
section of the output reports R2 for
you. The example output here
shows a coefficient of determination of .649, meaningthat almost 65% (.649\ of the variability in the dependentvariable is
accountedfor by the relationship
betweenthe dependent and independentvariables.
ModelSummary
Adjusted
R
R Souare R Souare
.8064
.649
.624
Model
Std. Error
of the
Estimate
16.1 480
a. Predictors:
(Constant),
HEIGHT
Eta SquaredQtz)
A third measureof effect size is Eta Squared (ry2).Eta Squared is usedfor Analysis of Variancemodels.The GLM (GeneralLinear Model) functionin SPSS(the function
that runs the proceduresunderAnalyze-General Linear Model) will provide Eta Squared
(tt').
Eta Squared has an interpretationsimilar to a squaredcorSS"ik",
relationcoefficient1l1.lt represents
the proportionof the variance tt
n, -accountedfor by the effect.-Unlike ,2, ho*euer, which represents
Sqr," . SS*
onlylinearrelationships,,72canrepresentanytypeofrelationship.
Effect Sizefor Analysis of Variance

For mostAnalysisof Varianceproblems,you shouldelectto reportEta Squared
asyour effectsizemeasure.
SPSSprovidesthis calculationfor you as part of the General
LinearModel(GLIrl)command.
To obtainEta Squared,you simplyclick on theOptionsbox in the maindialog
box for the GLM commandyou arerunning(this worksfor Univariate,Multivariate,and
RepeatedMeasuresversionsof the commandeventhoughonly the Univariateoption is
presented
here).
106
Appendix A Effect Size
Onceyou haveselectedOptions,a new

dialog box will appear.One of the optionsin
that box will be Estimatesof ffict sze. When
you select that box, SPSSwill provide Eta
Squaredvaluesaspartofyour output.
l-[qoral*
|- $FdYr|dg
f A!.|it?ld
rli*dr
f'9n
drffat*l
Cr**l.|tniliivdrra5:
tl
l c,,*| n* |
Testsot EetweerF$iltectsEftcct3
Dependenl
Variable:
score
TypelllSum
nf Sdila!es
df
tean Souare
Source
u0rrecleo
M00el
1 0 .4 5 0 r
5.225
2
4
Inlercepl
I
s't.622
91.622
1
gr0up
5.225
1 0 .4 5 0
Enor
12
.27
4
3 .2 8 3
Total
15
1 0 5 .0 0 0
't4
Corrected
Total
1 3 .7 3 3
a. R Squared
= .761(Adiusied
= .721)
R Squared
PadialEta
F
19.096
331.862
1S .096
si q,
.000
.000
.000
Souared
761
965
761
In the examplehere,we obtainedan Eta Squaredof .761for our main effectfor

groupmembership.
Because
we interpretEta Squaredusingthe sameguidelinesas,', we
wouldconcludethatthisrepresents
alargeeffectsizefor groupmembership.
107
Appendix B PracticeExerciseData Sets
PracticeData Set2
A survey of employeesis conducted.Each employeeprovides the following information: Salary (SALARY), Years of Service (YOS), Sex (SEX), Job Classification
(CLASSIFY), and EducationLevel (EDUC). Note that you will haveto code SEX (Male:
: 3).
l, Female: 2) and CLASSIFY (Clerical: l, Technical: 2, Professional
ll*t:g - Jrs$q
Numsric
lNumedc
SALARY
35,000
18,000
20,000
50,000
38,000
20,000
75,000
40,000
30,000
22,000
23,000
45,000
YOS
8
4
I
20
6
6
17
4
8
l5
16
2
SEX
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
CLASSIFY EDUC
14
Technical
l0
Clerical
Professional l6
Professional l6
20
Professional
12
Clerical
20
Professional
12
Technical
14
Technical
12
Clerical
12
Clerical
Professional l6
PracticeData Set3
Participants
who havephobiasare given one of threetreatments(CONDITION).
Their anxietylevel (1 to l0) is measured
at threeintervals-beforetreatment(ANXPRE),
one hour after treatment(ANXIHR), and againfour hoursafter treatment(ANX4HR).
Notethatyou will haveto codethevariableCONDITION.
4lcondil
7l
,Numeric
i''* '"
ll0
Appendix B Practice Exercise Data Sets
ANXPRE
8
t0
9
7
7
9
l0
9
8
6
8
6
9
l0
7
ANXIHR
7
l0
7
6
7
4
6
5
3
3
5
5
8
9
6
ANX4HR
7
l0
8
6
7
5
I
5
5
4
3
2
4
4
3
lll
CONDITION
Placebo
Placebo
Placebo
Placebo
Placebo
ValiumrM
ValiumrM
ValiumrM
ValiumrM
ValiumrM
ExperimentalDrug
ExperimentalDrug
ExperimentalDrug
ExperimentalDrug
ExperimentalDrug
AppendixC
Glossary
everypossibleoutcome.
All Inclusive.A set of eventsthat encompasses
Alternative Hypothesis. The oppositeof the null hypothesis,normally showing that there
is a true difference. Generallv. this is the statementthat the researcherwould like to
support.
Case ProcessingSummary. A sectionof SPSSoutput that lists the number of subjects
usedin the analysis.
Coefficient of Determination. The value of the correlation, squared. It provides the
proportionof varianceaccountedfor by the relationship.
Cohen's d. A common and simple measureof effect size that standardizesthe difference
betweengroups.
Correlation Matrix. A section of SPSS output in which correlationcoefficientsare
reportedfor allpairs of variables.
Covariate. A variable known to be relatedto the dependentvariable,but not treatedas an
independentvariable.Used in ANCOVA as a statisticalcontrol technique.
Data Window. The SPSSwindow that containsthe data in a spreadsheetformat. This is
the window usedfor running most commands.
Dependent Variable. An outcome or response variable. The dependent variable is
normally dependenton the independentvariable.
Descriptive Statistics. Statisticalproceduresthat organizeand summarizedata.
$
$
nialog Box. A window that allows you to enter information that SPSS will use in a
command.
*
il
I
'f
Oichotomous
with onlytwo levels(e.g.,gender).
Variables.Variables
DiscreteVariable. A variablethat can have only certainvalues(i.e., valuesbetween

*hich thereis no score,like A, B, C, D, F).
I'
i
.
Effect Size. A measurethat allows one to judge the relative importanceof a differenceor
relationshipby reportingthe size of a difference.
Eta Squared (q2).A measureof effectsizeusedin Analysisof Variancemodels.
I 13
AppendixC Glossary
Grouping Variable. In SPSS,the variableusedto representgroup membership.SPSS

often refersto independent
variablesas groupingvariables;SPSSsometimesrefersto
groupingvariablesasindependent
variables.
IndependentEvents.Two eventsareindependent
if informationaboutoneeventgivesno
informationaboutthe secondevent(e.g.,two flips of a coin).
IndependentVariable.Thevariablewhoselevels(values)determinethe groupto whicha
subjectbelongs.A true independentvariable is manipulatedby the researcher.See
GroupingVariable.
Inferential Statistics.Statisticalproceduresdesignedto allow the researcherto draw
inferences
abouta populationon thebasisof a sample.
Interaction.With morethanone independent
variable,an interactionoccurswhena level
of oneindependent
variableaffectstheinfluenceof anotherindependent
variable.
Internal Consistency.A reliabilitymeasurethat assesses
the extentto which all of the
itemsin an instrumentmeasure
thesameconstruct.
Interval Scale. A measurement
scale where items are placed in mutually exclusive
categories,with equal intervalsbetweenvalues.Appropriatetransformationsinclude
counting,sorting,andaddition/subtraction.
Levels.The valuesthata variablecanhave.A variablewith threelevelshasthreepossible
values.
Mean.A measure
of centraltendencywherethesumof thedeviationscoresequalszero.
Median.A measureof centraltendencyrepresenting
the middleof a distributionwhenthe
dataaresortedfrom low to high.Fifty percentof thecasesarebelowthe median.
Mode. A measureof centraltendencyrepresenting
the value (or values)with the most
subjects(thescorewith thegreatestfrequency).
Mutually Exclusive. Two events are mutually exclusivewhen they cannot occur
simultaneously.
Nominal Scale. A measurement
scalewhere items are placed in mutually exclusive
categories.
Differentiationis by nameonly (e.g.,race,sex).Appropriatecategories
include
"same"or "different." Appropriatetransformations
includecounting.
NormalDistribution.A symmetric,
unimodal,
bell-shaped
curve.
Null Hypothesis.The hypothesisto be tested,normally in which there is no tnre
difference.It is mutuallyexclusiveof thealternative
hypothesis.
n4
Appendix
C Glossary
Ordinal Scale. A measurementscale where items are placed in mutually exclusive
categories, in order. Appropriate categories include "same," "less," and "more."
Appropriatetransformationsinclude countingand sorting.
Outliers. Extreme scoresin a distribution. Scoresthat are very distant from the mean and
the rest of the scoresin the distribution.
Output Window. The SPSSwindow that containsthe resultsof an analysis.The left side
summarizesthe resultsin an outline. The right side containsthe actual results.
Percentiles(Percentile Ranks). A relative scorethat gives the percentageof subjectswho
scoredat the samevalue or lower.
Pooled Standard Deviation. A single value that representsthe standarddeviation of two
groupsofscores.
Protected Dependent / Tests. To preventthe inflation of a Type I error, the level needed
to be significantis reducedwhen multipletestsare conducted.
Quartiles. The points that define a distribution into four equal parts. The scoresat the
25th,50th,and 75th percentileranks.
Random Assignment. A procedurefor assigningsubjectsto conditionsin which each
subjecthasan equalchanceofbeing assignedto any condition.
Range. A measureof dispersionrepresentingthe number of points from the highestscore
through the lowest score.
Ratio Scale. A measurementscale where items are placed in mutually exclusive
categories, with equal intervals between values, and a true zero. Appropriate
transformationsinclude counting,sorting,additiott/subtraction,
and multiplication/division.
Reliability. An indication of the consistencyof a scale. A reliable scale is intemally
consistentand stableover time.
Robust. A test is said to be robust if it continuesto provide accurateresultseven after the
violationof someassumptions.
Significance. A difference is said to be significant if the probability of making a Type I
error is less than the acceptedlimit (normally 5%). If a difference is significant, the null
hypothesisis rejected.
Skew. The extent to which a distribution is not symmetrical.Positive skew has outliers on
the positive(right) sideof the distribution.Negativeskew hasoutlierson the negative(left)
sideof the distribution.
Standard Deviation. A measureof dispersion representinga special type of average
deviation from the mean.
I 15
AppendixC Glossary
Standard Error of Estimate.The equivalentof the standarddeviationfor a regression

line with a standard
line.The datapointswill be normallydistributedaroundthe regression
deviationequalto the standarderrorof the estimate.
StandardNormal Distribution. A normaldistributionwith a meanof 0.0 anda standard
deviation
of 1.0.
String Variable. A stringvariablecancontainlettersandnumbers.Numericvariablescan
containonly numbers.Most SPSScommands
will not functionwith stringvariables.
Temporal Stability. This is achievedwhen reliability measureshave determinedthat
scoresremainstableovermultipleadministrations
of the instrument.
Tukey's HSD. A post-hoccomparisonpurportedto reveal an "honestly significant
difference"(HSD).
erroneouslyrejectsthe null
Type I Error. A Type I error occurswhen the researcher
hypothesis.
fails to rejectthe
erroneously
Type II Error. A Type II erroroccurswhenthe researcher
null hypothesis.
Valid Data.DatathatSPSSwill usein its analyses.
Validity. An indicationof theaccuracyof a scale.
Variance.A measure
deviation.
of dispersion
equalto thesquaredstandard
l16
AppendixD
SampleDataFilesUsedin Text
A varietyof smalldatafiles areusedin examplesthroughoutthis text. Hereis a list
of whereeachappears.
COINS.sav
Variables:
COINI
COIN2
Enteredin Chapter7
GRADES.sav
Variables:
PRETEST
MIDTERM
FINAL
INSTRUCT
REQUIRED
Enteredin Chapter6
HEIGHT.sav
Variables:
HEIGHT
WEIGHT
SEX
Enteredin Chapter4
QUESTIONS.Sav
Variables:
Ql
Q2 (recodedin Chapter2)
Q3
TOTAL (addedin Chapter2)
GROUP(addedin Chapter2)
Enteredin Chapter2
Modifiedin Chapter2
tt7
AppendixD SampleDataFilesUsedin Text
RACE.sav
Variables:
SHORT
MEDIUM
LONG
EXPERIENCE
Enteredin Chapter7
SAMPLE.sav
Variables:
ID
DAY
TIME
MORNING
GRADE
WORK
TRAINING (addedin Chapter1)
Enteredin ChapterI
Modifiedin ChapterI
SAT.sav
Variables:
SAT
GRE
GROUP
Enteredin Chapter6
Other Files
For somepracticeexercises,
seeAppendixB for neededdatasetsthatarenot usedin any
otherexamplesin thetext.
l18
AppendixE
Informationfor Users
of EarlierVersionsof SPSS
r{
ril
Thereare a numberof differences

betweenSPSS15.0and earlierversionsof the
software.Fortunately,mostof themhavevery little impacton usersof this text. In fact,
mostusersof earlierversionswill be ableto successfully
usethis text withoutneedingto
reference
this appendix.
Variable nameswere limited to eight characters.
Versionsof SPSSolderthan 12.0arelimitedto eight-character
variablenames.The
othervariablenamerulesstill apply.If you areusingan olderversionof SPSS,you needto
makesureyou useeightor fewerlettersfor yourvariablenames.
The Data menu will look different.
The screenshotsin the text where the Data
menu is shown will look slightly different if you are
using an older version of SPSS.These missing or
renamedcommandsdo not have any effect on this
text, but the menusmay look slightly different.
If you are using a version of SPSS earlier
than 10.0,the Analyzemenu will be called Statistics
instead.
Dsta TlrBfqm
rn4aa getu
oe&reoacs,.,
r
hertYffd,e
l|]lrffl Clsl*t
GobCse",,
Graphing functions.
Prior to SPSS12.0,the graphingfunctionsof SPSSwerevery limited.If you are
using a version of SPSSolder than version 12.0, third-partysoftwarelike Excel or
of graphs.If you areusingVersion14.0of
for theconstruction
SigmaPlotis recommended
graphing.
to Chapter4, whichdiscusses
thesoftware,useAppendixF asan alternative
l 19
Appendix E Information for Usersof Earlier Versionsof SPSS
Variableiconsindicatemeasurement
type.
In versions of SPSS earlier
than 14.0,variableswere represented
in dialog boxes with their variable
label and an icon that represented
whether the variable was string or
numeric (the examplehere shows all
variablesthat were numeric).
Starting with Version 14.0,
SPSS shows additional information
about each variable. Icons now representnot only whether a variable is
numeric or not, but also what type of
measurementscale it is. Nominal
variables are representedby the &
icon. Ordinal variables are representedby the dfl i.on. Interval and
ratio variables(SPSSrefers to them
as scale variables) are represented
bv the d i"on.
f Mlcrpafr&nlm
/srsinoPtrplecnft
/ itsscpawei
[hura
/v*tctaweir**&r
/TimanAccAolao
1c I
$ Cur*ryU Orlgin
ClNrmlcnu clrnaaJ
dq$oc.t l"ylo.:J
It liqtq'ftc$/droyte
sqFr*u.,|
4*r.-r-l qql{.,I
SeveralSPSSdata filescan now be openat once.
Versionsof SPSSolder than 14.0 could have only one data file open at a time.
Copying data from one file to another entailed a tedious process of copying/opening
files/pastingletc.Starting with version 14.0, multiple data files can be open at the same
time. When multiple files are open,you can selectthe one you want to work with using the
Windowcommand.
md*
Heb
t|sr
$$imlzeA[ Whdows
lCas,sav [Dda*z] - S55 DctoEdtry
t20
AppendixF
GraphingDatawithSPSS13.0and14.0
This appendixshouldbe usedas an alternativeto Chapter4 whenyou are using SPSS13.0or 14.0.Theseproceduresmay alsobe usedin SPSS15.0,if desired,by selectingLegacyDialogsinsteadof ChortBuilder.
GraphingBasics
In addition to the frequency distributions,the measuresof central tendency and
measuresof dispersiondiscussedin Chapter3, graphing is a useful way to summarize,organize,and reduceyour data. It has been said that a picture is worth a thousandwords. In
the caseof complicateddatasets,that is certainlytrue.
With SPSSVersion 13.0 and later,it is now possibleto make publication-quality
graphsusing only SPSS.One importantadvantageof using SPSSinsteadof other software
to createyour graphs(e.9., Excel or SigmaPlot)is that the data have alreadybeen entered.
Thus, duplicationis eliminated,and the chanceof making a transcriptionerror is reduced.
Editing SP,S,SGraphs
Whatever command you use
to create your graph, you will
probably want to do some editing to
make it look exactly the way you
want. In SPSS,you do this in much
the sameway that you edit graphsin
other software programs (e.9.,
Excel). In the output window,
select your graph (thus creating
handles around the outside of the
entire object) and righrclick. Then,
click SPSSChart Object, then click
Open. Alternatively, you can
double-click on the graph to open it
for editing.
tl 9:.1tl 1bl rl .l @l kl D l ol rl : j
8L
l
,
l
t21
AppendixF GraphingDatawith SPSS13.0and 14.0
Whenyou openthe graphfor editing,theChartEditor HSGlHffry;'
window and the correspondingProperties window will appear.
I* -l
ql ryl
OnceChartEditoris open,you caneasilyedit eachelementof the graph.To select

just click on therelevantspoton the graph.For example,to selectthe element
an element,
representing
the title of the graph,click somewhere
on the title (the word "Histogram"in
theexamplebelow).
Once you have selectedan element,you can tell that the correctelementis selected
becauseit will havehandlesaroundit.
If the item you have selectedis a text element(e.g.,the title of the graph),a cursor
will be presentand you can edit the text as you would in word processingprograms.If you
would like to changeanotherattributeof the element(e.g., the color or font size), use the
Propertiesbox (Text propertiesare shownabove).
t22
With a little practice,you can makeexcellentgraphs

usingSPSS.Onceyour graphis formattedthe way you want
it, simplyselectFile,thenClose.
Data Set
For the graphingexamples,we will usea new set of
data.Enterthe databelowand savethe file as HEIGHT.sav.
The data representparticipants' HEIGHT (in inches),
WEIGHT(in pounds),
andSEX(l : male,2= female).
HEIGHT
66
69
73
72
68
63
74
70
66
64
60
67
64
63
67
65
WEIGHT
150
155
160
160
150
140
165
150
110
100
9 52
ll0
105
100
ll0
105
SEX
r
I
I
I
l
l
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Checkthat you haveenteredthe datacorrectlyby calculatinga mean for eachof

the threevariables(click Analyze,thenDescriptiveStatistics,thenDescriptives).Compare
yourresultswith thosein thetablebelow.
Descrlptlve Statlstlcs
std.
Minimum Maximum
N
ntrt(,n I
'to
OU.UU
WEIGHT
SEX
16
16
95.00
1.00
Valid N
(listwise)
16
123
Deviation
Mean
I1.U U
oo.YJ/0
J .9U O/
165.00 129.0625 26.3451
2.00
.5164
1.s000
Bar Charts,PieCharts,and Histograms

Description
Bar charts,pie charts,and histogramsrepresentthe number of times each scoreoccurs by varying the height of a bar or the size of a pie piece.They are graphicalrepresentations of the frequencydistributionsdiscussedin Chapter3.
Drawing Conclusions
The Frequenciescommandproducesoutput that indicatesboth the number of cases
in the sample with a particular value and the percentageof caseswith that value. Thus,
conclusionsdrawn should relate only to describing the numbers or percentagesfor the
sample.If the dataare at leastordinal in nature,conclusionsregardingthe cumulativepercentages
and/orpercentilescan alsobe drawn.
SPSS Data Format
You needonlv one variableto usethis command.
Running the Command
The Frequenciescommand will produce I gnahao Qr4hs $$ities
graphical frequency distributions.Click Analyze,
Regorts
then Descriptive Statistics,then Frequencies.You @
will be presentedwith the main dialog box for the : lauor
Comps?U6ar1s
Frequenciescommand, where you can enter the ' Eener.lllnEarlrlodsl
variables for which you would like to create
r'txedModds
Qorrelate
graphsor charts.(SeeChapter3 for other options
availablewith this command.)
tro
ps8l
8"". I
BrsirbUvss,;.
Explorc.,,
9or*abr,.,
)
)
;
&dtlo...
Click the Chartsbuttonat the bottom to produce frequencydistributions.

Charts
This will give you the Frequencies:
dialogbox.
."-41
C hartTl p- " .' ---* ,
c[iffi
(e
: q,l
s r ur '
sachalts
l* rfb chilk
. kj
-i
:
,i .,
,,,, I , j
r llrroclu* ,'
There are three types of charts under this command: Bar charts, Pie charts, andHistograms.For each
type, the f axis can be either a frequency count or a
percentage(selectedthrough the Chart Valuesoption).
You will receivethe chartsfor any variablesselectedin the main Frequenciescommanddialog box.
124
I C " ,tt "5l
.u-,,,,:,
l- :+;:'.n
'1
i
rChatVdues'
, 15 Erecpencias
l -,
:
f
Porcer*ag$
i
- - ::- ,-
Output
The bar chart consistsof a
Y
axis,
representing the
frequency, and an X axis, representing each score. Note that the
only values representedon the X
axis are those with nonzero
frequencies(61, 62, and 7l are
not represented).
hrleht
1.5
c
a
f
s
a
L
1.0
66.00 67.00 68.00

h.llht
: ea
t 61@
llil@
I 65@
os@
I r:@
o 4@
g i9@
o i0@
a i:@
B rro
o :aa
ifr
The pie chart shows the percentageof

the whole that is representedby eachvalue.
The Histogramcommandcreatesa
groupedfrequencydistribution.The range
of scores is split into evenly spaced
groups.The midpoint of each group is
plotted on the X axis, and the I axis
represents
the numberof scoresfor each
group.
If you selectLl/ithNormal Curve,a
normal curve will be superimposed
over
the distribution.This is very useful for
helping you determineif the distribution
you haveis approximately
normal.
M.Sffi
td. 0.v. . 1.106?:
ff.l$
h{ghl
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeData Set I in Appendix B. After you have enteredthe data,constructa
histogramthat representsthe mathematicsskills scoresand displaysa normal curve, and a
bar chart that representsthe frequenciesfor the variableAGE.
t25
Scatterplots
Description
Scatterplots(also called scattergramsor scatterdiagrams)display two values for
eachcasewith a mark on the graph.The Xaxis representsthe value for one variable.The /
axis representsthe value for the secondvariable.
Assumptions
Both variablesshouldbe interval or ratio scales.If nominal or ordinal data are
used,be cautiousaboutyour interpretationof the scattergram.
.SP,t^tData Format
You needtwo variablesto perform this command.
Running the Command
I gr"pl,u Stllities Add-gns :
You can produce scatterplotsby clicking Graphs, then

I
Scatter/Dot.This will give you the first Scatterplotdialog box. i
Selectthe desiredscatterplot(normally,you will select Simple
!
Scatter),then click Define.
xl
*t
m
m
Simpla
Scattal
0veday
Scattel
ffi
ffi
Mahix
Scattel
ffi sittpt"
lelLl Oot
li Definell
-
q"rylJ
,
Helo I
3,0
Scatter
ffil;|rlil',r
m
s.fd
,-
9dMrk6by
,-
L*dqs.bx
| ,J l--
IJ T-P*lb
8off,
rl[I
ti ...:
C*trK
rI[I l*tCrtc
3*J
qej
*fl
This will give you the main Scatterplot
dialog box. Enter one of your variablesas the I
axis and the secondas the X axis. For example,
using the HEIGHT.sav data set, enter HEIGHT
as the f axis and WEIGHT as the X axis. Click
oK.
- -' '
I'u;i**
L":#
.
126
Output
X andI levels.
Theoutputwill consistof a markfor eachsubjectat theappropriate
74.00
r20.m
Adding a Third Variable

Even though the scatterplotis a twodimensionalgraph,it canplot a third variable.
To makeit do so,enterthethird variablein the
SetMarkers by field.In our example,we will
enterthe variable SEX in the ^SelMarkers by
space.
Now our outputwill havetwo different
sets of marks. One set representsthe male
participants,
the
and the secondset represents
femaleparticipants.
Thesetwo setswill appear
in differentcolorson your screen.You canuse
the SPSSchart editor to make them different
shapes,
asin thegraphthatfollows.
t27
fa, I
e- l
at.l
ccel
x*l
Graph
sox
aLm
o 2.6
72.00
70.00
58.00
c
.9
I
56.00
o
64.00
oo
o
52.00
!00.00
120.m
110.@
r60.00
wrlght
Practice Exercise
UsePracticeDataSet2 in AppendixB. Constructa scatterplot
to examinethe relationshipbetweenSALARY andEDUCATION.
Advanced Bar Charts
Description
You canproducebar chartswith theFrequencies
command(seeChapter4, Section
4.3). Sometimes,
however,we are interested
in a bar chartwherethe I axis is not a frequency.To producesucha chart,we needto usetheBar Chartscommand.
SPS,SData Format
At leasttwo variablesare neededto performthis command.Thereare two basic
kinds of bar charts-thosefor between-subjects
designsand thosefor repeated-measures
designs.Usethe between-subjects
methodif onevariableis the independentvariableand
the otheris the dependentvariable.Use the repeated-measures
methodif you havea dependentvariable for eachvalueof the G"dr tJt$ths Mdsns
pkrv
independentvariable(e.g.,you wouldhavethreevariablesfor a
IrfCr$We
designwith three valuesof the independentvariable). This
)
Map
normallyoccurswhenyou takemultipleobservations
overtime.
128
]1
Running the Command

Click Graphs,thenBar for eithertypeof bar chart.
This will openthe Bar Chartsdialog box. If you haveone
independentvariable, selectSimple.If you have more
thanone,selectClustered.
design,select
If you are usinga between-subjects
Summariesfor groups of cases.If you are using a repeated-measures
design, select Summariesof separate
variables.
graph,you
If you are creatinga repeatedmeasures
will seethe dialog box below.Move eachvariableoverto
theBars Representarea,and SPSSwill placeit insideparentheses
followingMean.This will give you a graphlike
the one below at right. Note that this exampleusesthe
dataenteredin Section6.4 (Chapter6).
GRADES.sav
lr#
I t*ls
o rhd
Practice Exercise
Use PracticeDataSet I in AppendixB. Constructa bar graphexaminingthe relaskills scoresandmaritalstatus.Hint: In the BarsRepresent
tionshipbetweenmathematics
area.enterSKILL asthevariable.
t29

How To Use SPSS

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How To Use SPSS

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A Step-by-Step Guide

to Analysis and Interpretotion

Choosing the Appropriafe Sfafistical lesf

lhre Thsn 2 Lwls

lldr Tho 2 L6Eb

f'bre Tha 'l

"PyrczakPublishing"is an imprintof FredPyrczak,Publisher,

PearsonCorrelation Coeffi cient

Informationfor Usersof EarlierVersionsof SPSS

GraphingDatawith SPSS13.0and 14.0

f- Dml*ro* fe tf*E h lholifrra

Startup proceduresfor SPSS will differ

Chapter I Getting Started

t!-.G q".E u?x !!p_Ip

,'lul*lEll r"l*l ulhl **l {,lrl EiliEltfil_sJ

mOVe the value and itS

the window. When all labels have been

ChapterI Gening Starred

In additionto namingand labelingthe variable,you havethe option of definingthe

F.E*UaUar Qgtr Irrddn

An hna gnphr Ufrrs

Dependingupon your versionof SPSS,it may be displayedas 2.08 + 009.

Chapter I Getting Started

Thepreviousdata window canbe changedto look insteadlike the screenshot

Instead of clicking the Value Labels icon, you may

Section1.4 Loading and SavingData Files

Save Your Data

Data Transform Annhze @al

Section1.5 RunningYour First Analysis

To calculatea mean (average),we are asking the computerto summarizeour data

Chapter I Getting Started

Section1.6 Examiningand PrintingOutput Files

outputis addedto theendof yourpreviousoutput.

Craphr ,Ufr!3 Uhdo'N Udp

Clicking on a statisticalprocedurealso selectsall of the output for that command.

Section1.7 ModifyingData Files

Chapter I Getting Started

&1{1zc Omhr t$*ues $ilndonHug_

Sa E& Uew Qpta lransform &rpFzc gaphs Lffitcs t/itFdd^,SE__--

.r View { Vari$c Vlew

Chapter I Getting Started

Section2.1 Variablesand DataRepresentation

summarystatistic(assumingthat the distribution

Chapter2 Enteringand Modifying Data

use it. Later in the text, when specificstatisticalproceduresare discussed,the conditions

Section2.2 Transformationand Selectionof Data

l,j.l,/r,:irrlrr! lif l ll:L*s,,.

We can use the SelectCasescommandto specify

Chapter2 Enteringand Modifying Data

By default,All caseswill be selected.The most common way to selecta subsetis

MORNING ERADE WORK TRAINING

J.- . - .-..,..".*-....- ':

Chapter2 Enteringand Modifying Data

After clicking the Compute Variable

Now you will calculatethe total score for

Chapter2 Enteringand Modifying Data

two sides of an equation that SPSS

SPSS can create a new

,-.lu l,rll r-al +.

S*a *rd llm tllhsd,,,

This will bring up the

ladtnl c rlccdm confbil

To help keep track of variablesthat have

f- Dmlro fe tf*E h lholifrra

,'lullEll r"ll ulhl **l {,lrl EiliEltfil_sJ

Sa rd llm tllhsd,,,