Why Insulation?

An insulation system serves three principal purposes:

the significant reduction in heat transfer of thermal energy to and from the surface of the
piping system (Heat Conservation).

the prevention of moisture formation and collection on the surface of the piping system due to
condensation (Cold Insulation).

the prevention of potentially injurious personnel contact with the surface of the exposed
piping system (Personal Protection).

sometimes Steam traced/Electric traced insulation, Regeneration insulation, jacketting etc are
used as per process / liscensor requirement.

Fire proofing, fire protection and acoustic insulation (to absorb vibration) is provided based
on project specification/ ITB requirement.

Insulation Material:

Low temperature insulation is frequently made of expanded cellular plastic or foam rubber
material.

Moderate temperature insulations are made from grass fibre products.

High temperature insulation is made of preformed cementations or refractory materials or

blankets made from ceramic fibres.

Insulation and accessory materials has to be 100% asbestos free.

Normally mineral fibre, cellular glass, ceramic fibre, glass fibre, polyisocyanurate,
polyurethane foam etc are used as insulation material.

Few important points related to insulation (May vary from project to project):

Hot insulation or Heat conservation insulation is used when normal operating temperature
exceeds 65 degree centigrade unless heat loss is desirable. (Control process temperature)

Personnel protection is used in accessible areas if temperature exceeds 65 degree centigrade.

Steam traced, electric traced, jacketting etc are used for process temperature control.

Insulation thickness is determined based on pipe size, normal operating temperature,

temperature controlling requirement (extent of heat loss/gain) etc. At a minimum 25 mm
thickness is used.

If insulation thickness is more than 75 mm then insulation is provided in two or more layers
(multi layer).

Insulation shall not be applied untill hydrostatic/ pneumatic testing.

Insulation upto 12 inch NPS pipe shall be held with ss 304 tie wire and for >12 inch NPS ss
304 bands are used.

All flanges will be insulated other than hydrogen service or high health hazard material
services.

All valves other than control valves and relief valves shall be insulated.

Note: Please provide your input in Comments section. Will be updated when more information is
available.

catagorized as either short radius or long radius.

In short All bends are elbows but all elbows are not bend
Whenever the term elbow is used, it must also carry the qualifiers of type (45 or 90 degree)
and radius (short or long) besides the nominal size.
Elbows can change direction to any angle as per requirement. An elbow angle can be defined
as the angle by which the flow direction deviates from its original flowing direction (See Fig.1
below).Even though An elbow angle can be anything greater than 0 but less or equal to
90But still a change in direction greater than 90 at a single point is not desirable.

Normally, a 45 and a 90 elbow combinedly used while making piping layouts for such
situations.

Fig.1 A typical elbow with elbow angle (phi)

Elbow angle can be easily calculated using simple geometrical technique of mathematics.
Lets give an example for you. Refer to Fig.2. Pipe direction is changing at point A with the
help of an elbow and again the direction is changing at the point G using another elbow.

Fig.2 Example figure for elbow angle calculation

In order to find out the elbow angle at A, it is necessary to consider a plane which contains
the arms of the elbow. If there had been no change in direction at point A, the pipe would
have moved along line AD but pipe is moving along line AG. Plane AFGD contains lines AD
and AG and elbow angle (phi) is marked which denotes the angle by which the flow is
deviating from its original direction.

Considering right angle triangle AGD, tan(phi) = ( x2 + z2)/y

Similarly elbow angle at G is given by : tan (phi1)= (y2 +z2)/x

Elbow Radius:
Elbows or bends are available in various radii for a smooth change in direction which are
expressed in terms of pipe nominal size expressed in inches. Elbows or bends are available in
three radii,
a. Long radius elbows (Radius = 1.5D): used most frequently where there is a need to keep
the frictional fluid pressure loss down to a minimum, there is ample space and volume to
allow for a wider turn and generate less pressure drop.
b. Long radius elbows (Radius > 1.5D): Used sometimes for specific applications for
transporting high viscous fluids likes slurry, low polymer etc. For radius more than 1.5D pipe
bends are usually used and these can be made to any radius.However, 3D & 5D pipe bends
are most commonly used
b. Short radius elbows (Radius = 1.0D): to be used only in locations where space does not
permit use of long radies elbow and there is a need to reduce the cost of elbows. In jacketed
piping the short radius elbow is used for the core pipe.
Here D is nominal pipe size in inches.
There are three major parameters which dictates the radius selection for elbow. Space
availability, cost and pressure drop.
Pipe bends are preferred where pressure drop is of a major consideration.
Use of short radius elbows should be avoided as far as possible due to abrupt change in
direction causing high pressure drop.
Minimum thickness requirement:
Whether an elbow or bend is used the minimum thickness requirement from code must be
met. Code ASME B 31.3 provides equation for calculating minimum thickness required (t) in
finished form for a given internal design pressure (P) as shown below:

Fig.3: Code equation for minimum thickness requirement calculation

Here,
R1 = bend radius of welding elbow or pipe bend
D = outside diameter of pipe
W = weld joint strength reduction factor
Y = coefficient from Code Table 304.1.1
S = stress value for material from Table A-1 at maximum temperature
E = quality factor from Table A-1A or A-1B
Add any corrosion, erosion, mechanical allowances with this calculated value to get the
thickness required.
End

Connections:

For connecting elbow/bend to pipe the following type of end connections are available

Butt welded: Used alongwith large bore (>=2 inch) piping

Socket welded: Used alongwith pipe size

Screwed:

Flanged:

Butt welded Elbows:

Pipe is connected to butt welded elbow as shown in Fig. 4 by having a butt-welding

joint.

Butt welded fittings are supplied with bevel ends suitable for welding to pipe. It is
important to indicate the connected pipe thickness /schedule while ordering. All edge
preparations for butt welding should conform to ASME B16.25.

Dimensions of butt welded elbows are as per ASME B16.9. This standard is applicable
for carbon steel & alloy steel butt weld fittings of NPS 1/2 through 48.

Fig.4: A typical Butt-Welded Elbow

Dimensions of stainless steel butt welded fittings are as per MSS-SP-43. Physical
dimensions for fittings are identical under ASME B16.9 and MSS-SP-43. It is implied
that the scope of ASME B16.9 deals primarily with the wall thicknesses which are
common to carbon and low alloy steel piping, whereas MSS-SP-43 deals specifically
with schedule 5S & 10S in stainless steel piping.

Dimensions for short radius elbows are as per ASME B16.28 in case of carbon steel &
low alloy steel and MSS-SP-59 for stainless steel.

Butt welded fittings are usually used for sizes 2 & above. However, for smaller sizes
up to 1-1/2 on critical lines where use of socket welded joints is prohibited, pipe
bends are normally used. These bends are usually of 5D radius and made at site by
cold bending of pipe. Alternatively, butt welded elbows can be used in lieu of pipe
bends but usually smaller dia lines are field routed and it is not possible to have the
requirement known at initial stage of the project for procurement purpose. So pipe
bends are preferred. However, pipe bends do occupy more space and particularly in
pharmaceutical plants where major portion of piping is of small dia. and layout is
congested, butt welded elbows are preferred.

Butt welded joints can be radiographed and hence preferred for all critical services.

Material standards as applicable to butt welded fittings are as follows:

ASTM A234:
This specification covers wrought carbon steel & alloy steel fittings of seamless and welded
construction. Unless seamless or welded construction is specified in order, either may be

furnished at the option of the supplier. All welded construction fittings as per this standard
are supplied with 100% radiography. Under ASTM A234, several grades are available
depending upon chemical composition. Selection would depend upon pipe material
connected to these fittings.

Some of the grades available under this specification and corresponding connected pipe
material specification are listed below:

ASTM A403:
This specification covers two general classes, WP & CR, of wrought austenitic stainless steel
fittings of seamless and welded construction.
Class WP fittings are manufactured to the requirements of ASME B16.9 & ASME B16.28 and
are subdivided into three subclasses as follows:
WP SManufactured from seamless product by a seamless method of manufacture.
WP W These fittings contain welds and all welds made by the fitting manufacturer
including starting pipe weld if the pipe was welded with the addition of filler material are
radiographed. However no radiography is done for the starting pipe weld if the pipe was
welded without the addition of filler material.
WP-WX These fittings contain welds and all welds whether made by the fitting manufacturer
or by the starting material manufacturer are radiographed.
Class CR fittings are manufactured to the requirements of MSS-SP-43 and do not require
non-destructive examination.

Under ASTM A403 several grades are available depending upon chemical composition.
Selection would depend upon pipe material connected to these fittings. Some of the grades
available under this specification and corresponding connected pipe material specification
are listed below:

ASTM A420:

This specification covers wrought carbon steel and alloy steel fittings of seamless &
welded construction intended for use at low temperatures. It covers four grades
WPL6, WPL9, WPL3 & WPL8 depending upon chemical composition. Fittings WPL6
are impact tested at temp 50 C, WPL9 at -75 C, WPL3 at -100 C and WPL8 at
-195 C temperature.

The allowable pressure ratings for fittings may be calculated as for straight seamless
pipe in accordance with the rules established in the applicable section of ASME
B31.3.

The pipe wall thickness and material type shall be that with which the fittings have
been ordered to be used, their identity on the fittings is in lieu of pressure rating
markings.

Introduction The most common material used

In Hydrocarbon inductries are various grades of steel. This article will provide a short write
up on common Steels.

Carbon Steel (Temperature Range -29 degree centigrade(C) to 427 degree C):
This is the most common and cheapest material used in process plants. Carbon steels are
used in most general refinery applications. It is routinely used for most organic chemicals
and neutral or basic aqueous solutions at moderate temperatures. Carbon steels are
extensively used in temperature range of (-) 29 degee centigrade to 427 degee centigrade
Low Temperature Carbon steel (LTCS-Temp range -45.5 degree C to 427 degree C)
can be used to a low temperature of (- 45.5)degree centigrade.
Killed Carbon Steel are defined as those which are thoroughly deoxidized during melting
process. Deoxidation is accomplished by use of silicon, manganeese and aluminium
additions to combine with dissolved gases, usually oxygen, during steel making. This results
in cleaner, better qualtity steel which has fewer gas pockets and inclusions. Killed carbon
steel is specified for major equipment in the following services to minimise the possibility or
extent of hydrogen blistering and hydrogen embrittlement:

where hydrogen is a major component in the process stream.

where hydrogen sulphied H2S is present with an aqueous phase or where liquid
water containing H2S is present.

Process streams containing any amount of Hydro flouoric acid (HF), boron
trifluoride (BF3) or (BF) compounds; or

Monoethanolamine (MEA) and diethanolamine (DEA) in solutions of greater than 5

weight percent.

Low Alloy Steel (Temperature range -29 degree C to 593 degree C):
Low Alloy Steels contain one or more alloying elements to improve mechanical or corrosion
resisting properties of carbon steel. Nickel increases toughness and improves low
temperature properties & corrosion resistance. Chromium and silicon improve hardness,
abrasion resistance, corrosion resistance and resistance to oxidation. Molybdnum provides
strength at elevated temperatures. Some of the low alloy steels are listed below.

Carbon 1/2% Moly and Manganese 1/2% Moly: These low alloy steels are
used for higher temperature services and most frequently for intermediate
temperatures for its resistance to hydrogen attack. They have the same maximum
temperature limitation as killed steel (ASME Code 1000 deg. F) but the strength
above 700 deg.F is substantially greater.

1% chrome 1/2% Moly and 1 1/4% Chrome 1/2% Moly: These alloys are used
for higher reistance to hydrogen attack and sulphur corrosion. They are also used for
services where temperatures are above the rated temperature for C 1/2 Mo steel.

2 1/4 Chrome 1% Moly and 3% chrome 1% Moly: These alloys have the same
uses as 1 1/4% Cr, but have greater resistance to hydrogen attack and higher strength
at elevated temperature.

5% chrome 1/2% Moly: This alloy is used most frequently for protection against
combined sulphur attack at temperatures above 550 deg.F. Its resistance to hydrogen
attack is better than 2 1/4% Cr_ 1% Moly.

9% Chrome 1% Moly: This alloy is generally limited to heater tubes. It has a

higher reistance to high sulphur stocks at elevated temperatures. It also has a
maximum allowable metal temperature in oxidising atmospheres.

Stainless Steel (Temperature range -257 degree C to 538 degree C):

They are heat & corrosion resistant, noncontaminating and easily fabricated into complex
shapes. There are three groups of Stainless steels. 1) Martensitic, 2) Ferritic & 3) Austenitic.

1. Martensitic stainless steel : Martensitic alloys contain 12-20 percent chromium

with controlled amount of carbon and other additives.Type 410 is a typical member
of this group. These alloys can be hardened by heat treatment, which can increase
tensile strength. Corrosion resistance is inferior to Austenitc Stainless steels and
these are generally used in mild corrosive environments.
2. Ferritic stainless steel: Ferritic steels contain 15-30 percent chromium with low
carbon content( 0.1percent). The higher chromium content improves its corrosion
resistance. A typical member of this group is Type 430. The strength of these can be
increased by cold working but not by heat treatment. Type 430 is widely used in

nitric acid plants. In addition, it is very resistant to scaling and high temp oxidation
upto 800 degree cent.
3. Austenitic stainless steel: Austenitic steels are the most corrosion resistant of the
three groups. These steels contain 16-26 percent chromium 6-22 percent nickel.
Carbon is kept low(0.08 percent max) to minimize carbide precipitation. Welding
may cause chromium carbide precipitation, which deplete the alloy of some
chromium and lowers its corrosion resistance in some specific environments, notably
nitric acid. The carbide precipitation can be eliminated by heat treatment(solution
annealing). To avoid precipitation special steels stabilized with titanium, niobium, or
tantalum have been developed(Types 321,347 & 348). Another approach to the
problem is the use of low carbon stainless steel such as types 304L & 316L with .03
percent max carbon.
The addition of molybdenum to austenitic alloy(types 316, 316L) provides generally better
corrosion resistance and improved resistance to pitting.
The chromium-nickel steels, particularly the 18-8 alloys, perform best under oxidizing
conditions, since the resistance depends on an oxide film on the surface of the alloy.
Reducing conditions and chloride ions destroy this and bring on rapid attack. Chloride ions
tend to cause pitting and crevice corrosion. When combined with high tensile stresses they
can cause stress-corrosion cracking.The detailed list of commonly used steels in hydrocarbon
industries is given in following table: