Proceedings of the Institution of

Civil Engineers
Waste and Resource Management
163
February 2010 Issue WR1
Pages 1727
doi: 10.1680/warm.2010.163.1.17
Paper 900004
Received 05/02/2009
Accepted 10/07/2009
Keywords:
materials technology/recycling &
reuse of materials

Jonathan E. Oti
Research Assistant, Civil Engineering
Research Unit, University of
Glamorgan, Pontypridd, UK

John M. Kinuthia
Senior Lecturer, Civil Engineering
Research Unit, University of
Glamorgan, Pontypridd, UK

Jiping Bai
Senior Lecturer, Civil Engineering
Research Unit, University of
Glamorgan, Pontypridd, UK

Unred clay masonry bricks incorporating slate waste

J. E. Oti

BSc, MSc, CEng, MICE, FNSE, MACE,

J. M. Kinuthia

This paper discusses the potential of using slate waste

generated from roong slate production in the UK in the
manufacture of unred clay masonry bricks. Ground
granulated blast-furnace slag activated by lime and
Portland cement were used to stabilise Lower Oxford
Clay incorporating slate waste in the preparation of
laboratory cylindrical test specimens. The specimens were
moist cured at room temperature (20
28C) for between
3 and 90 days before testing for compressive strength.
The drying and linear expansion behaviours of the test
samples were assessed by means of moisture content
measurement (at the age of testing) and linear expansion
measurement after soaking the samples in deionised
water. The strength of the cement-activated blended
mixture was lower than that of the lime-activated
mixtures. An environmental comparison of the unred
clay masonry bricks with mainstream construction (red)
bricks shows that the unred clay bricks have good
environmental characteristics over a range of important
criteria. These results suggest that there is potential for
using activated slag mixtures in the manufacture of bricks
for low-cost environmentally friendly housing and
energy-efcient masonry wall construction within the UK.
1. INTRODUCTION
Various practices in construction, manufacturing and quarrying
need to be improved in order to minimise their detrimental
effects on the natural environment. The UK government has
pledged to put sustainable development at the heart of all its
policies. In order to make any signicant improvement on
environmental issues and at the same time achieve the current
sustainability goals set for 2020 and 2050 (Boardman, 2004;
Carter, 2008; Kjarstad and Johnsson, 2007; Rajgor, 2007), more
engagement on waste management and further research on
possible utilisation of all waste streams in mainstream
construction should be encouraged. The resulting actions would
produce benets including economic growth, more efcient use
of resources and improved energy-efcient construction
practices, and will potentially reduce quarrying activities and
the use of fossil fuels for ring conventional clay bricks.
Waste management is one of the priority issues concerning
protection of the environment and conservation of natural
resources. Managers and planners are increasingly aiming to
follow a sustainable approach to waste management and to
integrate strategies that will produce the best practicable option.
Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

MSc, PhD, AIMMM, MIHT, FHEA

and J. Bai

MSc, PhD

The government aspiration in 2000 to reduce the amount of

industrial and commercial waste landlled by about 85% (DETR,
2000) is far from being reached. On the basis of policies set out
in the Waste Strategy for England and Wales 2007 (Defra, 2008),
the levels of commercial and industrial waste landlled are
expected to fall by 20% by 2010 (compared with 2004 levels)
(Defra, 2008). Some tangible progress has been made by
government through the Waste Strategy for England and Wales,
which emphasises the need to reduce the amount of waste
produced through the adoption of waste minimisation
methodology. Waste minimisation clubs have been used to
introduce more sustainable practice into industry and commerce,
but governments overall waste strategy remains unfullled.
The natural slate production process is extremely wasteful and
the waste stream from slate quarrying is not currently properly
managed. More than 90% of blasted virgin slate is classed as
waste material (Arup, 2001) because only a fraction of the
material entering the production process is suitable for nished
slates; this is partly a result of requirements for slate shape and
size. In Gwynedd, North Wales, a total of 700 Mt of slate waste
has been stockpiled a further 6 Mt is generated in Wales each
year (Arup, 2001). The huge piles of slate waste abundant in
North Wales may be resulting in increased fragility of ecosystems and loss of strata; they are stretching the landscape
beyond it ultimate limits of natural ecological equilibrium and
are thus threatening an environmental crisis (Roa, 2007).
Slate waste is not used widely for engineering applications
because of transportation costs from quarries and mining sites
to locations where it could be used in bulk quantities. However,
this situation may change in the future as the UK government is
planning to invest in highways (and possibly rail) infrastructure
to transport slate waste from quarry and mining sites in Wales
to north west England, the Midlands and possibly the South
East (ODPM, 2001). In the past, lime soil stabilisation was
extensively used in civil engineering applications (enhancing
many of the engineering properties of the soil and producing an
improved construction material) such as foundations, roadbeds,
embankments and piles and for various road applications, but is
used less so today because of durability problems. However,
recent work by the authors (Oti et al., 2008a) has shown that the
addition of GGBS to lime-stabilised systems is able to improve
many engineering properties of soil, including durability. Limeactivated GGBS was thus studied as an effective binder of slate
wastesoil mixtures.

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17

Radical improvements are needed in various construction,

manufacturing and quarrying practices in order to minimise
their detrimental effects on the natural environment (Cole, 1998,
1999; ODPM, 2001; Oti et al., 2009a) are needed. Since
environmental impacts have immediate implications for
planning, design and operation of civil engineering
infrastructure, conducting appropriate research on construction
materials will potentially help in the evaluation of the success
of any development. With ever-changing legislative
requirements and technological advances, a research partnership
aimed at generating possible applications of slate waste may be
a way forward. Using slate waste in unred clay masonry brick
production has great potential. Converting these specic waste
streams into a usable resource is important in terms of resource
preservation and would contribute to improving the local
environment in North Wales from a visual impact and amenity
point of view. The embodied energy in recovering and reusing
slate waste for the production of unred bricks is less than that
in clay quarrying.
The key industrial problem this paper aims to address is the
current lack of signicant engagement regarding the utilisation
of wastes and by-products from various industrial processes
(currently creating a huge environmental burden in landll sites
in the UK) in the building industry. The use of slate waste in
unred clay masonry products is rare in the UK. The use of
activated slag (GGBS) with clay in building components (outside
its use in normal concrete applications) is new. This paper
proposes that any viable building product(s) emerging from this
research are therefore quite innovative. It is hoped that this
paper will also transfer knowledge on the workability of unred
clay masonry bricks incorporating slate waste as compared with
mainstream construction (red) bricks, as well as outlining
various economical and environmental benets.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Materials
The materials used in the research were slate waste (SW), Lower
Oxford Clay (LOC), two different types of lime (L1 and L2),
ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and Portland
cement (PC).
2.1.1. Slate waste. The SW used for this study originated from
quarrying operations in Gwynedd, North Wales. The waste
consists of an assemblage of discrete particles of various shapes
and sizes. In order to group these various particles into separate
ranges of sizes and to determine relative proportions by dry mass
of each size range, a particle size analysis of the slate (see Table 1)
was conducted in accordance with BS 1377-2: 1990 (BSI, 1990a).
This analysis provided the research team a basis upon which the
engineering properties of the slate waste could be broadly assessed
and an indication of the feasibility of incorporating slate waste in
the stabilisation process. More detailed information about the
morphology of individual particles, as well as the composition of
the slate waste, was obtained using a Carl Zeiss SMT 1430
scanning electron microscope (SEM), equipped with an Inca-suite
version 4.01 Oxford instrument, linked to an energy dispersive xray (EDX) machine capable of analysing electrons in the range of
10100 atomic weight. From the EDX spectra obtained from the
SEM (Figure 1), the key elements in the slate waste aggregate were
determined (Table 2). The key compounds are silica (quartz, SiO2)
and alumina (Al2O3), constituting 92.9% of the morphology of
18

Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

Sieve size:
mm
5000
3350
2000
1180
600
425
300
212
150
63
<63

Amount
passing: %

Amount
retained: %

Classication

100.0
99.5
79.5
50.5
27.5
21.0
16.0
12.0
9.0
1.5
0.0

0.0
0.5
20.0
29.0
23.0
6.5
5.0
4.0
3.0
7.5
1.5

Gravel particles
Gravel particles
Gravel particles
Sand particles
Sand particles
Sand particles
Sand particles
Sand particles
Sand particles
Sand particles
Silt particles

Table 1. Particle size analysis of the slate waste

slate waste. Other minor compounds include albite (NaAlSi3O8),

magnesia (MgO), feldspar (CaAlSi3O8) and wollastonite (CaSiO3);
titanium (Ti) and manganese (Mn) crystals were also detected.
2.1.2. Lower Oxford Clay. The LOC used in this study was
supplied by Hanson Brick Company Ltd, from the Stewartby brick
plant in Bedfordshire, UK. Its mineralogical composition is shown
in Table 3 and its chemical and physical properties are shown in
Table 4. This material is currently used by Hanson to make red
London bricks. It is a challenging choice of clay material because
it is generally hard to stabilise (especially with lime) because of its
high organic and sulphate contents. However, it has advantages
for this research because it is currently being used for red brick
manufacture, therefore making comparison of red and unred
products easier.
2.1.3. Lime. Two different types of lime (L1 and L2) were used in
this study. L1 is a quicklime (CaO) and L2 is a hydraulic lime; both
were supplied by Ty-Mawr Lime Ltd, Llangasty, Brecon. The
chemical and physical properties of both limes are also shown in
Table 4. In the current work, after several trials, a maximum value
of 1.5 wt% lime was chosen for the activation of GGBS. The
selection of these binders was made for the following reasons.
(a) Quicklime has been used successfully in low-temperature
regions for clay stabilisation for road construction and for
columns for the improvement of slope stability. Quicklime
removes water from the stabilised mix or surrounding soil,
thereby contributing to rapid stability of the mix or slope
(Greaves, 1996; Holmes and Wingate, 2003). In a stabilised
soil system, quicklime can react with pozzolan and enhance
autogenous healing.
(b) Hydraulic lime has silicates that are predominately in the disilicate form (belite), with only trace amounts of highly
reactive tri-silicate (alite). Hydraulic lime thus has a slower
setting time and gains strength over time.
The use of two different limes gave an indication of their
performance proles and provided the research team with
exibility, especially when making recommendations for the
commercial production of unred clay bricks.
2.1.4. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag. GGBS was supplied
by Civil and Marine Ltd, Llanwern, Newport. Table 4 shows that
GGBS contains calcium oxide, reactive silica and alumina, which
can be successfully utilised in pozzolanic reactions (Oti et al.,

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Si

O
Mn

Al

Ti

K
K

Mg
Na

Mn
Ca
K

Ca

Ca

0
1
2
3
4
Full Scale 29869 cts Cursor: 0.172 keV (1 cts)

Ti

Ti

Mn

10

11
keV

Figure 1. EDX spectra of slate waste

2008a). GGBS was used as a key ingredient because of the

proximity of slag works in the South Wales region; owing to the
reduced cost of transporting GGBS, it is hoped that a market
opportunity for brick manufacturers in this region might be
created.

Elemental
symbol

Compound

Chemical
formula

Weight: %

O/Si
Na
Mg
Al
K
Ca
Ti
Mn

Quartz
Albite
Magnesia
Alumina
Feldspar
Wollastonite
Titanium
Manganese

SiO2
NaAlSi3O8
MgO
Al2O3
CaAlSi3O8
CaSiO3
Ti
Mn

81.85
1.38
1.29
11.05
3.04
0.42
0.58
0.39
100.00

Total
Table 2. Composition of slate waste

Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

The amorphous glass content in GGBS is considered to be the

most signicant variable and certainly the most critical to its
hydraulicity. The rate of quenching, which inuences the glass
content, is thus the predominant factor affecting the strength
of slag cements. Dhir et al. (1996) showed a linear relationship

Chemical formula

Illite
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Calcite
Quartz
Gypsum
Pyrite
Feldspar
Organic materials

(K,H3O)Al2Si3,AlO10(OH)2
Al2Si2O5(OH)4
(OH)4(SiAl)8(Mg.Fe)6O20
CaCO3
SiO2
CaSO4.2H2O
FeS2
CaAlSi3O8

Composition:
%
23
10
7
10
29
2
4
8
7

Table 3. The mineralogical composition of lower Oxford clay

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19

Composition: %
LOC*

L1y

L2z

GGBSx

PC||

CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
MgO
Fe2O3
MnO
S2
SO3
SO4
CaCO3
TiO2
K2O
N2O
FeO
P2O5
Na2O
CO3
Soluble silica
Free lime

6.15
46.73
18.51
1.13
6.21
0.07

1.13
4.06

0.80
0.17
0.52

89.20
3.25
0.19
0.45
0.16
0.05
<0.01
2.05
2.46
2.20

0.01
0.02

4.00
1.10
51.1

66.60
4.77
1.49
0.56
0.71
0.08
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01

0.25
0.04

3.00
4.77
39.40

41.99
35.35
11.59
8.04
0.35
0.45
1.18
0.23

63.00
20.00
6.00
4.21
3.00
0.031.11

2.30

Physical properties
Insoluble residue
Bulk density: kg/m3
Liquid limit (LL): %
Plastic limit (PL): %
Plasticity index: %
Colour
Glass content

67
35
32
Grey

4.1

2.0

0 .3
1200

Off-white
90

0.5
1400

Grey

* From Hanson Brick Company Ltd, Stewartby Bedfordshire, UK

y From Ty-Mawr Lime Ltd, Llangasty, Brecon, UK
z From Ty-Mawr Lime Ltd, Llangasty, Brecon, UK
x From Civil and Marine Ltd, Llanwern, Newport, UK
|| From Lafarge Cement, Solihull, Birmingham, UK
Table 4. Chemical composition and physical properties of LOC, quicklime (L1), hydrated lime (L2), GGBS and PC

between glass content and strength in a GGBS-based system,

but no well-dened or single relationship has been reported. In
the presence of alkaline activators, the more basic the GGBS
blend, the greater the hydraulic activity (Hewlett, 2003). At
constant basicity, the strength increases with alumina content,
and a deciency in calcium can be compensated for by a larger
amount of magnesia. Hydraulic activity increases with
increasing calcium, alumina and magnesia content and
decreases with increasing silica content (Frearson and Higgins,
1992). Other researchers (Ganesh Babu and Sree Rama Kumar,
2000) have reported that the alumina content of the slag
inuences its sulphate resistance. The reactive glass content
and neness of GGBS alone inuences the cementitious/
pozzolanic efciency, or its reactivity.
2.1.5. Portland cement. PC
manufactured in accordance
with British standard BS EN
197-1: 2000 (BSI, 2000) was
supplied by Lafarge Cement
UK. Table 4 shows its chemical
and physical properties. The
mineralogic compositions of
the major compounds in PC are
shown in Table 5.
20

2.2. Mix composition, sample preparation and testing

Table 6 shows the mix compositions of cylinders made using
lime/PC-activated GGBS-LOC-SW mixtures at 20% maximum
stabiliser content. The stabilisers were blended at a ratio of
20%PC/lime : 80%GGBS. These blending ratios were adopted in
consideration of their superior potential performance in relation
to strength, economy and environmental benets relative to
other blending ratios (Oti et al., 2008a).
Proctor compaction tests were carried out in accordance with BS
1924-2: 1990 (BSI, 1990b) in order to establish maximum dry
density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) of the
unstabilised LOC. The MDD and OMC values were found to be
1.42 Mg/m3 and 29% respectively. The approximate range of

Chemical formula
Tricalcium silicate
Dicalcium silicate
Tricalcium aluminate
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
Gypsum

Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2
Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2
Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO.Al2O3
Ca4Al2Fe10 or 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
CaSO4.2H2O

Composition: %
50
25
10
10
5

Table 5. Mineralogical composition of the major compounds in Portland cement

Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

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Mix code

Stabiliser

Moisture
content: %

Mass: g

Total
mass: g

L1

L2

PC

GGBS

LOC

SW

Water

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

4%L : 16%GGBS
4%L : 16%GGBS
4%PC : 16%GGBS

27
27
27

10.50
0.00
0.00

0.00
10.50
0.00

0.00
0.00
10.50

42.00
42.00
42.00

236.25
236.25
236.25

26.25
26.25
26.25

85.00
85.00
85.00

400
400
400

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

4%L : 16%GGBS
4%L : 16%GGBS
4%PC : 16%GGBS

30
30
30

10.25
0.00
0.00

0.00
10.25
0.00

0.00
0.00
10.25

41.00
41.00
41.00

231.30
231.30
231.30

25.70
25.70
25.70

92.00
92.00
92.00

400
400
400

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

4%L : 16%GGBS
4%L : 16%GGBS
4%PC : 16%GGBS

33
33
33

10.00
0.00
0.00

0.00
10.00
0.00

0.00
0.00
10.00

40.10
40.10
40.10

225.54
225.54
225.54

25.06
25.06
25.06

99.30
99.30
99.30

400
400
400

Table 6. Mix composition of the blended LOC mixtures (material for one cylindrical test specimen)

moisture content over which at least 90% MDD (1.28 Mg/m3)

could be achieved was 2240%. In this work, the moisture
content was 27%, 30% and 33% for all stabilised blends, with a
target mean dry density of 1.40 Mg/m3. The samples were
therefore expected, within experimental error, to be of the same
density and volume for all the material compositions in a given
stabiliser system. This does, however, mean that within each
system, specimens of different composition may deviate slightly
from their individual MDD and OMC values.
Dry materials capable of producing three compacted cylindrical
test specimens (50 mm diameter, 100 mm length) were
thoroughly mixed in a variable-speed Kenwood Chef Major
KM250 mixer for 2 min before slowly adding a calculated
amount of water. Intermittent hand mixing with a palette knife
was performed for a further 2 min to achieve a homogeneous
mix so that the full stabilisation potential was realised.
Immediately after mixing, the materials were compressed into
cylinders, to the prescribed dry density and moisture content.
A steel mould tted with a collar was used to accommodate all
the material required for one sample; specimen compaction was
carried out using a hydraulic jack (Figure 2). The cylinders were
extruded using a steel plunger. They were then weighed,
wrapped in cling lm and labelled before placing them in sealed
plastic containers at room temperature of about 20
28C. The
samples were then moist cured for 3, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days. At
the end of the curing period, three samples per mix composition
were tested for compressive strength using a Hounseld testing
machine at a compression loading rate of 1 mm/min. The
moisture content at the ageing time of testing for each sample
was also recorded.
Durability as applied to stabilised clay bricks incorporating
slate waste is the ability to resist the effects of varying degrees
of exposure. It is generally accepted that the applicability of any
new clay-waste product will depend on whether the product is
able to withstand passive, moderate and severe exposure in
water. If a brick is designed for external application, the
expansive behaviour of the material upon soaking in water is
vital. Two cylindrical test specimens representing each of the
various mix compositions were prepared for durability testing
(i.e. resistance to linear expansion upon partial soaking in
water). In order to effect partial soaking, the bottom 10 mm of
Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

cling lm wrapping the test specimens was carefully cut using a

sharp razor and then removed. The exposed surfaces were then
placed on a platform in a plastic tank.
The specimens were allowed to moist cure in the tank by
ensuring that water was always present below the platform
upon which the test specimens rested. To minimise evaporation
and drying out of the test specimens, the plastic container was
covered with a lid, which was tted with a digital gauge to
monitor linear expansion (Figure 3). Moist curing was allowed
to take place for the initial 7 days after specimen preparation.
Thereafter, the specimens were partially immersed in water to a
depth of 10 mm above their base by carefully increasing the
water level in the tank with a siphon, thus ensuring minimal
disturbance to the specimens. This process of curing after
raising the water level is referred to as soaking.
Both the moist curing and soaking environments were sealed
systems. This was to reduce the availability of carbon dioxide
that would otherwise cause carbonation of the lime in the
hydrating system (which may reduce the amount of lime
available for pozzolonic reaction). In the soaking process,

Cylinder
test sample

Prefabricated
steel mould
Steel plunger

Figure 2. Specimen preparation equipment

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Oti et al.

21

Multi-channel
digital data logger
Digital displacement
transducer

Capped opening for

siphoning water
Plastic
cover
Plastic
tank

5 mm thick Perspex cap

on the end of the specimen

Porous disc

Water level during soaking

(after moist curing)

5 mm thick
plastic platform

Level of deionised water

during the 7-day moist curing

Figure 3. Experimental set-up

deionised water was used to avoid specimen contamination

from metallic or other ion species in the water.
Linear expansion measurements were recorded during moist
curing and subsequent soaking. This was carried out
automatically and the readings were recorded digitally every 12
hours, until no further signicant expansion was observed.
Monitoring of the linear expansion measurements was
completed on a daily basis until no further signicant
expansion was observed.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Strength development
Figure 4 shows the compressive strength of the lime/PCactivated GGBS-LOC-SW specimens at varying compaction
moisture contents (27, 30 and 33%) at curing ages of 3, 14, 28,
56 and 90 days. The control mixtures (PC-GGBS-LOC-SW) tend
to show lower strength at all curing ages and at all compaction
moisture contents. It should be noted that the 90-day strengths
of the mixtures incorporating the lime-activated GGBS
mixture are higher than those of the PC-activated mixtures.
Overall, in all mixtures, the strength values of the test specimen
with L1-GGBS-LOC-SW were higher at all curing ages.
Figure 5 shows the rate of increase in strength with age for all
the activated mixtures relative to the 28-day strength.
Interestingly, it was observed that at a later curing age (5690
days), the blends containing a lime-activated GGBS mixture
exhibited progressively high rate of increase in strength value
compared with the PC-activated GGBS mixtures.
22

Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

3.2. Moisture content

Figure 6 illustrates the moisture content of various test
specimens at the time of testing, after moist curing the
specimens for 3, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days. Specimen L1-GGBSLOC-SW had a lower moisture content at 7-days of moist curing
before testing while L2-GGBS-LOC-SW and PC-GGBS-LOC-SW
had higher moisture contents. Similar trends were observed up
to the end of the 90-day moist curing period.
3.3. Expansion behaviour
It can be seen from Figure 7 that there is variation in the linear
expansion behaviour with compaction moisture content. The
linear expansion behaviour of all the stabilised cylinder samples
increases with increasing compaction moisture content. At the
end of the 7-day moist curing period, the percentage linear
expansion of the stabilised cylinders, L1-GGBS-LOC-SW, L2GGBS-LOC-SW and PC-GGBS-LOC-SW are as follows: for 27%
compaction moisture content, 1.99, 1.79 and 1.48%
respectively; for 30% compaction moisture content 2.19, 1.87
and 1.63% respectively; while for 33% compaction moisture
content, 2.32, 2.00, and 1.70% respectively.
At the end of the 7-day moist curing and 43-days partial
soaking in deionised water, the percentage linear expansion of
the stabilised cylinders, L1-GGBS-LOC-SW, L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
and PC-GGBS-LOC-SW increased as follows: for 27%
compaction moisture content, 2.47, 2.17 and 1.92%
respectively; for 30% compaction moisture content 2.60, 2.32
and 2.15% respectively; while for 33% compaction moisture
content, 2.67, 2.43 and 2.39% respectively.

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140
Increase in strength value: %

Compressive strength: N/mm2

49

34

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

19

04
0

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91

120

110

49
140
Increase in strength value: %

Compressive strength: N/mm2

130

100

(a)

34

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

19

04
0

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
(b)

49

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
(a)
L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

130

120

110

100
0

34

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
(b)

140

19

Increase in strength value: %

Compressive strength: N/mm2

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

04
0

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
Curing age: days
(c)

Figure 4. Strength development of the lime/PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

stabilised mixtures at compaction moisture content of (a) 27%,
(b) 30% and (c) 33%

Linear expansion during soaking of the blended specimens

suggested relatively more rapid expansion upon 43-days partial
soaking. The stabilised cylinders containing lime and GGBS
showed higher expansion rates. The blend made with quicklime
(L1-GGBS-LOC-SW) tended to show a relatively higher
expansive behaviour, with the highest recorded expansion rate
of about 2.67% at 33% compaction moisture content. The
lowest linear expansion (at the end of the 43-day days partial
soaking) of 1.92% was observed in specimens made using the
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW blend. Interestingly, this is the stabilised
blend that showed the least strength development.
Reassuringly, the total overall expansion rate of the samples
(1.922.67%) is within the acceptable limit for the durability of
stabilised clay masonry units. The total maximum 50-day linear
expansion behaviour for the stabilised cylinder specimens at
2733% compaction moisture content is summarised in Figure 8.
4. DISCUSSION
The increase in moisture content from 2733% produced
noticeable reductions in strength values (see Figure 4) for all the
stabiliser blends at the optimal designed blending ratio shown in
Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

130

120

110

100
0

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
Curing age: days
(c)

Figure 5. Rate of increase in strength (relative to 28-day strength)

with age of activated GGBS-LOC-SW mixtures at compaction
moisture content of (a) 27%, (b) 30% and (c) 33%
Table 6. An increase in moisture content of the stabilised
specimens may have resulted in a decrease in magnitude of
particle forces within the system. The explanation for this
variation is complex, due to the various pozzolanic and other
reactions involved in the hydration process. For example, when a
limeGGBS mixture reacts with clay soil incorporating slate
waste, an exothermic reaction that results in the liberation of heat
will occur. This action can also accelerate the pozzolanic reactions
between both the GGBS and the residual lime in the stabilised
matrix and the activated GGBS and the clay soil, leading to a
higher combined pozzolanic reaction rate, which promotes the
accumulation of strength-enhancing calciumsilicatehydrate
(CSH) gel among other hydration products. The different stabiliser
blends studied contain varying amounts of residual lime, thereby
resulting in differences in the pH of the systems and hence
differences in reacting ion species. Variations in the strengths of
the stabilised systems arise due to differences in moisture and
pore gel structure. Increasing calcium and sodium ion
concentration in a blended system incorporating lime and GGBS

Unred clay masonry bricks incorporating slate waste

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Oti et al.

23

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

24

17

282
Linear expansion: %

Moisture content at the day of

strength testing: %

31

212
L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

177
142

10
0

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
(a)

13

19

25
(a)

31

37

43

49

282

31

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

24

17

Linear expansion: %

Moisture content at the day of

strength testing: %

247

247
212
L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

177
142
1

10
0

13

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
(b)

19

25
(b)

31

37

43

49

L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

24

17

Linear expansion: %

Moisture content at the day of

strength testing: %

282
31

247
212
L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW

177
142

10

1
0

14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
Curing age: days

13
19
25
31
37
43
7-day curing + soaking period: days

49

(c)

(c)

Figure 6. Moisture content of activated GGBS-LOC-SW mixtures

at compaction moisture content of (a) 27%, (b) 30% and (c) 33%

Figure 7. Linear expansion measurements during moist curing

(7 days) and subsequent soaking of the stabilised cylinder
specimens made at compaction moisture content of (a) 27%,
(b) 30% and (c) 33%

Another reason for the variation in strength of the lime- and

PC-stabilised systems is that, during ionic exchange, the
combination of negatively charged surfaces on the clay particles,
positive cations and polar molecules in the system may result in
the formation of an electric double layer. Since the addition of
lime produces rapid ion exchange, this may modify the electrical
double layer, reducing the thickness of the water-absorbing layer
in the system and thus the degree of swelling.
The results of the moisture content test (Figure 6) demonstrate
that moisture has a profound inuence on the long-term
performance of stabilised soil incorporating slate waste material.
The moisture content affects strength development and
durability of the material. The variation in moisture content of
the unred bricks made from L1-GGBS-LOC-SW, L2-GGBSLOC-SW and PC-GGBS-LOC-SW blended mixtures is largely
due to the drying behaviour of each mixture. After 90 days of
moist curing, the hydration process is almost complete, yet
24

Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

50-day maximum linear expansion: %

may provide better dissolution of silicate and aluminates species,

leading to increased inter-molecular bond strength.

292

217
L1-GGBS-LOC-SW
L2-GGBS-LOC-SW
PC-GGBS-LOC-SW
142
24

27
30
33
Compaction moisture content: %

36

Figure 8. Total (maximum) 50-day linear expansion

measurements for moist curing (7 days) and subsequent soaking
of the stabilised cylinder specimens (27, 30 and 33% compaction
moisture content)

Unred clay masonry bricks incorporating slate waste

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Oti et al.

differences in the drying behaviour still remain. Comparison of

the proles in Figure 6 shows that the drying behaviour of
samples made with PC-GGBS-LOC-SW is slow compared with
that of the L1-GGBS-LOC-SW and L2-GGBS-LOC-SW samples.
This can be explained. For example, during hydration of the
lime-activated GGBS-LOC-SW mixtures, more ettringite is likely
to be formed and this may imbibe some water during moist
curing, resulting in a drying effect, or as a result of the
exothermic reaction of slaking lime, which has a drying effect.
Swelling and linear expansion of stabilised clay soil is common
and is known to be associated with the formation of a colloidal
product (gel intermixed with ettringite) that forms on the
surface of the clay particles during curing. In a saturated
condition, ettringite grows and develops from this colloidal
product. It has a capability of imbibing large amounts of water
and this dramatically increases the swelling potential of the
stabilised soil especially if lime is used as a stabiliser. (Other
hydration products may also ll the void space of the stabilised
system, thus enhancing both strength and volume stability upon
subsequent soaking.) However, the introduction of a cementing
agent such as PC or GGBS modies the chemical interaction of
the claylime system, thereby altering the types of reactions that
occur and potentially altering any disruptions that the reaction
products may cause. It is therefore not surprising that the test
specimens made using PC-GGBS-LOC-SW expanded much less
than those stabilised using a limeGGBS blended binder.

In view of the positive developments of the initial research work,

a full-scale steel mould to produce full-size bricks was fabricated.
This enabled laboratory-scale production of full-size
(215  102  65 mm) unred clay building bricks incorporating
slate waste, with immediate success (Figure 9). In order to ensure
successful transition of the laboratory brick samples to actual
brick production, the research team intend to collaborate with
local brick manufacturing companies for the rst industrial
production of stabilised clay bricks incorporating slate waste. The
outcome of this intended collaboration will be reported later. The
same mix design could also be adapted for the production of
blocks and mortar for industrial-scale development of unred clay
masonry material incorporating slate waste.
Table 7 summarises an analysis of some major environmental
concerns relating to new product development. The unred clay
masonry bricks incorporating slate waste are compared with
bricks used in mainstream construction. Environmental analyses
are increasingly being used and include criteria such as
transportation, carbon dioxide emissions, embodied energy,

Over the 50 days linear expansion observation period (see

Figures 7 and 8), all the samples either attained terminal linear
expansion or continued to expand at a negligible rate. Linear
expansion was immediate when the specimens were soaked in
water after the 7-day moist curing period. This expansion was
more stable for the rest of the 43 days of soaking. The PCGGBS-LOC-SW samples showed signicantly lower expansion
than lime-GGBS-LOC-SW stabilised mixtures. The overall
reduction in linear expansion is likely to be due to the
formation of cementitious products. Cementitious gels cement
the soil particles together and enable them to resist the
considerable swelling pressures that can be generated when
ettringite forms in the presence of water. Hydration of the PCGGBS-LOC-SW stabiliser blend was much more rapid than the
pozzolanic reaction of the lime-activated GGBS-LOC-SW
mixtures. This hydration reaction is known to consume lime.
The fact that higher strengths were observed in the L1-GGBS-LOCSW mixture and it is this mixture that expanded the most suggests
that volume stability is a sensitive balance between void space and
cementation. The presence of GGBS in the mixture may also play
the role of diluting the stabilised system, thus reducing the amount
of expansive products in the pore space and also increasing the
effective water to stabiliser ratio. This would enable a greater
degree of quicklime hydration. This minimises any possible
disruption to the hardened product and the overall expansion may
be reduced. In addition, GGBS may also mitigate expansion by
providing a surface upon which lime can be adsorbed and
subsequently interact by activating the hydration process with the
enhanced pH environment (Oti et al., 2008b, 2008c, 2009b). The
overall expansive behaviour of all the blended mixtures
corresponds to a reduced water absorption capability of the edge to
face contact of the specimens in water, with a tendency to form a
turbulent occulated system with coagulation contact.
Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

Figure 9. Laboratory-produced full-size unred clay brick

Unred clay masonry bricks incorporating slate waste

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Oti et al.

25

Fired clay Sun-baked Unred clay brick

bricks
bricks
incorporating
slate waste
Material
Transport
Depletion of resource
Use of waste materials

1
2
1

Production process (ring with kiln)

Carbon dioxide
1
emissions
Embodied energy
1

4
2
1

3
2
3

Product utilisation
Occupant health

Demolition
Product reuse
Disposal at landll

2
2

4
3

3
3

12

23

23

1314

2122

2526

Average range
Total score

For the UK government to achieve its current sustainability

goals, research focusing on waste utilisation should be
encouraged. The prudent use of resources based on the
prevailing ecological principles and the integration of key
aspects of Rethinking Construction (Egan, 1998) with
environmental protection will be vital for a healthy built
environment (Adetunji et al., 2003; Bryant and Wilson, 1998;
Joyner, 2005; Myers, 2003).
5. CONCLUSIONS
There is great potential for utilising slate waste and other
industrial by-products to facilitate a more sustainable
construction environment. The strength characteristics of
unred bricks incorporating slate waste were studied and found
to be improved with the addition of lime and GGBS, which act
as a bond on the soil particles. The following conclusions are
drawn from the research.

Table 7. Comparison of environmental concerns relating to new

product development (Breeam environmental & sustainability
scoring method: 4, excellent; 3, good; 2, low; 1, poor)

depletion of resources, use of waste material, landll, occupants

health (regarding end-products), product reuse and overall
perception in terms of care for the environment. Such analyses
can lead to improvements in the life cycle of products and
provide criteria for design decisions when choosing materials
offering similar performances for a given application.
For the analysis presented in Table 7, the environmental and
sustainability scoring method of Breeam was used (Building
Research Establishment, 2008). Table 7 shows that the unred
clay bricks using slate waste demonstrate excellent results
against most criteria, thus demonstrating high sustainability
characteristics that could be exploited for energy-efcient
masonry wall construction. This new product ts in with current
trends for exible and green product development in the UK.
The new product material is breathable and provides better air
quality for building occupants.
The environmental performance of the unred clay bricks
incorporating slate waste is excellent when compared with
bricks in current mainstream construction. Total energy usage is
estimated at around 657.1 MJ/t for the lime-activated GGBS
system and 667.1 MJ/t for the PC-activated GGBS system;
emissions for the unred clay bricks has been calculated at
40.952 kgCO2/t and 42.952 kgCO2/t respectively. For common
red bricks, energy usage (input) is 4186.8 MJ/t with equivalent
output emissions of 202 kgCO2/t (Brick Development
Association, 2008). This large difference in energy usage may be
attributed to the high temperatures (90012008C) used in kiln
ring of conventional bricks to give the nal product the
strength and durability it requires to perform in service.
Furthermore, ring clay-based material at such high
temperatures generally results in the release of several gases
other than carbon dioxide.
Traditional sun-baked bricks tend to have the least energy usage
(525.6 MJ/t), with emissions of 25.1 kgCO2/t (Morton, 2008).
26

Waste and Resource Management 163 Issue WR1

However, the main deciency of sun-baked bricks is their

susceptibility to water damage.

(a) Using LOC as the target stabilisation material, unred bricks

incorporating slate waste and lime-activated GGBS tend to
have strength values superior to those of PC-activated systems.
(b) An environmental comparison of the unred clay bricks with
red bricks used in mainstream construction revealed that the
unred bricks show good environmental characteristics over
a range of important criteria. Most of the reported
environmental emissions from conventional building brick
production are attributed to the energy used for ring kilns.
(c) The unred clay technology using GGBS as the main stabilising
agent for the production of building bricks incorporating slate
waste will result in reduced energy costs compared with kilnring. Furthermore, it will reduce the environmental damage
associated with the manufacture of traditional stabilisers and
thus reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Welsh Assembly government (WAG) for
funding the project by way of the collaborative industrial
research programme and the knowledge exploitation funding
initiatives. The authors also acknowledge the faculty of
advanced technology of the University of Glamorgan for
research facilities and staff resources.
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27

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