APPLIED COMBINATORIAL

MATHEMATICS

The Authors

Editor

GEORGE POLYA

EDWIN F. BECKENBACH

DERRICK H. LEHMER

Professor of Mathematics
University of California
Los Angeles

MONTGOMERY PHISTER, Jr.

JOHN RIORDAN
ELLIOTT W. MONTROLL
N. G. DE BRUIJN
FRANK HARARY
RICHARD BELLMAN
ROBERT KALABA
EDWIN L. PETERSON
LEO BREIMAN
ALBERT W. TUCKER
EDWIN F. BECKENBACH

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MARSHALL HALL, Jr.

JACOB WOLFOWITZ
CHARLES B. TOMPKINS
KENNETH N. TRUEBLOOD

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GEORGE GAMOW
HERMANN WEYL

JOHN WILEY AND SONS, INC., NEW YORK LONDON SYDNEY

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

PART 1A' COMPUTATION AND EVALUATION

chapter 1

THE MACHINE TOOLS OF COMBINATORICS

DERRICK H. LEHMER

5
5

1.1

Introduction

1.2

Representation and Processing of Digital Information

1.3

Application of Representations

11

1.4

Signatures and Their Orderly Generation

17

1.5

Orderly Listing of Permutations

19

1.6

Orderly Listing of Combinations

24

1.7

Orderly Listing of Compositions

24

1.8

Orderly Listing of Partitions

25

1.9

The Back-Track Procedure

26

1.10

Ranking of Combinations

27

chapter 2

2.1

TECHNIQUES FOR SIMPLIFYING LOGICAL

NETWORKS
MONTGOMERY PHISTER, JR.
Introduction
Simplifying a Given Sequential Circuit

32
32
37

2.2

Simplest AND-OR Gates

2.3

Multiple-Output Function Simplifications

40

2.4

Elimination of Memory Elements

42

2.5

Alternative Methods of Assigning Flip-Flop States

49

C/ioosing Decision and Memory Elements

2.6

Memory Elements Other Than Delay Flip-Flops

37

53
53

xv

Contents

xvi
2.7

Decision Elements Other Than AND and OR Gates

57

2.8

Conclusion

61

PART IB
chapter 3

COUNTING AND ENUMERATION

GENERATING FUNCTIONS
JOHN RIORDAN

67

3.1

Introduction

67

3.2

Generating Functions for Combinations

69

3.3

Generating Functions for Permutations

71

3.4

Elementary Relations: Ordinary Generating Function

72

3.5

Elementary Relations: Exponential Generating Function

79

3.6

Generating Functions in Probability and Statistics

84

3.7

Polya's Enumeration Theorem

90

chapter 4

LATTICE STATISTICS
ELLIOTT W. MONTROLL

96

4.1

Introduction

4.2

Random Walks on Lattices and the Polya Problem

96

4.3

More General Random Walks on Lattices

103

4.4

The PfafRan and the Dimer Problem

105

4.5

Cyclic Matrices

113

4.6

Evaluation of Dimer Pfaffian

116

4.7

The Ising Problem

121

4.8

Some Remarks on Periodic Boundary Conditions

132

4.9

Lattice Statistics of Slightly Defective Lattices

134

chapter 5

POLYA'S THEORY OF COUNTING

N. G. DE BRUIJN

144

97

5.1

Introduction

5.2

Cycle Index of a Permutation Group

144
145

5.3

The Main Lemma

150

5.4

Functions and Patterns

151

5.5

Weight of a Function; Weight of a Pattern

153

5.6

Store and Inventory

154

5.7

Inventory of a Function

155

5.8

The Pattern Inventory; Polya's Theorem

157

5.9

Generalization of Polya's Theorem

161

5.10

Patterns of One-to-One Mappings

164

5.11

Labeling and Delabeling

168

Contents

xvii

5.12

The Total Number of Patterns

171

5.13

The Kranz Group

176

5.14

Epilogue

180

chapter 6

COMBINATORIAL PROBLEMS IN GRAPHICAL

ENUMERATION
FRANK HARARY

185

6.1

Introduction

6.2

Graphical Preliminaries

185

6.3

Some Unsolved Problems

189

6.4

Problems Involving Directed Graphs

189

6.5

Problems Involving Partitions

190

6.6

Topological Problems

191

6.7

Problems Involving Connectivity

193

6.8

Problems Involving Groups

195

6.9

Electrical Problems

197

6.10

Physical Problems

199

6.11

Graph-Counting Methods

202

6.12

Tree-Counting Methods

205

6.13

Comparison of Solved and Unsolved Problems

208

6.14

Some Applications of Enumeration Problems to Other Fields

212

PART 2
chapter 7

185

CONTROL AND EXTREMIZATION

DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING AND MARKOVIAN

DECISION PROCESSES, WITH PARTICULAR
APPLICATION TO BASEBALL AND CHESS
RICHARD BELLMAN

221

7.1

Introduction

7.2

Baseball as a Multistage Decision Process; State Variables

221
221

7.3

Decisions

222

7.4

Criterion Function

223

7.5

Policies, Optimum Policies/ and Combinatorics

224

7.6

Principle of Optimality

226

7.7

Functional Equations

226

7.8

Existence and Uniqueness

227

7.9

Analytic Aspects

227

7.10

Direct Computational Approach

229

7.11

Stratification

229

7.12

Approximation in Policy Space

230

Contents

xviii
7.13

Utilization of Experience and Intuition

231

7.14

Two-Team Version of Baseball

232

7.15

Probability of Tying or Winning

232

7.16

Inventory and Replacement Processes and Asymptotic Behavior

232

7.17

Chess as a Multistage Decision Process

233

7.18

Computational Aspects

234

chapter 8

GRAPH THEORY AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL

ROBERT KALABA

237

8.1

Introduction

237

8.2

Time-Optimal Control and the Nature of Feedback

238

8.3

Formulation

239

8.4

Uniqueness

240

8.5

Successive Approximations

241
242

8.6

Observations on the Approximation Scheme

8.7

Other Approaches

242

8.8

Arbitrary Terminal States

243

8.9

Preferred Suboptimal Trajectories

243

8.10

A Stochastic Time-Optimal Control Process

244

8.11

Minimax Control Processes

246

8.12

Use of Functional Equations

246

8.13

A Special Case

246

8.14

Minimal Spanning Trees

247

8.15

Comments and Interconnections

248

8.16

Multiple Stresses

249

8.17

Discussion

250

chapter 9

OPTIMUM MULT1VARIABLE CONTROL

EDWIN L. PETERSON

253

9.1

Problem Structure

253

9.2

Alternative Approaches

257

9.3

Polynomial Approximation

264

9.4

Linearization and Successive Approximation

272

9.5

Physical Implementation

279

chapter 10

STOPPING-RULE PROBLEMS
LEO BREIMAN

284

10.1

How to Recognize a Stopping-Rule Problem

10.2

Examples

284
285

10.3

Formulation

287

10.4

What Is a Stopping Rule?

290

Contents

xix

10.5

What Is a Solution?

291

10.6

Stop When You Are Ahead; the Stability Problem

292

10.7

The Functional Equation

294

10.8

Elimination of Forced Continuation

296

10.9

Entrance-Fee Problems and Reduction to Them

298

10.10

The Linear-Programming Solution

302

Binary Decision Renewal Problems

10.11

Introduction and Examples

305
305

10.12

Formulation

306

10.13

What Is a Solution?

307

10.14

Reduction to a Stopping-Rule Problem by Cycle Analysis

308

10.15

A Direct Approach

312

10.16

The Linear-Programming Solution

314

10.17

A Duality Relation

317

chapter II

COMBINATORIAL ALGEBRA OF MATRIX GAMES

AND LINEAR PROGRAMS
ALBERT W. TUCKER

320

11.1

Introduction

11.2

Game Example

320
320

11.3

Key Equation and Basic Solutions

322

11.4

Schematic Representation

324

11.5

Equivalence by Pivot Steps; Simplex Method

327

11.6

Linear Programming Examples

331

11.7

Key Equation and Basic Solutions for Linear Programs

333

11.8

Canonical Forms

336

11.9

Inverse Basis Procedure

340

11.10

General Formulations

343

chapter 12

NETWORK FLOW PROBLEMS

EDWIN F. BECKENBACH

348

12.1

Introduction

348

12.2

Networks

348

12.3

Cuts

350

12.4

Flows

351

12.5

Flows and Cuts

352

12.6

Bounds on Capacities of Cuts and on Values of Flows

355

12.7

The Max-FlowMin-Cut Theorem

357

12.8

The Ford-Fulkerson Algorithm

358

12.9

Example

359

12.10

Extensions and Applications

361

12.11

Graph Theory and Combinatorial Problems

362

Contents

XX

PART 3
chapter 13

CONSTRUCTION AND EXISTENCE

BLOCK DESIGNS
MARSHALL HALL, JR.

369

13.1

Introduction

369

13.2

Block Designs and Latin Squares; Examples and Definitions

370

13.3

Applications of Block Designs

373

13.4

General Theory of Block Designs

377

13.5

Construction of Block Designs and Orthogonal Latin Squares

387

chapter 14

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION THEORY

JACOB WOLFOWITZ

406

14.1

Introduction

406

14.2

Channels

406

14.3

Codes

407

14.4

Entropy; Generated Sequences

408

14.5

The Discrete Memoryless Channel

410

14.6

Compound Channels

412

14.7

Other Channels

414

chapter 15

SPERNER'S LEMMA AND SOME EXTENSIONS

CHARLES B. TOMPKINS

416

15.1

Introduction

15.2

Sperner's Lemma

416
418

15.3

Brouwer's Fixed-Point Theorem

424

15.4

Subdivisions of a Simplex

427

15.5

Review of PositionSecond Introduction

430

15.6

Oriented Simplexes, Their Boundaries/ and Oriented Simplicial

Mappings

434

15.7

Homologyfc-Chains, Cycles/ Bounding Cycles

437

15.8

The Fundamental Index Theorem

441

15.9

Some Applications

445

15.10

Toward Greater Rigor

453

chapter 16
16.1

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
KENNETH N. TRUEBLOOD
Introduction
Nature of the Crystalline Sfate

16.2

Lattices

456
456
457
457

Contents

xxi

16.3

Point Symmetry

461

16.4

Space Symmetry

465

16.5

Antisymmetry

467

Crystal Structure Analysis by X-Ray Diffraction

468

16.6

Diffraction

468

16.7

Fourier Transforms of Atoms and Groups of Atoms

474

16.8

The Phase Problem

478

Approaches to Solving the Phase Problem

482

16.9

The Patterson Function

482

16.10

Heavy-Atom Methods

485

16.11

Isomorphous Replacement

488

16.12

Direct Methods

491

16.13

Refinement
Some Aspects of Atomic Arrangements

495
500

16.14

Topology and Shapes of Molecules and Assemblies of Molecules

500

16.15

Packing of Spheres, Molecules, and Polyhedra

504

16.16

Disordered Structures and Order-Disorder Phenomena

507

chapter 17

COMBINATORIAL PRINCIPLES IN GENETICS

GEORGE GAMOW

515

17.1

Introduction

515

17.2

Amino-Acid Sequences in Proteins

515

17.3

Double-Stranded Sequences in DNA

519

17.4

Combinatorial Principles

522

17.5

The Overlapping-Code Hypothesis

522

17.6

Statistical Investigations

523

17.7

Geometric Implications

525

17.8

Statistical Assignments

526

17.9

Monte Carlo Methods

528

17.10

Experimental Results

532

chapter 18

APPENDICES
HERMANN WEYL

536

18.1

Ars Combinatoria

536

18.2

Quantum Physics and Causality

551

18.3

Chemical Valence and the Hierarchy of Structures

563

18.4

Physics and Biology

572

ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE REVIEW PROBLEMS

583

AUTHOR INDEX

585

SUBJECT INDEX

591