1.

1 Types of Network

LAN: A LAN is a computer network that is restricted at one geographic location.

WAN: A WAN is computer network that spans across multiple geographic locations connected by
an ISP (Internet Service Provider) network.

1.2 Bounded Media

Copper and Fibre Optics are popularly used in network cabling. Copper provides good conductivity at
affordable price. However, the data that can be carried by copper cable is limited. This is overcome by the
use of Fibre optic cables. However, fibre optic cables come at a price

Copper Cable Types: Co-axial, Twisted Pair.

Fibre optic cable types: Single mode and Multimode.

1.3 Unbounded Media

Infrared, radio frequency and microwave are used in wireless communications. Radio frequency is the most
popular media used in computer networks.

1.4 Network Devices

Hub: A Hub is a legacy device that was used to create computer network using BUS topology.
There is one collision domain and one broadcast domain in a hub.
Note: Collision domain is a network where only one device can send data at a time. If multiple
device transmit data, data signals will collide, corrupting the data.
Broadcast domain is the collection of devices that can unconditionally receive data transmitted by
a device within the network.

Bridge: A bridge is a device that divides a network segment into two segments. Conversely, it
conditionally connects two broadcast domains together.
Switch: A switch is a device that creates multiple collision domains so that multiple devices can
simultaneously send and receive data. Switch is actually a multiport bridge. The process
performed by a switch is called bridging.
Router: A router is a device that performs switching at layer 3 of the OSI reference model.
Switching is done directly for known networks. For remote networks, the next hop for a given
Destination IP Network is determined either manually or automatically and populated in the
routing table.
Modem: The modem is a network device that modulates and demodulates computer network
signals on a telephone line. A modem is used to terminate an analogue loop like a telephone
network analogue.

1.5 Network Topologies

A network topology is the physical appearance as well as the logical functioning of a network.
Bus: A bus topology is a network topology in which nodes are connected in a daisy chain fashion.
Ring: A ring topology is a network topology where all devices are logically connected in a ring like
fashion.
Star: A star topology is a topology where devices are connected to each other via a central
network device.
Mesh: Mesh topology is a topology where all network devices are connected to each other.
Hybrid: Hybrid topology is a combination of various network topologies.

1.6 Ethernet terminologies

Signaling: Signaling refers to transmission and reception of signals.

Modes of signalling:
Simplex: The sender can only send data and receiver can only receive data.
Duplex: Data can be sent and received by both end devices.
Half duplex is a duplex mechanisms where data can be sent by both devices but one at a
time.
Full duplex is a mechanism where both end devices can simultaneously send and receive
data.

Types of Signaling
Unicast: Data is received by all devices but only the recipient accepts the data. All others
reject the data.
Multicast: Data is received by all devices but only devices belonging to the same multicast
group accept the data. Rest all reject data.
Broadcast: Data is received and unconditionally accepted by all.
Bandwidth:
A band is a set of contiguous frequencies used for radio transmissions.
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest frequency and the lowest frequency of a band.
If only one frequency can be used out of the multiple frequencies of a band at any given instant, it
is called baseband.
If two or more than two frequencies can be used out of the multiple frequencies/channels of a band
at any given instant, it is called broadband.
Bandwidth in computer networks is hence also measured in bps (bits per second).
Note: 1000 bits are referred to as 1 Kilobit (Kb).
1024 bits are referred to as kibibit (Kib).
Notations- B: Byte (8 bits) b: bit
1.7 MAC address & IP Address
Every device is recognised using an address.
IP address is a 32 bit (v4) or a 128 bit (v6) address used to identify end devices.
MAC address is a 48 bit address used to identify intermediate devices between end devices.
Note: If hypothetically all devices were directly connected to each other, one would not have required two
addresses.
1.8 OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Model
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI Model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard of
their underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication
systems with standard protocols.
OSI consists of 7 layers.
Layer
Function
Name/Number
Layer 7 :
Provide User
Application
interface
Layer 6:
Encode and decode
Presentation
data between layer
5 and 7
Layer 5: Session
Manage and
maintain
communication
session. Identify
data types
Layer 4: Transport
Provide end to end
connectivity
between services
Layer 5: Network
Provide logical
addressing
Layer 6: Data Link
Provide physical
addressing
Layer 7: Physical
Send and receive
raw data over wired
or wireless network

Data encapsulation

Data encapsulation
identifier

Protocol
identifier

FILE

FILE NAME

Segment

Port number

Port number

Packet

IP address

Protocol
number

Frame

MAC address

Ether type

Bits

TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of
their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end-to-end transport connection; the
internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are nevertheless often
compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:
The Internet application layer includes the OSI application layer, presentation layer, and most of the
session layer.

Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI session layer as well as the
OSI transport layer.
The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset of the OSI network layer.
The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and sometimes the physical layers, as well as some
protocols of the OSI's network layer.
1.9 Protocols
HTTP: The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for distributed,
collaborative, hypermedia information systems. Port number of HTTP is 80.
FTP: The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer computer
files from one host to another host over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet. Port number
of FTP is 20,21.
Telnet: Telnet is a session layer protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal connection.
Port number of telnet is 23. A secured version of telnet is SSH which encrypts the data it sends.
Port number of SSH is 22.
POP: The Post Office Protocol (POP) is an application-layer Internet standard protocol used by
local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP connection. Port number
of POP is 110. POP deletes the email on the server after retrieving them.
IMAP: The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is an application-layer Internet standard
protocol used by local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP
connection. It differs from POP as it leaves the message on the original server. Port number of
IMAP is 143.
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic mail (email)
transmission. Port number of SMTP is 25.
TFTP: Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple, lock-step, File Transfer Protocol which
allows a client to get from or put a file onto a remote host using UDP. Port number of TFTP is 69.
DNS: Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming system for computers,
services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. The DNS service maps
the IP address to the domain name. Port number of DNS is 53.
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a standardized network protocol used on
Internet Protocol (IP) networks for dynamically distributing network configuration parameters, such
as IP addresses for interfaces and services. Port number of DHCP is 67 for server and 68 for
client. DHCP uses discover, offer, request and acknowledge packets to assign IP address and
related parameters to clients.
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol is used to indicate error or exchange connection based
information between devices. ICMP operates directly on IP and does not have port number. It has
a protocol number 1.
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a telecommunication protocol used for resolution of
network layer addresses into link layer addresses. ARP operates at data link layer. Hence, it has
ether type of 0x0806.
RARP: Reverse ARP resolves link layer address into network layer address.
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol is a connection oriented reliable protocol. Protocol number of
TCP is 6.
UDP: User datagram protocol is a connection-less unreliable protocol. Protocol number of UDP is
17.
1.10 Basic Router Configurations
The various parts of a router include main board, processor, memory, power supply unit and ports.
Types of memory:
RAM (Random Access Memory): Holds the running configuration. The running configuration is the
settings and configurations that the router is currently using. It also holds the runtime copy of IOS
(Internetworking Operating System).
NVRAM(Non volatile RAM): Holds the startup configuration. Running configuration is saved here.
Flash memory: Holds the saved compressed copy of the IOS. When router starts, IOS is loaded
from flash memory into RAM.
Types of ports
Line: Used for configuration of a device.
Interface: Used for communication. When an interface is used as a secondary method to configure
a device, it is referred to as a virtual line.

LAB: Configuring a router.

Open the console of a router in physical or virtual environment.
The router opens the console in user mode indicated by >.
The command enable is used to enter privilege mode indicated by #
As a security concern, privilege mode password must be set as by default, anyone can go
from user mode to privilege mode by issuing the command enable.
The line console numbered 0 is used to configure router. Certain parameters like demand for
username and password while using console and idle timeout must be set.
show running-config displays the configurations done.
One can save these settings to NVRAM by issuing the command copy running-config
startup-config.
Refer to figure 1.1 for the basic configurations on a router.

Figure 1.1: Basic Router Configuration

1.11 Layer 2 Switching

Layer 2 switching/bridging is performed by layer 2 Switch by observing the MAC address of the frame. The
MAC address is learnt through a process called transparent bridging.
Transparent bridging consists of the learning, flooding, filtering/forwarding and ageing.
The learnt mac addresses are stored in the mac address table. Mac addresses can also be manually put in
the mac address table.

2.1 IP Routing
Types of routing
Static : The next hop to a destination IP network is manually entered in the routing table.
Dynamic: The next hop to a destination network is automatically discovered by the use of routing
protocols.
2.2 Types of Routing Protocols
Distance vector: These routing protocols operate by periodically updating their neighbours about
known networks. The distance referred to is the hop count and the vector is the interface from
which data will exit. RIP and EIGRP are distance vector routing protocol, tough EIGRP is a hybrid
and is also called advanced distance vector routing protocol.
RIP: RIP is the first protocol of the Internet. It uses the Bellman Ford algorithm to find out the
lowest hop count path. RIP is the least complex routing protocol. RIP cannot operate more
than 15 hops.
EIGRP: Enhance Interior gateway routing protocol is a Cisco proprietary routing protocol
providing better path cost calculation and proactive approach towards link failure scenarios by
use of tables that hold backup routes in case the primary route fails.
LAB: Configuring EIGRP.
Configure topology as per figure 2.1. Assign IP address accordingly.

Figure 2.1: EIGRP Topology

Configure New York Router as per figure 2.2

Figure 2.2: NewYork Router EIGRP configuration

Configure Mumbai Router as per figure 2.3. Note the neighborship being established.

Figure 2.3: Mumbai Router EIGRP configuration

Configure London Router as per figure 2.4

Figure 2.4: NewYork Router EIGRP configuration

Configure Tokyo Router as per figure 2.5

Figure 2.5: NewYork Router EIGRP configuration

Verify the routing table of New York router for EIGRP routes as per figure 2.6

Figure 2.6: NewYork Router Routing table.

Similarly verify the routing table of Mumbai, London and Tokyo Routers. All routers should
have 6 routes each.
Verify communication between the end PCs by pinging.

Link state: These protocols advertise the status of their link to all the devices in the network. Link
state routing protocols observe shortest path first paradigm. OSPF and IS-IS are link state routing
protocols
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First is an open link state routing protocol. OSPF was made as an
alternative to EIGRP as EIGRP is cisco proprietary. OSPF uses the concept of areas for
hierarchical configuration approach. OSPF uses Djkstras Algorithm to determine shortest
path.
ISIS: Intermediate system-Intermediate system is another link state routing protocol.
Conceptually, it is similar to OSPF. However, it differs from OSPF from implementation point
of view as IS-IS does not work on IP while OSPF uses IP as its carrier protocol.

2.3 VLAN (Virtual LAN): A VLAN is a logical LAN that is used to manage LAN. A VLAN helps in grouping
interfaces based on common attributes. Ex: All devices from accounts department can be grouped together
despite they being connected to different switches.
Types of VLAN interfaces:
Access: Access interface is an interface that is a member of only one VLAN
Trunk: Trunk interface is not a member of any VLAN and unconditionally allows traffic from all
VLANS to flow through.
VTP: Vlan Trunking protocol is used to replicate VLAN database between VTP server and clients. Note that
interface membership is not replicated.
VTP Modes:
Server: VLANs can be created on the server which will replicate to clients in the same domain.
Client: VLANs cannot be created on a client. VLANs from server are replicated to clients and only those
VLANs can be used.
Transparent: VLANs can be created here. However, they are not replicated anywhere. Transparent VTP
mode allows database to replicate between server and client without updating itself.
Trunking Types: To identify which VLAN traffic is coming from, switches tag the frames with VLAN id as
they exit a trunk interface. There are two types of tagging.
ISL: Inter switch link is a Cisco Proprietary tagging mechanism. It is an external tagging method
which increases the size of the frame.
IEEE 802.1Q: This is an open tagging method. It is an internal tagging method and does not
increase the size of the frame.

InterVLAN Routing: traffic from one VLAn cannot communicate with other vlan. To achieve this, interVLAN
routing is performed and the router performing this is referred to as router-on-a-stick.
LAB:
Configure topology as per figure 2.7. Assign IP addresses accordingly.

Figure 2.7: Topology for InterVLAN routing

Configure the switch as per figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: Configuration for Switch

Make sure that the PCs do not ping each other now.

Configure router as per figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Configuration for router.

Now the PCs should be able to ping each other.

2.4 Spanning Tree Protocol

Spanning Tree protocol is used to logically remove loops at layer 2. It is defined in IEEE 802.1d.
Removal of layer 2 loops is necessary to avoid broadcast storms.
STP uses BPDU (Bridging Protocol Datagram Unit) for communicating STP information with other
switches. BPDU is sent every 2 seconds.
STP Port States
Block: The initial state of a STP port. If the port causes a loop, then it remains in blocking state.
A port remain in this state for at least 20 seconds.
Listen: STP frames that are received are forwarded. However, no frames are learned for STP
information. A port remains in this state for 15 seconds.
Learn: STP frames are studied and STP database is updated accordingly. A port remains in
this state for 15 seconds.
Forward: STP as well as data frames are received and forwarded.
Disable: STP is disabled and no longer helps in elimination of loops.
Working of STP:
STP terminologies:
Bridge ID: Combination of Bridge Priority + MAC address of the VLAN on which STP is
operating.
Bridge Priority: A value from 0 to 61440 in the multiples of 4096. It is used to control the
default behaviour of STP.
STP process
Election of Root Bridge per VLAN: A root bridge is a switch having the lowest Bridge ID.
Elect one root port per non-root bridge per VLAN: A root port is the interface of a switch which
receives the least path cost BPDU from the root bridge. Path costs are defined in IEEE 802.1d
as 100 for 10 Mbps, 19 for 100 Mbps, 4 for 1 Gbps and 2 for 10 Gbps networks.
Elect one designated port per segment. A segment is a cable connecting two switches. Each
segment has two ends. Only one of these two ends will become designated port. A designated
port is the interface of a switch which sends the least path cost BPDU from root bridge.
All interfaces that are neither root nor designated remain in blocked state. Root and
designated ports become forwarding ports until any topology change takes place.