BY

PRIYA SHARMA

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO

INCHARGE, BUDDING SCIENTIST OF INDIA CONTEST, AGGASAIM, GOA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

BUDDING SCIENTIST OF INDIA CONTEST PHASE II

CLASS: - 8TH
JANUARY 2015

Budding scientist of India contest,

Aggasaim, goa

CLASS: - VIIITH B

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this is a project work done by Miss. Priya
Sharma of class VIIITH for the project required for Phase II Of
Budding Scientist Of India Contest which was held during the
academic year 2014- 2015.

SIGNATURE OF EXAMINER

SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL

SIGNATURE OF GUIDE

SIGNATURE OF SCIENCE TEACHER

SIGNATURE OF STUDENT

ACKNOWLEDGEME
principal Mrs. Roopa Katiyar for all the
NT and support extended to us
encouragement
I would first like to thank our beloved

during the tenure of this project and also our

years of studies in this school.

TABLE
OF
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
ANY THREE
SCIENTISTS AND HOW THEY MADE
THEIR INVENTIONS
I

LASZLO JOZSEF BIRO- BALL PEN

express
our heartfelt
thanks to
ROY PLUNKETTTEFLON
ALESSANDRO VOLTA- BATTERY

our class

teacher, Mrs. Suman Singh Maam, who has

been actively involved and very influential from
the startANY
till the
completion
of WITH
our project.
THREE
FRUITS
THEIR NUTRITIONAL
VALUE
KIWIFRUIT
I thank
our Science Teacher, Mrs. Nilu
PEAR

Pandey

PEAR
CRANBERRY
Maam
for her

espousal and for having

instilled in us the confidence to complete our

project on time.
ANY THREE LABORATORY APPARATUS WITH
THEIR USES
THERMOMETER
I also
thank my guide Mrs. Neela Bhaskar
Maam

BUNSEN BURNER
for
her guidance,

MICROSCOPE

assistance

and

cooperation that that facilitated the successful

conclusion of my project.
I would
to thank
teaching
and
ANYalso
BODY
PARTall
WITH
ITS FUNCTIONSONElike
SPINALstaff
CORD
non- teaching
of our school for their
constant support and encouragement given to us.

WHY YOU WANT TO BECOME SCIENTIST?

ANY THREE SCIENTISTS AND

HOW THEY MADE THEIR
INVENTIONS

LASZLO JOZSEF BIROBALL PEN

Every invention has a story which sizzles right behind the scenes. Ball
Pen is also one invention, which though is of huge importance, yet not
many know where it originated from. The history of the pen can be
traced back to 1880s, when the first patent on a ball pen was issued to
John Loud. This leather tanner attempted to make a writing object with
which he could write on the leather he tanned. The pen, he had invented,
constituted of a rotating steel ball as the tip held in a socket. It could
write on the leather as intended by Loud. However, the invention proved
futile for others as it proved way too coarse and messy for letter
writing; so was disapproved commercially. The original patent lapsed with
the failure of this invention on the grounds of practicality and usability.
The second innings for the ball pen was in the making and it all began
again with the first and very famous stylized fountain pen. Invented by
Cross, the fountain pen is identified as daddy to the ball pens. This
invention triggered more of brainstorming that lasted till ball pen was

born. Laszlo Jozsef Biro, a native of Budapest owns the patent of the
ball pen to his name. What he had invented was a ball pen that contained
ink cartridge in the pressurized form. A journalist named Biro took no
time in noticing the quick drying capability of the ink used in the
newspapers, and thought that if the same ink was utilized in a pen that
smudged letters problem could be resolved. Being a proof reader, Biro
had to refill his fountain pen from an ink bottle incessantly and this
drove him crazy at times.

In the beginning of 1930s, along with his brother Georg, a

chemist, Biro began with the experiment of a pen that would not need to
be refilled and at the same time would not smudge the pages too. The
concept revolved around a ball which was used on the tip of the pen and
as this pen was moved on the paper, the ball would rotate pulling the ink
from the cartridge. This time, the design of the pen was acclimatized
with practicality and hence, the two brothers used a sealed reservoir
which would store the ink inside the pen. In terms of consistency too,
the ink was changed to thicker and quick drying ink. As the designing
flaws were bid goodbye, Laszlo Biro was issued a patent to the pen in the
year 1938. It could well be summed up, that even though Laszlo was not
the first inventor of a ball pen; he was however, the successful inventor
of a working design of ball pen which is now universally acceptable.

The story doesn't end here; in the year 1943, the two brothers began
their quest for getting their invention worldwide recognition as well as
financial support. They moved to Argentina and discovered someone who
willingly financed the Birome pen and in no time, a factory was started to
manufacture more ball pens. The ball pen was initially advertised as the
only pen which could write even under the water. There were
demonstrations witnessed by huge audiences, plenty of those who longed
to write with the ball pen under the water. The company led by Biro
became the leading producers of ball pens. The British soon caught wind
of it and fascinated by the qualities of the ball pen, they bought the
patent. The company was thus, sold to BIC Corporation who started
producing and supplying pens to the Royal Air Force. Biro pens were
considered highly useful for the pilots as they could write even in the
pressure of high altitudes. This was also a major breakthrough for the
ball pen that faced huge rivalry from the fountain pen as initially it was
marked as a useful and fashionable accessory, but then being used at
high altitudes added to the technological specification of the pen.
At a much reduced price, the ball pen made a foray into the British
market. Laszlo Biro, the inventor continued his display of entrepreneurial
flair and managed to secure significant financial scores to his name,
however, he soon lost the Biro Company to Henry Martin who took over
the production of ball pen from Laszlo Biro. Martin made the ball pen an
established name (Biro Swan) in the market, but the credentials to bring
ball pen to the position that it enjoys today, go to Marcel Bich. He
founded a company that manufactured his own patented ball pen designs.
BIC Cristal, that directly succeeded Biro, enjoys the largest share in the

market today. Pen had discovered a market for itself a lot earlier, but
the quality practices which underwent in making the ball pen as perfect
as it is today are owed to Bich who established the ball pen high on the
international benchmarks. Ever since then, the ball pen has been evolving
and a lot has been added to the history of pens.

Today, ball pens are manufactured in almost every country. What goes in
their making is also a well defined geographical needs criterion to ensure
that the ink viscosity and tip tolerances are as per the environment,
where the pens are meant to be used. The present scenario is such that
the market is flooded with pens in unlimited varieties, designs and colors.
It is a choose as you may situation for the users. Ranging from
handcrafted ball pens to simple and sober ones, you will find them all in a
variety unimaginable. Ever wondered, such a small item has given the
world so much. A small invention has now become an indispensable part of
our lives. It might not be the most technologically high-end instrument,
but probably one of the most essential ones, one we cant do without.
How many times have you complained your pen got stolen? That is just
because a lot of us need them in our everyday lives. Whether to a
student or a business man, pen is highly useful tool.

ROY PLUNKETT- TEFLON

Roy Plunkett invented Teflon while trying to make a better refrigerator.

When the DuPont chemist was only 27 years old, he had a big idea.
Plunkett wanted to combine a specific gas with hydrochloric acid. He
gathered the desired gas (tetrafluoroethylene) but wasn't quite ready
to start experimenting. So he cooled and pressurized the gas in

canisters overnight. But when he returned the next day, the gas was
gone. The canisters weighed the same amount as when they were full,
but nothing came out. Where did all the gas go?
Confused, Plunkett cut the canisters in half. The gas had solidified on
the sides, creating a slick surface.
"Rather than discard the apparent mistake, Plunkett and his assistant
tested the new polymer and found that it had some very unusual
properties: it was extremely slippery as well as inert to virtually all
chemicals, including highly corrosive acids," writes DuPont in its
corporate history. "The product, trademarked as Teflon in 1945, was
first used by the military in artillery shell fuses and in the production of
nuclear material for the Manhattan Project."

While Plunkett invented Teflon, he didn't come up with the idea of using
it for cooking. About a decade after Plunkett sawed those canisters in
half, a French engineer named Marc Grgoire introduced "Tefal" pans,
the first to be lined in Teflon. The idea came from his wife. Before
Tefal, Grgoire used Teflon on his fishing tackle to prevent tangling. But
his wife realized that the nonstick surface would be perfect for
cookware.

ALESSANDRO VOLTABATTERY

Electricity has fascinated human kind since our ancestors first

witnessed lightning. In ancient Greece, Thales observed that an electric
charge could be generated by rubbing amber, for which the Greek word
is electron. In 1938 a jar was found just outside Baghdad, Iraq (that may
be, could be or is believed to be) the first battery. The jar is about
2000 years old from the Parthian period. The jar is composed of a clay
jar with a stopper made of asphalt. Sticking through the asphalt is an
iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder. When filled with vinegar - or
any other electrolytic solution - the jar produces about 1.1 volts. But,
such ancient knowledge in the history of electricity bears no known
continuous relationship to the development of modern batteries. Its
form, though, is nearly identical to the principles that are in use today

The German physicist Otto von Guericke experimented with generating

electricity in 1650. The English physicist Stephen Gray discovered
electrical conductivity in 1729. The American statesman and inventor
Benjamin Franklin studied the properties of electricity by conducting his
famous experiment of flying a kite with a key attached during electrical
storms in 1752.

Luigi Galvani is famous for his experiments concerning "the electrical

forces in muscular movements", leading up to his theory of animal
electricity. This began with the accidental observation, in 1780, of the
twitching of the legs of a dissected frog when the bared crural nerve
was touched with the steel scalpel. He worked diligently along these
lines, but waited for eleven years before he published the results and his
ingenious and simple theory. This theory discovered that when nerve and
muscle touch two dissimilar metals in contact with each other, a
contraction of the muscle takes place. But he incorrectly thought fluid in
the frog's body was the source of the electricity. The theory has been
abandoned by scientists on account of later discoveries by Italian
inventor Alessandro Volta. Volta proved that the source of the
electricity was a reaction caused by the animal's body fluids being
touched by two different types of metal.
Beginning his work in 1794, Volta observed the electrical interaction
between two different metals submerged near each other in an acidic

solution. Based on this principle, his first battery consisted of a series

of alternating copper and zinc rings in an acid solution known as an
electrolyte. His device for generating a consistent flow of electricity
was invented in 1800. He called his invention a column battery, although
it came to be commonly known as the Volta battery, Voltaic cell or
Voltaic pile. Voltas discovery of a means of converting chemical energy
into electrical energy formed the basis for nearly all modern batteries.
Volta researched the effects which different metals produced when
exposed to salt water. In 1801, Volta demonstrated the Voltaic cell to
Napoleon Bonaparte (who later ennobled him, Count, for his discoveries).

In 1800 , William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle used a battery to

decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen. Sir Humphry Davy
researched this chemical effect at the same time. Davy researched the
decomposition of substances (called electrolysis ). In 1813 , he
constructed a 2,000-plate paired battery in the basement of Britain's
Royal Society, covering 889 ft (83 m). Through this experiment, Davy
deduced that electrolysis was the action in the voltaic pile that produced
electricity. In 1820, the British researcher John Frederic Daniell
improved the voltaic cell. The Daniell cell consisted of copper and zinc
plates and copper and zinc sulphates . It was used to operate telegraphs
and doorbells.

Between 1832 and 1834 , Michael Faraday conducted experiments with a

ferrite ring , a galvanometer, and a connected battery. When the
battery was connected or disconnected, the galvanometer deflected.
Faraday also developed the principle of ionic mobility in chemical
reactions of batteries. In 1839 , William Robert Grove developed the
first fuel cell, which produced electrical energy by combining hydrogen
and oxygen. Grove developed another form the electric cell using zinc
and platinum electrodes. These electrodes were exposed to two acids
separated by a diaphragm.

The next step in the evolution of electrical energy storage was the
invention of the lead acid storage battery in 1859 by the French
physicist Gaston Plante. This chemical battery used a liquid electrolyte,
and was not easy to move. Based on the pioneering work done between
1867 and 1877 by Georges Leclanche in France, the situation showed
promise of changing to a more portable battery. Around 1881, Emile

Alphonse Faure , with his colleagues, developed batteries using a mixture

of lead oxides for the positive plate electrolyte. These had faster
reactions and higher efficiency.
Dr. Carl Gassner Jr. produced the first "dry" cell in 1886 with zinc as
the container for the other elements as well as for the negative
electrode. The electrolyte was absorbed in a porous material and the cell
was sealed across the top. During 1886 Dr. Gassner obtained patents
throughout Europe. A U.S. patent no. 373,064 was issued on November
15, 1887. In the dry cell battery, the electrolyte is a damp paste so that
there is no liquid to leak out, and thus quite portable. It became the
prototype for the dry battery industry.

The National Carbon Company was founded in 1886 by the then Brush
Electric Company executive W. H. Lawrence. The company would supply
carbon items needed in electrical devices such as carbon-arc electrodes,
motor brushes and rods used in carbon-zinc batteries. That same year
the first commercial battery went on sale. It was a carbon-zinc battery
introduced by National Carbon Company. In 1898 the National Carbon
Company introduces the first D cell battery. In 1905, National Carbon
Company which had supplied "Eveready" with materials for their
batteries, bought a half interest in the company for $200,000. Conrad
Hubert remained president and there was little change in the general
policies of the company. The name was changed to "The American Ever
Ready Company". In 1914, American Ever Ready became part of National

Carbon Company now forming a manufacturer specializing in both

batteries and lighting products.

Since those early days, either 2000 years ago or 200 years ago, many
improvements have been made to the battery. Even today chemist,
scientists and inventors are working to find additional improvements and
new applications for the electric battery

ANY THREE FRUITS WITH

THEIR NUTRITIONAL
VALUE
KIWIFRUIT

Nutritional value (1 large):

56 calories, 3 g fibre, source of vitamins C and E, and of magnesium and
potassium
Disease-fighting factor:
With more vitamin C than oranges, kiwis can help in the development and
maintenance of bones, cartilage, teeth and gums. They can also help
lower blood triglyceride levels (high triglycerides increase the risk of
heart disease).
Did you know?
Most people remove the fuzzy skin, but kiwis can actually be eaten whole
skin and all.
Health benefits of Kiwi fruit
Kiwifruit is moderately good in calories, comparable to that of
grapes. 100 g of kiwi berry holds 61 calories. Nonetheless, it has
several health giving anti-oxidants, minerals, vitamins and fiber.

 It is good source of soluble dietary fiber (3.8 g per 100 g of fruit

OR 10% of RDA), which brand it as a good bulk laxative. The fiber
content helps to protect the colon mucous membrane by decreasing
exposure time to toxins as well as binding to cancer-causing
chemicals in the colon.
The fruit is an excellent source of antioxidant vitamin-C; providing
about 154% of the DRI (daily-recommended intake). Consumption
of foods rich in vitamin-C helps the body develop resistance against
infectious agents and scavenge harmful free radicals.
Kiwi fruit contains very good levels of vitamin-A, vitamin-E, vitaminK and flavonoid anti-oxidants such as beta-carotene, lutein and
xanthin. Vitamin K has a potential role in the increase of bone mass
by promoting osteotrophic activity in the bone. It also has
established role in Alzheimer's disease patients by limiting neuronal
damage in the brain. Total antioxidant strength measured in terms
of oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of kiwifruit (gold,
raw) is 1210 mol TE/100 g.
Research studies have shown that certain substances in kiwi-fruit
functions as blood thinner function similar to aspirin; thus, it helps
prevent clot formation inside the blood vessels and protect from
stroke and heart-attack risk.
Kiwi-fruit seeds are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids.
Research studies show that consumption of foods rich in omega-3
fatty acids may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke,
and help prevent the development of ADHD, autism, and other
developmental disorders in children.
Fresh kiwi fruit is a very rich source of heart-healthy electrolyte
"potassium." 100 g contains 312 mg or 7% of daily-recommended
levels of this electrolyte. Potassium is an important component of

cell and body fluids that help regulate heart rate and blood
pressure by countering malefic effects of sodium.
It also contains good amounts of minerals like manganese, iron and
magnesium. Manganese is used in the body as a co-factor for the
powerful antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase. Magnesium is
an important bone-strengthening mineral like calcium.
Kiwi fruit or Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia
chinensis),
Fresh, Nutrient value per 100 g .
(Source: USDA National Nutrient data base)
Principle

Nutrient

Percentage of

Value

RDA

Energy

61 Kcal

3%

Carbohydrates

14.66 g

11%

Protein

1g

2%

Total Fat

0.52 g

2%

Cholesterol

0 mg

0%

Dietary Fiber

3g

8%

Folates

25 g

6%

Niacin

0.341 mg

2%

Riboflavin

0.025 mg

2%

Thiamin

0.027 mg

2%

Vitamin A

87 IU

3%

Vitamin C

92.7 mg

154%

Vitamin E

1.46 mg

10%

Vitamin K

40.3 g

34%

Sodium

3 mg

0%

Potassium

312 mg

7%

Vitamins

Electrolytes

Minerals

Calcium

34 mg

3.5%

Copper

0.130 mg

14%

Iron

0.31 mg

4%

Magnesium

17 mg

4%

Manganese

0.098 mg

4%

Zinc

0.14 mg

1%

Carotene-

52 g

--

Crypto-xanthin-

0 g

--

Lutein-zeaxanthin

122 g

--

Phyto-nutrients

PEAR

Nutritional value (1 medium):

96 calories, 5 g fibre
Disease-fighting factor:
Much of the fibre found in pears is soluble, which can help prevent
constipation. Soluble fibre may also help reduce blood cholesterol levels
and prevent heart disease.
Did you know?

Unlike most other fruits, pears don't ripen well on the tree.
Instead, pears are harvested when mature and are allowed to finish
ripening under controlled conditions.
Pears fruit is packed with health benefiting nutrients such as
dietary fiber, anti-oxidants, minerals and vitamins, which are
necessary for optimum health. Total measured antioxidant strength
(ORAC value) in pears is 2941 mol TE/100 g.

Health benefits of pear:

Pears are a good source of dietary fiber. 100 g fruit provides 3.1 g
or 8% of fiber per 100g. Regular eating of this fruit may offer
protection against colon cancer. Most of the fiber in them is non

soluble polysaccharide (NSP), which functions as a good bulk

laxative in the gut. Additionally, its gritty fiber content binds to
cancer-causing toxins and chemicals in the colon, protecting its
mucous membrane from contact with these compounds.
In addition, pear fruit is one of the very low calorie fruits; provides
just 58 calories per 100g. A low calorie but high fiber diet may help
bring significant reduction in body weight, and blood LDL
cholesterol levels.
They contain good quantities of vitamin C. Fresh fruits provide
about 7% of RDA per 100 g.
They are moderate sources of antioxidant flavonoids phytonutrients such as beta-carotene, lutein and zea-xanthin. These
compounds, along with vitamin C and A, help the body protected
from harmful free radicals.
The fruit is a good source of minerals such as copper, iron,
potassium, manganese and magnesium as well as B-complex vitamins
such as folates, riboflavin and pyridoxine (vitamin B-6).
Although not well documented, pears are among the least allergenic
of all the fruits. For the same reason, they often recommended by
health practitioners as a safe alternative in the preparation of food
products for allergic persons.
Pears have been suggested in various traditional medicines in the
treatment of colitis, chronic gallbladder disorders, arthritis, and
gout.

Pears (Pyrus communis), Fresh,

Nutritive value per 100 g

(Source: USDA National Nutrient data base)

Principle

Nutrient

Percentage of

Value

RDA

Energy

58 Kcal

3%

Carbohydrates

13.81 g

11%

Protein

0.38 g

<1%

Total Fat

0.12 g

0.5%

Cholesterol

0 mg

0%

Dietary Fiber

3.10 g

8%

Folates

7 g

2%

Niacin

0.157 mg

1%

Pantothenic acid

0.048 mg

1%

Pyridoxine

0.028 mg

2%

Riboflavin

0.025 mg

2%

Thiamin

0.012 mg

1%

Vitamin A

23 IU

1%

Vitamin C

4.2 mg

7%

Vitamin E

0.12 mg

1%

Vitamin K

4.5 g

4%

Sodium

1 mg

0%

Potassium

119 mg

2.5%

Calcium

9 mg

1%

Copper

0.082 mg

9%

Iron

0.17 mg

2%

Vitamins

Electrolytes

Minerals

Magnesium

7 mg

Manganese

2%
2%

Phosphorus

11 mg

2%

Zinc

0.10 mg

1%

Carotene-

12 g

--

Crypto-xanthin-

2 g

--

Lutein-zeaxanthin

45 g

--

Phyto-nutrients

CRANBERRY

Nutritional value (1/2 cup/125 mL):

25 calories, 2.5 g fibre, rich in antioxidants
Disease-fighting factor:
Cranberries are antibacterial and studies show that they can help treat
and prevent urinary tract infections. Recent research has also linked
cranberries to the prevention of kidney stones and ulcers.
Did you know?
Unsweetened cranberry juice makes an excellent mouthwash
studies show it can help kill bacteria and fight cavities.
Health benefits of cranberry
Delicious, tart cranberries hold significantly high amounts of
phenolic flavonoid phytochemicals calledpro-anthocyanidins (PACs).
Scientific studies have shown that consumption of berries have
potential health benefits against cancer, aging and neurological
diseases, inflammation, diabetes, and bacterial infections.
Antioxidant compounds in cranberries such as oligomeric
proanthocyanidins (OPCs), anthocyanidin flavonoids, cyanidin,
peonidin and quercetin may prevent cardiovascular disease by

counteracting against cholesterol plaque formation in the heart and

blood vessels. Further, these compounds help the human body lower
LDL cholesterol levels and increase HDL-good cholesterol levels in
the blood.
Research studies show that cranberry juice consumption offers
protection against gram-negative bacterial infections such as E.coli
in the urinary system by inhibiting bacterial-attachment to the
bladder and urethra.
Consumption of cranberries turns urine acidic. This, together with
the inhibition of bacterial adhesion property of cranberry juice,
helps prevent the formation of alkaline (calcium ammonium
phosphate) stones in the urinary tract by working
against proteus bacterial-infections.
Further, the berries prevent plaque formation on the tooth enamel
by interfering with the ability of another gram-negative
bacterium, Streptococcus mutans, to stick to the surface. It thus
helps prevent development of cavities in a way similar to preventing
urinary tract infections.
In addition, the berries are also good source of many vitamins like
vitamin C, vitamin A, -carotene, lutein, zea-xanthin, and folate and
minerals like potassium, and manganese.
Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity or ORAC (measurement of
antioxidant strength of food items) demonstrates cranberry at
an ORAC score of 9584 mol TE units per 100 g, one of the
highest in the category of edible berries.


Cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon), Fresh, ORAC
score 9584,
Nutritive Value per 100 g.
(Source: USDA National Nutrient data base)
Principle

Nutrient

Percentage of

Value

RDA

Energy

46 Kcal

2.3%

Carbohydrates

12.2 g

9%

Protein

0.4 g

1%

Total Fat

0.13 g

<1%

Cholesterol

0 mg

0%

Dietary Fiber

4.6 g

12%

Folates

1 g

<1%

Niacin

0.101 mg

1%

Pantothenic acid

0.295 mg

6%

Pyridoxine

0.057 mg

4%

Riboflavin

0.020 mg

2%

Thiamin

0.012 mg

1%

Vitamin A

60 IU

2%

Vitamin C

13.3 mg

22%

Vitamins

Vitamin E

1.20 mg

8%

Vitamin K

5.1 g

4%

Sodium

2 mg

0%

Potassium

85 mg

2%

Calcium

8 mg

1%

Copper

0.061 mg

7%

Iron

0.25 mg

3%

Magnesium

6 mg

1.5%

Manganese

0.360 mg

16%

Phosphorus

13 mg

2%

Selenium

0.1 g

0%

Zinc

0.10 mg

1%

Carotene-

36 g

--

Crypto-xanthin-

0 g

--

Lutein-zeaxanthin

91 g

--

Electrolytes

Minerals

Phyto-nutrients

SOME INTERESTING
FACTS

Frozen fruit
If your favourite fresh fruit is only available for six weeks of the year,
head to the frozen food aisle. Grocery store freezers house a variety of
affordable frozen fruit, ranging from cubed mango to woodland
blueberries to tropical fruit salad.
Not only is frozen fruit convenient, but it's also equally nutritious if
not more so than its fresh counterpart. Fresh fruit starts to lose
nutrients as soon as it's picked. The time between harvest and
consumption can be long enough for significant nutrient losses to occur.
Frozen fruit, however, is picked and frozen immediately, retaining much
of the nutrient value. Plus, since frozen fruit is already washed, peeled
and cut, it's a breeze to use. It can be thawed at room temperature or
defrosted in the microwave. Once defrosted, eat it as you would fresh
fruit, or use it atop cereal, mixed in yogurt or blended into smoothies.

Phytochemicals: Most of the more than 1,000 known phytochemicals

have antioxidant properties that help protect our cells against diseasecausing damage. Phytochemicals are often identified by their colour (for
example, the purple-hued anthocyanins in blackberries and the red
lycopene in tomatoes). Each colourful phytochemical provides a different
health benefit to the body, so for the best protection against a variety
of diseases, choose an array of colourful fruits each day.
Free radicals: Harmful molecules that occur naturally in the body or
that come from pesticides, pollution, smoking and radiation. They damage

the body's cells, which can lead to cancer and heart disease.
Antioxidants: Powerful substances that can protect the body against
the harmful effects of free radicals. Some of the vitamins, minerals and
phytochemicals found in fruit can act as antioxidants.

Any three laboratory

apparatus with their uses
Thermometer

Definition
A thermometer is a device used to measure temperature.
Purpose
A thermometer is used in health care to measure and monitor body
temperature. In an office, hospital or other health care facility, it allows
a caregiver to record a baseline temperature when a patient is admitted.
Repeated measurements of temperature are useful to detect deviations
from normal levels. Repeated measurements are also useful in monitoring
the effectiveness of current medications or other treatments.
The patient's temperature is recorded to check for pyrexia or monitor
the degree of hypothermia present in the body.
Demographics

All health care professionals use thermometers. All health care facilities
have thermometers. Most homes also have thermometers.
Description

A thermometer can use any of several methods to register temperature.

These include mercury; liquid-in-glass; electronic with digital display;
infrared or tympanic; and disposable dot matrix. A thermometer can be
used in a clinical or emergency setting or at home. Thermometers can
record body temperatures in the mouth (oral), armpit (axillary), eardrum
(tympanic membrane), or anus (rectal).
A mercury thermometer consists of a narrow glass stem approximately 5
in (12.7 cm) in length with markings along one or both sides indicating the
temperature scale in degrees Fahrenheit, Centigrade or both. Liquid
mercury is held in a reservoir bulb at one end and rises through a
capillary tube when the glass chamber is placed in contact with the body.
Mercury thermometers are not used in modern clinical settings.

Electronic thermometers can record a wide range of temperatures

between 94F and 105F, (35C and 42C) and can record oral, axillary,
or rectal temperatures. They have temperature sensors inside roundtipped probes that can be covered with disposable guards to prevent the
spread of infection. The sensor is connected to a container housing the
central processing unit. The information gathered by the sensor is then
shown on a display screen. Some electronic models have such other
features as memory recall of the last recording or a large display screen
for easy reading. To use an electronic thermometer, the caregiver places
the probe under the patient's arm or tongue, or in the patient's rectum.
The probe is left in place for a period of time that depends on the model
used. The device will beep when the peak temperature is reached. The
time required to obtain a reading varies from 330 seconds.
A tympanic thermometer has a round-tipped probe containing a sensor
that can be covered with a disposable guard to protect against the
spread of ear infections. It is placed in the ear canal for 1 sec while an
infrared sensor records the body heat radiated by the eardrum. The
reading then appears on the unit's screen.
Digital and tympanic thermometers should be used in accordance with
the manufacturer's guidelines.
Disposable thermometers are plastic strips with dots on the surface
that have been impregnated with temperature-sensitive chemicals. The
strips are sticky on one side to adhere to the skin under the armpit and
prevent slippage. The dots change color at different temperatures as
the chemicals in them respond to body heat. The temperature is
readable after two to three minutes, depending on the instrument's
guidelines. These products vary in length of use; they may be disposable,

reusable, or used continuously for up to 48 hours. Disposable

thermometers are useful for children, as they can record temperatures
while children are asleep.

Diagnosis/Preparation

Training
Caregivers should be given training appropriate for the type of device
used in their specific clinical setting.

Operation
The patient should sit or lie in a comfortable position to ensure that
temperature readings are taken in similar locations each time and to
minimize the effects of stress or excitement on the reading.
The manufacturer's guidelines should be followed when taking a
patient's temperature with a digital, tympanic, or disposable
thermometer. Dot-matrix thermometers are placed next to the skin and
usually held in place by an adhesive strip. With the tympanic
thermometer, caregivers should ensure that the probe is properly
inserted into the ear to allow an optimal reading. The reading will be less

accurate if the sensor cannot accurately touch the tympanic membrane

or if the ear canal is clogged by wax or debris.
A mercury thermometer can be used to monitor a temperature in three
body locations:
Axillary.
Oral or sublingual. This placement is never used with infants.
Rectal. This method is used with infants. The tip of a rectal
mercury thermometer is usually colored blue to distinguish it from
the silver tip of an oral/axillary thermometer.
Before recording a temperature using a mercury thermometer, the
caregiver shakes the mercury down by holding the thermometer firmly
at the clear end and flicking it quickly a few times with a downward wrist
motion toward the silver end. The mercury should be shaken down below
96F (35.5C) before the patient's temperature is taken.
In axillary placement, the silver tip of the thermometer is placed under
the patient's right armpit, with the patient's arm pressing the
instrument against the chest. The thermometer should stay in place for
six to seven minutes. The caregiver can record the patient's other vital
signs during this waiting period. After the waiting period has elapsed,
the caregiver removes the thermometer and holds it at eye level to read
it. The mercury will have risen to a level indicating the patient's
temperature.
The procedure for taking a patient's temperature by mouth with a
mercury thermometer is similar to the axillary method except that the
silver tip of the thermometer is placed beneath the tongue for four to

five minutes before being read. In both cases, the thermometer is wiped
clean and stored in an appropriate container to prevent breakage.
To record the patient's rectal temperature with a mercury
thermometer, a rectal thermometer is shaken down as described earlier.
A small amount of water-based lubricant is placed on the colored tip of
the thermometer to make it easier to insert. Infants must be positioned
lying on their stomachs and held securely by the caregiver. The tip of
the thermometer is inserted into the rectum no more than 0.5 in (1.3 cm)
and held there for two to three minutes. The thermometer is removed,
read as before, and cleansed with an antibacterial wipe. It is then stored
in an appropriate container to prevent breakage. This precaution is
important as mercury is poisonous when swallowed.
Liquid-in-glass thermometers contain alternatives to mercury (such as
colored alcohol), but are used and stored in the same manner as mercury
thermometers.

Maintenance
Many digital and infrared thermometers are self-calibrating and need
relatively little care. To ensure accuracy, mercury thermometers should
be shaken down prior to every use and left in place for at least three
minutes. They require careful storage to prevent breakage and thorough
cleaning after each use to prevent cross-infection.
As of early 2003, there is a nationwide initiative to ban the sale of
thermometers and blood pressure monitors containing mercury. Health
activists are concerned about mercury from broken or unwanted
instruments contaminating the environment. A mercury thermometer
contains 0.7g (0.025 oz) of mercury; 1 g of the substance is enough to
contaminate a 20-acre lake. Several states have banned the use of

products containing mercury. Most retail stores have stopped selling

mercury thermometers. In October 1999, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) advised using alternative products to avoid the need for
increased regulations in years to come and to protect human health and
wildlife by reducing unnecessary exposure to mercury. According to a
2001 study by the Mayo Clinic, mercury-free devices can monitor
information without compromising accuracy.
Aftercare
A thermometer should be cleaned, disinfected and placed in an
appropriate container for storage.
Risks
Breakage of a glass thermometer creates a risk of cuts from broken
glass and possible mercury poisoning. Improper operation of a tympanic
thermometer can cause injury to the middle ear. As digital devices have
replaced glass thermometers, however, the number of injuries has
declined.
An additional risk is that old or broken thermometers may give
inaccurate results.
Normal results
A normal body temperature is defined as approximately 98.6F (37C).
Body temperature is not constant throughout a 24-hour period. Some
variation (0.3F) is normal. Individuals also vary in their basal
temperatures (0.3F). A fever is defined as a temperature of 101F or
higher in an infant younger than three months or above 102F for older
children and adults. Hypothermia is recognized as a temperature below
96F (35.5C).

Morbidity and mortality rates

Injuries caused by properly inserted and normally functioning
thermometers are extremely rare.
Alternatives
There are no convenient alternatives to using a thermometer to measure
body temperature.

Bunsen
burner

A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is a common piece

of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame,
which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. [1][2][3][4]
[5]
The gas can be natural gas (which is mainly methane) or
a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, butane, or a mixture
of both.
The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a
flammable gas such as natural gas (which is principally methane)
or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a
mixture of both.
The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the laboratory
bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped
with multiple gas nozzles connected to a central gas source, as

well as vacuum,nitrogen, and steam nozzles. The gas then flows

up through the base through a small hole at the bottom of the
barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side
of the tube bottom to admit air into the stream via the venturi
effect, and the gas burns at the top of the tube once ignited by
a flame or spark. The most common methods of lighting the
burner are using a match or a spark lighter.

The amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the
completeness of the combustion reaction. Less air yields an
incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well
mixed with air provides oxygen in an equimolar amount and thus a
complete and hotter reaction. The air flow can be controlled by
opening or closing the slot openings at the base of the barrel,
similar in function to the choke in a carburettor.

If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air

can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn
hotter, appearing blue as a result. If the holes are closed, the
gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion,
that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top. This
reduced mixing produces an incomplete reaction, producing a
cooler but brighter yellow which is often called the "safety
flame" or "luminous flame". The yellow flame is luminous due to
small soot particles in the flame which are heated
to incandescence. The yellow flame is considered "dirty" because
it leaves a layer of carbon on whatever it is heating. When the
burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame it can be nearly
invisible against some backgrounds. The hottest part of the
flame is the tip of the inner flame, while the coolest is the whole
inner flame. Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the
tube by opening the needle valve will increase the size of the
flame. However, unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame
temperature will decrease because an increased amount of gas is
now mixed with the same amount of air, starving the flame of
oxygen.

The burner will often be placed on a suitable heatproof mat to

protect the laboratory bench surface.

microscope

Background
A microscope is an instrument used to produce enlarged images of small
objects. The most common kind of microscope is an optical microscope,
which uses lenses to form images from visible light. Electron
microscopes form images from beams of electrons. Acoustic microscopes
form images from high-frequency sound waves. Tunneling microscopes
form images from the ability of electrons to "tunnel" through the
surface of solids at extremely small distances.
An optical microscope with a single lens is known as a simple microscope.
Simple microscopes include magnifying glasses and jeweler's loupes. An
optical microscope with two lenses is known as a compound microscope.
The basic parts of a compound microscope are the objective, which holds
the lens near the specimen, and the eyepiece, which holds the lens near
the observer. A modern compound microscope also includes a source of
light (either a mirror to catch external light or a light bulb to provide

internal light), a focusing mechanism, and a stage (a surface on which the

object being examined can be held in place). Compound microscopes may
also include a built-in camera for microphotography.
Ancient peoples noted that objects seen through water appeared larger.
The first century Roman philosopher Seneca recorded the fact that
letters seen through a glass globe full of water were magnified. The
earliest simple microscopes consisted of a drop of water captured in a
small hole in a piece of wood or metal. During the Renaissance, small glass
lenses replaced the water. By the late seventeenth century, the Dutch
scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek built outstanding simple microscopes
using very small, high-quality lenses mounted between thin brass plates.
Because of the excellence of his microscopes, and the fact that he was
the first to make observations of microscopic organisms, Leeuwenhoek is
often incorrectly thought of as the inventor of the microscope.
The compound microscope made its first appearance between the years
1590 and 1608. Credit for this invention is often given to Hans Janssen,
his son Zacharias Janssen, or Hans Lippershey, all of whom were Dutch
spectacle makers. Early compound microscopes consisted of pairs of
lenses held in a small metal tube and looked much like modern
kaleidoscopes. Because of the problem of chromatic aberration (the
tendency of a lens to focus each color of light at a slightly different
point, leading to a blurred image) these microscopes were inferior to
well-made simple microscopes of the time.
The earliest written records of microscopic observations were made by
the Italian scientist Francesco Stelluti in 1625, when he published
drawings of a bee as seen through a microscope. The first drawings of
bacteria were made by Leeuwenhoek in 1683. During the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, numerous mechanical improvements were made in
microscopes in Italy, including focusing devices and devices for holding
specimens in place. In England in 1733, the amateur optician Chester
Moor Hall discovered that combining two properly shaped lenses made of

two different kinds of glass minimized chromatic aberration. In 1774,

Benjamin Martin used this technique in a microscope. Many advances
were made in the building of microscopes in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. Electron microscopes were developed in the 1930s,
acoustic microscopes in the 1970s, and tunneling microscopes in the
1980s.
Raw Materials
An optical microscope consists of an optical system (the eyepiece, the
objective, and the lenses inside them) and hardware components which
hold the optical system in place and allow it to be adjusted and focused.
An inexpensive microscope may have a mirror as a light source, but most
professional microscopes have a built-in light bulb.

Lenses are made of optical glass, a special kind of glass which is much
purer and more uniform than ordinary glass. The most important raw
material in optical glass is silicon dioxide, which must be more than
99.9% pure. The exact optical properties of the glass are determined by
its other ingredients. These may include boron oxide, sodium oxide,
potassium oxide, barium oxide, zinc oxide, and lead oxide. Lenses are
given an antireflective coating, usually of magnesium fluoride.
The eyepiece, the objective, and most of the hardware components are
made of steel or steel and zinc alloys. A child's microscope may have an

external body shell made of plastic, but most microscopes have an body
shell made of steel.
If there is a mirror included, it is usually made of a strong glass such as
Pyrex (a trade name for a glass made from silicon dioxide, boron dioxide,
and aluminum oxide). The mirror has a reflective coating made of
aluminum and a protective coating made of silicon dioxide.
If a light bulb is included, it is made from glass and contains a tungsten
filament and wires made of nickel and iron within a mixture of argon and
nitrogen gases. The base of the light bulb is made of aluminum.
If a camera is included, it contains lenses made of optical glass. The
body of the camera is made of steel or other metals or of plastic.

Any one body part with its

functions- spinal cord

The spinal cord is an important structure of the Central Nervous

System. It is an extension of the brain and is a rough,
cylindrical; two feel long structure lying within the case of the
backbone.
The spinal cord originates in the brainstem and runs down
through the backbone and ends in the hips. In appearance, it is
grey inside and white outside.
It is connected to the peripheral nervous system through 31
pairs of spinal nerves.
The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column, which is
composed of 24 individual vertebrate of the cervical, thoracic,
lumbar, the sacral and coccygeal portions.
The internal structure of the spinal cord is much simpler and
more uniform throughout its various parts than is that of the

brain. No matter where it is sectioned (cut), it presents the

same essential appearance. The interior is grey matter (cell
bodies), so distributed as 10 present the picture of a butterfly
whose essential form is the letter H. Outside the grey matter
are great column of white matter making up various fibre tracts
passing up and down the cord. Dividing the cord into symmetrical
halves are two median clefts, the dorsal and ventral fissures.
Between them, in the central parts of the cord, are the two
commissars joining the two halves of the cord.

Functions of the Spinal Cord:

The spinal cord performs the following important functions:
It connects the lower parts of the brain with the sensory and
motor nerves from the body.
Nerves from the sense receptors for heat, cold, pain, pressure
and muscular activity go to the spinal cord.
It is responsible for behaviour known as reflex actions. A reflex
action is an automatic, involuntary response triggered by a

stimulus. It mediates complex reflex actions like blinking, kneejerk, sneezing, coughing, etc. Damage to the spinal cord leads to
paralysis.

Why do you want to become

scientist?
If wishes were horses, everyone would like to ride. In fact, many
of the wishes of the people die in their budding stage. Still man
cannot give up ambitions. My ambition in life is to become a great
scientist.
A scientist has nothing else to think except how he should use
science for the benefit of humankind. I used to think of many
problems concerning science. Do the plants live like human
beings? Are the human beings better than all the animals of the
world? Are all diseases of human beings curable? This flood of
questions used to arise in my mind and I used to feel disturbed
when I did not get any reasonable explanation.
I want to be a scientist because:
I love the thrill of discovery, innovation and feeling a
pioneer in the field that interests me (computers and
technology).
I love to learn and understand the mysteries of the
information encoded in the binary digits of technology,
particularly computers.

 Id love to be able to pave the way for people to access the

information about them and their surroundings, help them
interpret it and share it with others if they so wish.
I want to understand the meaning of each and every
thing( perhaps technology will be my priority) in this world,
how are they made, who invented them, how they work, etc.
In order to know myself, as the greek aphorism inscribed in
the Temple of Apollo at Delphi recommended, a good starting
point is to understand the world I live in in its finest detail,
which is the task of a scientist. I believe there is a part in
human nature that makes us all want to be scientists. Perhaps we
should allow ourselves discover this side of our persona if we
have not done so already.
At last but not the least I would like to help making my
developing country a developed country by contributing my
inventions for my great India.