Dilution behaviour at Codelco Panel Cave Mines

A. Susaeta, IAL Ltda, Chile

E. Rubio, Universidad de Chile, Chile
J. Henrquez, Codelco Central, Chile
G. Pas, Universidad de Chile, Chile

Abstract
Conventionally, there are three main parameters that define dilution behaviour in panel cave mining: draw
point layout geometry (draw point spacing), rock mass fragmentation and draw pattern. Depending on the
ore body, mining geometry, and operational behaviour the underlying gravity flow can be classified as
isolated draw, interactive draw or isolated-interactive draw. Draw point extraction back analysis was
performed at Codelco mines aiming to determine the underlying gravity flow from dilution observations
performed from 7 mines of the three mining Divisions that operate panel caving. The draw point database
consisted of 5000 draw points and represented 365 Million tons drawn between 1996 and 2005. The draw
point database was subdivided by draw point spacing; fragmentation and drawing behaviour, defining 21
representative draw point clusters. These clusters were characterized by an empirical dilution curve and an
underlying flow mechanism. For every curve, the dilution entry point and the percentage of full interaction
was read. As a result of the study a design and operational guideline is proposed to attain interactive flow of
panel caving in different rock masses subject to draw uniformity restrictions.

Introduction

The dilution behaviour in a Panel/Block cave mine is relevant since it defines mining recovery and ultimate
economic return of a given mine design and production plan. Traditionally, the dilution behaviour in a Block
and Panel cave mine has been computed using template mixings or volumetric algorithms as described by
Laubscher (1994) and computer based algorithms as described by Diering (2000). The following chart shows
a diagrammatic representation of how the volumetric algorithm would simulate mixing in a single draw
column. It is seeing that when extracting slice 4 of the draw column dilution starts to enter the draw point.
This point in the life of a draw point is called point of dilution entry (PDE) which Laubscher describes as a
function of fragmentation characteristics, draw point spacing and drawing performance. Clearly, the
geometry of the dilution curve shown below would dictate the average grade to be extracted and the ultimate
mining reserves to be mined.

Figure 1

Volumetric mixing algorithm

The method shown above consists of the volumetric mixing algorithm introduced first by Heslop and
Laubscher (1982). This method still widely used in the mining industry to simulate the process of mixing as

a result of the underlying gravity flow process in Block and Panel caving mines. A different algorithm that
includes the differential vertical flow of fines has been introduced by Diering (2000) that is part of the PCBC Gemcom Block Cave suit. Also, some more sophisticated algorithms that integrate rock mass behaviour
and the constitutive behaviour of particle interaction have been introduced by Pierce and Castro using
particle flow codes and cellular automaton respectively. Nevertheless, it is rear to find calibration of these
sophisticated algorithms and the actual dilution observations performed at the mine sites. Thus, mixing
templates based on simple rules still valid as they can reconcile with the dilution curves presented in this
paper.
The following chart shows a simulation conducted in a single draw column in which three dilution models
have been simulated in order to state the mining reserves for a given cut off grade. In these models the main
parameter to define dilution behaviour is the percentage of dilution entry (PDE). This would characterize the
point at which the first dilution shall be observed at the draw points.

Figure 2

Diluted Columns for PDE=35%, 65% and 85%

Based on a draw column of 100m of ore of 1% copper and an overlying column of 100m of waste of 0%
copper the expected mixed grades at the draw point for the three mixing models presented above are shown
below.

Figure 3

Grade inside diluted Columns.

As a result of the above for a cut off grade of 0.7% copper the best height of draw (Hrecov), the mining
recovery (% Rec), the average grade in the mineable column (Lm) and the copper content (Copper) are
presented in the following table. Clearly it is shown that the impact of the dilution entry point has a

tremendous implications on defining the mining reserves and the copper content which are the main
parameters delineating the mining business. However it should be noted that these results are highly
dependant on the cut off grade and also the ore body under analysis. The results would be quite different if
the ore body had a constant grade without waste on top of the ore body, which is often found in porphyry
copper deposits. Based on these results it is worthwhile analyse the dilution behaviour of Codelco mines to
put all the elements regarding dilution behaviour under perspective, aiming to use these results to further
calibrate mixing templates or particle flow codes in the process of stating Panel and Block cave mining
reserves.
Table 1

Column report for different dilution entry points at 0.7% Cu cut off grade
@0.7COG
PED=35
PED=65
PED=85
PED=100

Hrecov
(m)
75
85
95
100

Hnom
(m)
100
100
100
100

% Rec
(%)
75
85
95
100

Lm
(%)
0.91
0.96
0.98
1.00

Copper
(t)
68
81
93
100

Background and theory

Traditionally it is understood that dilution behaviour is the result of the underlying gravity flow process that
takes place in the ore body that has been previously caved. The gravity flow is induced by the propagation of
void through the broken ore that lies on the production level crown pillar. The fundamentals of gravity flow
for panel caving currently used began with sand experiments performed by Marano (1980), Heslop and
Laubscher (1981) performed at Shabaine mine at the beginning of 70s. These experiments were performed
in a three-dimensional model of 2400mm of height and a base of 760mm x 760mm. The firs experiment
consists of several draw points spaced at 206 mm apart in which drawing is performed simultaneously. This
experiment show that there are drawing zones formed of about 108 mm wide in which there is no interaction
between draw zones. This mode of flow is often called isolated flow. The second experiment consists of
several draw points spaced at 108 mm apart in which the drawing is performed simultaneously. This
experiment shows that there is a uniform draw down of the draw column. This mode of flow is often called
interactive flow. The third experiment consists of setting up the draw point spaced at 152 mm apart in which
the drawing is performed simultaneously. This experiment shows that there is interactive draw with a large
amount of mixing along the draw columns, i.e. fines segregation is observed along the draw column. This
mode of flow is often called interactive flow. Finally the last experiment consists of performing uneven draw
as draw points were drawn sequentially in a draw point layout spaced at 108 mm. The results of this
experiment show that there is chimney and there was no interaction across the major apex. This mode of
flow is often called isolated flow. The following diagram shows the fourth experiments performed by
Marano (1980)

Figure 4

Gravity flow experiments (Marano, 1980)

Susaeta (2004) reports results from a research project in which gravity flow experiments were performed in a
1m x 1m x 2,4m sandbox physical model. The results of this research very much confirmed the results
obtained by previous authors. Nevertheless, the author provides insights regarding the third case described
by Heslop and Laubscher as interactive draw introducing the concept of Isolated-Interactive draw. In this
new mode of flow Susaeta introduces the rate of drawing down differentiating the rate of flow of the draw
point itself (vta) compared with the rate of the material overlying the major apex pillar (vti). The following
diagram illustrates the concept.

Figure 5

Isolated Interactive flow model (Susaeta, 2004)

The author describes flow modes as a function of the degree of interaction (Gi=vti/vta) which is the ratio
between the interactive and isolated draw rate. Thus, if vta>vti would induce Isolated-Interactive flow or
vta=vti would induce Interactive flow or vta>0 and vti=0 would induce Isolated flow. The following diagram
shows the expected flow modes as a function of the degree of interaction.
The author also states that the main underlying parameter to make the transition between interactive flow and
Isolated Interactive flow is the draw point drawing performance. The authors validates his hypothesis
showing a relationship between the uniformity index behaviour over the life of a cluster of draw points and
the degree of interaction measured from remaining reserves obtained from major apex core drilling. Based
on these flow modes the author proposes three main models of dilution as shown below.

Figure 6

Dilution models derived from the Isolated-Interactive flow mode

The percentage of extraction where dilution appears, or in practical terms starts to grow, is called Isolated
Dilution Entry Point (PEDZA). At the same time, the percentage of extraction where the dilution tendency
changes its slope starting to increase after the PEDZA, is called Interactive Dilution Entry Point (PEDZI).
As it has been shown by many Block and Panel cave researchers the underlying gravity flow that dictates the
dilution behaviour is highly dependant on the draw performance at production level in a short time interval.
Thus, in order to characterize the expected dilution behaviour one needs to account on how even or uneven
draw points are going to be mined over time. Laubscher(2004) proposed the draw control factor, an index
varying between 0 and 1 which is a linear function of the coefficient of variance of tonnages mined between
a draw point and its neighbours in a period of time of a week. A modification of this index was proposed by
Susaeta (2004), who considers not only the relative tonnage drawn by the neighbouring draw points, but also
the inactive draw points. The system allows evaluating each shift drawn tonnage per draw point associating it
to a uniformity index.
The uniformity index is computed as follows:

VUI

( tep 0 t min) n
( t max te pi )
t 2max n
i 1

(3)

: Inactive number of draw point neighbours.

: Correction factor, 99/89.

tepo: Extracted tonnage of the studied draw point.
tepi: Extracted tonnage of neighbour i.
tmax: Maximum extracted tonnage in the period taking into account all neighbours.
tmin: Minimum extracted tonnage in the period taking into account all neighbours.
n: Number of draw point neighbours, 7.
As a result of the uniformity index calculation one could classify a given period of time, for example 3 shifts,
as Uniform, Semi Uniform or Non Uniform as shown below.
Table 2

Uniformity index table

[0-0.2)
0
Uni

[0.2-0.4)
Uni

[0.4-0.6)
Uni

[0.6-0.8)
Semi

[0.8-1)
Semi

1
2
3
4
5
6

Uni
Uni
Semi
Semi
Non
Non

Uni
Semi
Semi
Semi
Non
Non

Semi
Semi
Semi
Non
Non
Non

Semi
Semi
Non
Non
Non
Non

Semi
Non
Non
Non
Non
Non

Then, the life cycle of a draw point could be characterized as a function of the percentage of the time that a
draw point has been drawn non uniform or the amount of tonnage draw from a draw point that has been
drawn uniform. All these indicators could assist mining engineers to characterize the drawing behaviour of a
cluster of draw points and correlating this behaviour with measured mining recovery and dilution. This
exercise was performed at Codelco mines aiming to find at different sites the dilution models presented
before and perhaps infer on the flow modes present as a function of different rock masses as means of
fragmentation, draw point spacing and drawing performance.

Codelco Mines Back-Analysis

In April 2006 Codelco Chile decided to prepare a guide to standardize the methodology to determine
reserves for panel caving across the organization. In order to determine the mining reserves flow modes had
to be stated for different rock mass fragmentation, draw point spacing and drawing performance. Since there
is no a constitutive law that defines the Panel Block cave underlying gravity flow behaviour, the flow modes
were inferred from dilution models fitted from empirical dilution observations collected over the years at El
Salvador, Andina and El Teniente mines. The database used in the study is described below.
Table 3

Codelco Production Databases

Mine

Sector

Years

Andina
Andina
Salvador
Salvador
Teniente
Teniente
Teniente
Teniente

Parrillas, III P
LHD, III P
ICW
IN
Teniente 4
Qda. T.
Esmeralda
Regimiento
Total

1995-2006
1997-2006
2000-2005
1994-2006
1995-2006
1997-2006
1997-2006
1992-2006

Extracted
Tonnage
[Mt]
61.3
67.9
14.6
55.2
68.1
46.4
52
48.1
214.6

Draw
Points
[#]
733
736
294
566
501
1690
447
245
2638

Codelco defines primary rock as a rock mass that lacks of discontinuities and shows a Laubscher Rock Mass
Raiting (1989) greater than 70. Then, the rock mass fragmentation of a draw point was classified as
Secondary, Mixed or Primary depending on the amount of primary rock present in the column. The definition
of this fragmentation tags are defined as follows

Secondary rock column: 0-15% of the draw point column in situ model with Primary Rock.

Mixed rock column: 15-50% of the draw point column in situ model with Primary Rock.

Primary rock column: 50-100% of the draw point column in situ model with Primary Rock.

Then, every draw point of the database is assigned a fragmentation tag based on the amount of primary rock
present in the column. Also, every draw point has associated a mine layout that characterizes its draw point
spacing. Finally, the drawing performance was characterized using the uniformity index proposed by Susaeta
(2004) in which the time periods were three shifts and six neighbours. Thus, for every draw point and shift
the uniformity index is computed using a computer application showing a uniformity index time series of a
draw point or a cluster of draw points. Thus, for every shift a draw point is classified as uniform, semi
uniform or non uniform according to the classification showed on table 1. Then an indicator of draw
performance called CUI is computed as the percentage of tonnage drawn as uniform or semi uniform over

the 100% tonnage extraction. The 100% tonnage extraction of a draw point is computed as the tonnage to
reach the interface between insitu economic column and broken rock. For example the following selected
draw points show their uniformity index in a period of time and the evolution of dilution over their life time.
Based on the geometry of the curve PEDZA and PEDZI are assigned to the cluster and added to the

analysis. .
Figure 7

Uniformity index and dilution visualizer.

All the analysis were performed for individual draw points identifying clusters of draw point showing CUI in
a given range. Also, the clusters of draw points were selected in such way that rock type and draw point
spacing was the same for all draw points in the cluster. The following charts show some of the clusters
analysed as part of the study.

2.1

Empirical Dilution Models

A cluster of draw points from the mine Esmeralda of El Teniente that is located in primary rock and a draw
point layout of 15x17.2 shows the following dilution behaviour for different ranges of CUI.

Figure 8

Esmeralda primary rock dilution behaviour, 15x17.2 layout.

Figure 8 shows the observed dilution for draw points showing a CUI in the range of 40-80% and 80-100%,
the number of draw points in the cluster are 43 and 208 respectively. It must be noted that the behaviour of
this draw points are shown until 150% extraction (%E), nevertheless the draw points where selected by their

CUI measured upto 100% of drawn. It is seeing in the graph that for primary ore there is a interactive draw
behaviour for a LHD 15 x 17,2 m layout, where PEDZA is highly sensitive to the CUI range.
Draw Columns of Andina-LHD sector are composed only of mixed rock. The diluted material is called
Rhyolite which is a geologic marker, included as a fraction of the overburden material. The curve
behaviour considering draw points with two CUI ranges are shown below.

Figure 9

Mixed rock column dilution behaviour, 13x13 LHD Layout.

It is seeing again that a better uniformity of draw performance leads to a lower dilution entry, both in
percentage of extraction and total dilution up to 100%E. The Pedza & Pedzi show interactive-isolated flow
behaviour.
Draw columns of Andina-Parrillas (grizzly) draw points are composed only of secondary rock according
with the rock definition mentioned above. The diluted material is Rhyolite and the sector is characterized
by four grizzly layouts: 9x9, 9.4x9, 9x11 and 9x11.3. Analysis was performed grouping data as it is shown in
the following graphs considering uniformity analysis until the 100%E.

Figure 10 Secondary rock dilution, 9x9 & 9.4x9 Grizzly Layout

Figure 11 Secondary rock dilution, 9x11 & 9x11.3 Grizzly Layout

2.3

Dilution Results Summary

The summary of all the analyzed data is presented in Table 3, where the three draw function variables:
geometry is defined by the Layout/Method, the fragmentation by the Rock column description (secondary,
mixed and primary), and the draw uniformity by the Uniformity index (% uniform + semi uniform tonnage
drawn of the column up to 100% extraction). The flow behaviour of each of the different cases is defined as
Isolated Flow (Is), Interactive Isolated Flow (I-I) and Interactive Flow (n), considering the shape of the
dilution curve. The flow mode is also characterized by its dilution entry point for the isolated and interactive
flow (Pedzi & Pedza). The number of draw points that belong to each of the different data clusters is also
presented in the table.
Table 4

Summary of PEDZA and PEDZI for Selected Clusters

Mine

Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Andina
Salvador
Salvador
Salvador
Salvador
Mine

Draw Rock
Points column
(mxm)
#
Parrillas IIIP
9x9/grizzly
51
Sec.
Parrillas
9x9/grizzly
52
Sec.
Parrillas
9x9/grizzly
32
Sec.
Parrillas
9x9/grizzly
8
Sec.
Parrillas
9x9/grizzly
51
Mix
Parrillas
9x9/grizzly
18
Mix
Parrillas
9x9/grizzly
9
Mix
Parrillas
9x9/grizzly
2
Mix
Parrillas
9x11/grizzly
14
Sec.
Parrillas
9x11/grizzly
19
Sec.
Parrillas
9x11/grizzly
14
Sec.
Parrillas
9x11/grizzly
38
Sec.
LHD IIIP
13x13/LHD
35
Mix
LHD IIIP
13x13/LHD
65
Mix
LHD IIIP
13x13/LHD
75
Mix
IN
13x13/LHD
17
Sec.
IN
13x13/LHD
121
Mix
IN
13x13/LHD
14
Prim
ICW
15x15/LHD
8
Mix
Sector
Layout/Method Draw Rock
Sector

Layout/Method

CUI

Pedza Pedzi

Flow Mode

%U+S
0-53
53-69
69-79
>79
0-53
53-69
69-79
>79
0-53
53-69
69-79
>79
53-69
69-79
>79
>75
>75
>75
>75
CUI

%E
%E
24
70
42
70
36
75
38
83
45
75
50
76
50
90
65
95
12
35
15
50
40
60
52
68
32
67
41
73
71
91
20
30
78
75
>100
46
Pedza Pedzi

I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
Is
I-I
In
Is
Flow Mode

Points column
(mxm)
#
%U+S
Salvador
ICW
15x15/LHD
20
Prim
>75
Teniente
Queb.T.
7.5x7.2/grizzly 667
Sec.
0-40
Teniente
Queb. T.
7.5x7.2/grizzly
72
Sec.
>40
Teniente
Queb. T.
7.5x7.2/grizzly
47
Mix
0-40
Teniente Esmeralda 15x17.2/LHD
43
Prim
40-80
Teniente Esmeralda 15x17.2/LHD
208
Prim
>80
Teniente Teniente 4 15x17.2/LHD
62
Mix
<40%*
Teniente Teniente 4 15x17.2/LHD
137
Prim
<40%*
In : Interactive Flow, I-I : Interactive Isolated Flow, Is: Isolated Flow

%E
75
28
28
53
33
46
18
28

%E
83
>100
43
70
>100

I-I
Is
I-I
In
I-I
I-I
Is
I-I

The chart below shows PEDZA versus CUI for Andina Grizzly sector shows the effect of draw point spacing
and CUI in regards to the percentage dilution entry point defined in this study as PEDZA. This chart outlines
and confirms the Isolated-Interactive draw theory in which for a fully interactive draw point spacing layout
the influence of draw performance decreases as shown for 9x9 draw point layout. Different behaviour is
observed for the Isolated-Interactive flow induced by a draw point layout of 9x11 in which the CUI is highly
significant the moment of analysing dilution behaviour.

Figure 12 Secondary rock dilution, 9x11 & 9x11.3 Grizzly Layout

Proposed design table as per flow behaviour

Considering the results showed before and selecting those clusters of draw points showing a CUI greater
than 80%, rock mass and draw point layout are correlated with the inferred flow mode in order to establish a
design guideline for the future Block/Panel cave mines of Codelco Chile. The following table summarizes
these results.
Table 5

Design table as per flow mode for uniform draw (CUI>80%)

Layout

Rock Column (In Situ)

Secondary
Mixed
Primary
15x17.2/LHD
Is
Is
Is
Is
I-I
I-I
15x15/LHD
Is
Is
Is
Is
I-I
I-I
13x13/LHD
Is
Is
I-I
I-I
In
In
9x9/Grizzly
I-I
I-I
I-I
I-I
7.5x7.2/Grizzly
I-I
I-I
In
In
In : Interactive Flow, I-I : Interactive Isolated Flow, Is: Isolated Flow

It is interesting to note based on the results shown above that the overall trend for a dilution perspective is to
reinforce the use of close spaced layout draw points. There is a no an easy answer to whether or not a Block
and Panel cave operation should minimize the amount of dilution. It would depend on the ore body and grade

distribution across the ore body. There are some other considerations to include in the analysis as layout
productivity, fragmentation, development cost, ore body characteristics. The optimal draw point layout
should obey to a comprehensive analysis that includes all these aspects of the mine design. It is aimed that
the table presented above could support the dilution analysis related to the decision of draw point spacing.

Conclusions

The dilution curves constructed for Codelco mines presented in this paper follow the dilution models
proposed by the Isolated Interactive flow theory. It is inferred that all the three modes of flow are present at
Codelco mines the different modes unfold for different draw point layout and fragmentation.
It was shown that the draw performance has a tremendous effect on the dilution behaviour of a draw point. In
particular when draw point spacing has been designed in such a way that interaction is minimal the relevance
of even draw is crucial to achieve Isolated Interactive flow.
For a mixed rock mass the recommended draw point spacing is 13m to achieve Isolated Interactive draw
with performing even draw. For primary rock the draw point spacing should be at the most 15m to achieve
Isolated Interactive flow. . Several operations around the world will be looking at Block or Panel cave
designs for their ore bodies that are in the range of mixed and primary rock. The tendency to use wider draw
point spacing could eventually affect the dilution behaviour and the overall mining reserves.
It is interesting to note based on the results shown above that the overall trend for a dilution perspective is to
reinforce the use of close spaced layout draw points. This result goes against the industry trend of using
widely spaced layout in order to achieve higher productivity and more reliable rock mechanic design.
Nevertheless, it is highly important to review the basics of mine design that must be founded in the ore body
characteristics and geological setting rather than quick and incomplete economic return. The sustainability of
block and panel cave operations would force the industry to look at methods that could enhance the way how
dilution behaves within the mining and metallurgical processes in order to optimize energy consumption.
Yet, it is believe that in years to come must attention shall be addressed over dilution behaviour disregarding
too much attention over economic return could not only jeopardize the life of a mine but also create a non
recoverable sank of energy.

Acknowledgements

The authors of this paper would like to thank CODELCO for the permission to publish these results and
especially to all the planning engineers of the three Divisions that participated in the development of the
standardization guideline. Acknowledgements should also be given to the University of Chile for supporting
and holding the development of the project that sustains the resulting standards of summarized in this paper.

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