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OFFICIAL SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES

UNIT 2.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION.

LANGUAGE IN USE .
THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING.

1. INTRODUCTION

2.THE DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

2.1. The Cooperative Principle
2.2. Communicative Steps For Language Learners.

3. LANGUAGE IN USE
3.1. The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis
3.2. Input Generation And Language Learning

4. THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING

4.1. Strategies
4.2. Tactics
4.3. The Role Of The Learner

5. CONCLUSION

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1. INTRODUCTION
Communication has many purposes, including the exchange of information, the
creation and maintenance of social relationships such as friendship, the negotiation
of status and social roles, as well as deciding on and carrying out joint actions.
Throughout all of these functions though, we can say that the primary purpose of
communication in our own language is probably social.
During the last several decades, while second language researchers have proposed
many theories of second language acquisition (SLA), there has been little agreement
on any single SLA theory. Language acquisition theories have traditionally centred
on nurture and nature distinctions, advanced by the social-interactionist and
nativist camps respectively.
Social-interactionists see language as a rule-governed cultural activity learned in
interaction with others, while nativists perceive language ability as an innate capacity
to generate syntactically correct sentences. In other words, interactionists believe
environmental factors are more dominant in language acquisition, while nativists
believe inborn factors are more dominant.
Vygotsky, a psychologist and social constructivist, laid the foundation for the
interactionists view of language acquisition. According to Vygotsky, social interaction
plays an important role in the learning process and proposed the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), where learners construct the new language through socially
mediated interaction (Brown,). Vygotsky social-interactionist theory was proposed
about 80 years ago, and still serves as a strong foundation for the interactionists
perspective today (Ariza and Hancock, 2003).
On the other hand, nativists such as Krashen assume that natural internal
mechanisms operate upon comprehensible input which leads to language
competence. This is evident in Krashens input hypothesis of SLA. Krashens input
hypothesis was first proposed over 30 years ago, expanding from Chomskys
Language Acquisition Device. Since that time, there have been many theories put
forward under influence Krashens input hypothesis.
Although Vygotsky and Krashen can be categorized into distinct positions, the
application of their theories to second language teaching shares a number of
similarities. According to Krashens input hypothesis, language acquisition takes
place during human interaction in the target language environment. The learner is
then exposed to rich comprehensible input in the target language. However, in order
for acquisition to occur, the input would need to be slightly beyond the learners
current level of linguistic competence. Both Vygotsky and Krashen put great
emphasis on the role of interaction in SLA.

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In this unit we are going to define communication, look at language in use and the
negotiation of meaning. The information that we will be using is taken from a variety
of sources, including Quirk, Greenbaum, Baugh, and Cable.
Let us begin with a brief definition of communication.
2. THE DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION.
Communication as a term can be used to describe any encounter or interaction
between two or more people, either through spoken or written language. Its the
exchange and negotiation of information through the use of verbal and non-verbal
symbols, oral or written. In this way a writer communicates his ideas to the reader
and the speaker to the listener.
Communication involves the presence of extralinguistic elements, such as the
context where the communication takes place or any piece of information already
known by any of the individuals taking part in that exchange. This will certainly add or
modify the information being transferred between the members of the communicative
process. We can also find, as we mentioned above, verbal symbols, which, put
together, form the words that we use to communicate. Finally in oral language
prosodic features like intonation add extra meaning to those other elements
mentioned before, and clearly differentiate between written and oral language since
intonation can significantly alter the meaning conveyed by words.
Its important to remember that any communicative process will only be successful if
it is conceptually relevant. Information must be constantly changed and qualified by
further information, the context of communication and by continuous evaluation and
negotiation of meaning by the participants.
The basic unit of conversation is an exchange. This consists of two moves (an
initiating move and a response). Each move can also be called a turn, and a turn can
be taken without using words, i.e. by the nod of the head. Basically, the idea of taking
a turn is to continue the conversation, and to give the recipient the idea that you are
interested in what is being said. Not taking your turn is an effective way of bringing
an unwanted conversation to a close, although it must be noted that this would
generally be considered to be rude. However, there are other factors that should be
taken into account if we wish to conduct what may be termed as a normal
conversation.
When we look at normal conversation we notice that:

usually only one person speaks at a time.

the speakers change.
the length of any contribution varies.
there are techniques for allowing the other party or parties to speak.
neither the content or the amount we say is specified in advance.

These points are those which distinguish spoken communication from written
communication. In the latter all the communication is preset, the receiver has no
power to immediately alter the meaning of the message.
The success of the message relies on both the sender and the receiver using the
same code. The job of the language teacher is to teach the code to the students, in
this way, when a speaker or writer encodes a message, the receiver (reader or
listener) is able to decode it. Only when all parties are able to do this can a
successful conversation take place. We will try to make this a little clearer through
the use of the following diagram: It should be pointed out that this diagram was
designed by Jakobson, who we shall be looking at in greater detail later in this unit.
ADDRESSER

CO TEXT
MESSAGE

ADDRESSEE

CHA EL
CODE

Addres
ser Husband
Addressee: Wife
Context: Dinner time
Message: Ill be home late tonight.
Channel: Telephone
Code: English
Now that we have seen some of the ways that we can define language, we will look
at some of the factors that have to be taken into consideration in order that the
conversation performs its function.
2.1.The Cooperative Principle.
Normal conversations proceed so smoothly because we cooperate in them, in other
words, we generally dont just have a conversation for our own sake, but also for the
sake of the person with whom we are conversing. This means that we make an effort
to help the person that we are addressing understand us.
Grice (1975) has described four maxims or principles which develop cooperative
behaviour. These are:

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The Maxim Of Quality:
Make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
a. Do not say what you believe to be false.
b. Do not say anything for which you lack adequate evidence.
The Maxim Of Quantity:
Make your contribution just as informative as required, and no more. Too much
information could easily confuse or bore the listener.
The Maxim Of Relation:
Make your contribution relevant and timely. This means that you should try to avoid
saying anything that has no apparent relation to the rest of the conversation, or is
said too late to have any relevance.
The Maxim Of Manner:
Avoid obscurity and ambiguity. Language can sometimes be confusing if the words
are not carefully chosen.
This can be summarised as :
BE TRUE, BE BRIEF, BE RELEVANT, BE CLEAR.
Native speakers of any language will realise that these rules are often broken, but we
should encourage our students to follow them as closely as possible. At least then
they will reduce the chances of someone accusing them of being hard to understand.
This then, is another area that we all, not just learners, need to take into account
when studying either the native language or a foreign one. However, there are other
areas that need to be thought about and examined. One of these areas is that of the
steps that are taken by learners on their way to full communication. It is important
that these steps are looked at, because they can help both the learner and the
teacher to understand the level of the student, and the work that remains to be done.
2.2 Communicative Steps For Language Learners.
There are three recognised steps for the language learner on the way to
communicative competence.

one- way communication

restricted two-way communication

full two-way communication

One-way Communication is totally receptive. The learner does not have the capacity
to participate in a conversation. This means that, as is the case with most language
learners, the student is able to understand some of what is said to him, but is not
able to actually reply with confidence. It must be remembered that even in the
acquisition of the native language, the listening skill comes before the speaking one.
Restricted two-way communication occurs when the learner does not respond in the
target language. Responses may include gestures or using the L1. This is when the
student wishes to participate in the conversation, but simply lacks the vocabulary
necessary to do so.
Full two-way communication involves the speaker both encoding and decoding
messages in the target language. This is the aim of every language learner and
teacher. However, this stage cannot be reached immediately, and a lot of time and
patience must be invested by both the learner and the teacher.
This theory can be applied to language teaching in such a way as to allow the
student time to develop the productive skills, in much the same way that a child
learns its native language. The teacher will allow the student time to become
confident with the ability to receive, before pushing him to produce language.
Of course, it is not just sufficient to know how to use language, the student must
have some idea of what the language should be used for. This will form the next part
of this unit.
3. LANGUAGE IN USE
The first thing that we have to do is to make a distinction between the linguistic
knowledge that the student has, and how he actually uses this knowledge in a
communicative situation.
First of all, it is important to clarify that the Communicative Approach is based on the
linguistic knowledge of the language rules and the when, to whom and how to use
them. It focuses on the learner performance in real-life situations. It understands
language as a tool to communicate a message, therefore paying special attention to
the communicative competence of the learner.
The role of the teacher is to impart the knowledge of how to use language to his
students. He must also make sure that they have regular practise in the output
section as well as input. In the past, language teaching was centred on learning the
rules, with there being very little chance to practise those rules in a communicative
situation. Today, the Communicative Approach to language learning is widely
accepted as the best way for the students to learn how to speak and understand a
foreign language.

Its important to mention at this point that there is a difference between language
usage and language use.
Language usage implies the consideration of general and specific rules of the
language code in order to understand and be understood. It includes phonology,
morphology, syntax and semantics.
Language use considers other parameters and it mainly concentrates on how to use
sentences appropriately. It points to the importance of being brief, true, relevant and
clear, as we mentioned at the beginning of the unit, and the so-called cooperative
principles. Using the correct meaning and form for each speech event is known as
register. These two aspects fall under the category of coherence, whereas cohesion
basically refers to the way we use the different grammatical structures.
There have been many studies conducted on how students learn the L2. These have
resulted in three hypotheses:
3.1. The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis.
Here the theory is that students acquire the skill through its comprehensive use, in
much the same way that we acquire our native tongue. This suggests that there is an
element of imitation involved in the learning of a language.
3.2. Input Generation And Language Learning
In this theory the learners generate their own input by means of classroom
participation. As they ask questions and dont only do the work that is set for them,
they increase the knowledge that they receive. They have to take some responsibility
for their own learning. This means that the students who sit quietly and dont
participate tend to learn slower.
The third hypothesis is the negotiation of meaning, which we will deal with as a
separate section.
4. THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING
A major feature of conversations involving L2 is that the learner and native speaker
work together in order to overcome the communicative difficulties that arise as a
result of the learners limited knowledge of the language. This has come to be known
as the negotiation of meaning. In order to facilitate this, the native speaker will make
use of strategies and tactics.
4.1. Strategies
These involve conversational devices in order to avoid trouble. This may include

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devices such as:
Relinquishing topic control.
This means that the native speaker will allow the learner to control the topic of
conversation, thus allowing him to stay within the boundaries of his knowledge.
There is nothing more frustrating for a learner of a language than to be engaged in
conversation with a native speaker who continuously raises the level.
Checking Understanding.
The native speaker will ask the learner if he can understand, and will grade his
language accordingly. This way the native can keep a track on whether or not the
learner is following the conversation.
4.2. Tactics
These are devices for repairing trouble. They include:
Topic switching.
When the native speaker sees that the learner is not understanding he can change
the topic under discussion.

Speed reduction.
The native speaker can slow down his speech until he reaches a velocity that the
learner can follow.

Repetition and synonyms:

The native speaker can repeat sentences, or, if the learner is still showing trouble
understanding, he can use synonyms.
4.3. The Role Of The Learner.
The learner also has a role to play in the negotiation of meaning. He can do so by
use of the following :
Signalling lack of comprehension.
This can include a request for clarification, clarification checks and confirmation
checks. The learner can tell the native speaker as soon as he fails to understand
something, thus avoiding problems later in the conversation that may arise from the
learner missing a vital point.

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Extra Linguistic Resources.
These would include items such as gestures, expressions and so on, intended to
convey the meaning.

Persistence.
The learner should not surrender as soon as problems arise. Instead he must realise
that his problems are normal, and are not something to cause discouragement.
In the classroom, these tactics can help the students to interact and communicate
through the process of negotiation of meaning.
The result of negotiation of meaning is that particular types of input and interaction
result. In particular it has been hypothesised that negotiation makes input
comprehensible and in this way promotes second language acquisition. The one
thing that neither the teacher, nor any native speaker that the learner comes into
contact with should do, is to speak so fast, or in such a complicated way that the
student finds it impossible to follow. This will only result in a lack of confidence. As far
as the learner is concerned, he must never give up.
5. CONCLUSION
In this unit we have seen how language can be used in a wide variety of
communicative functions. The teacher must ensure that the input the students
receive is matched by the output, and that the students are encouraged to take
responsibility for their own studies. However, factors such as age, social context,
cultural factors, etc. are clearly related to the degree of learners initiation of
interaction and therefore his chances of acquiring the L2 and becoming competent in
it. The teacher must always be aware of these variables and prepare the classes
according to his judgement of his students needs, needs that should include not only
the learning of a language, but also the acquisition of communicative ability.

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UNIT 2 . THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION.
Themes

Notes

Communication: encounter between two or more people, through

spoken or written language. Involves the presence of
extralinguistic elements, e.g.: context where it takes place.
Prosodic features can add to the meaning. Communication
process must be conceptually relevant. The basic unit of
conversation is an exchange. People take turns. Normally, only
one person speaks at a time, the speakers change, the length of
contribution varies, techniques can allow the other party to speak,
neither the content or the amount that we say is specified in
advance. The success of the message relies on both the sender
and the receiver using the same code. Maxims of Grice: True,
Brief, Relevant, Clear. One way Communication, Restricted Two
Way and Full Two Way. The student must be allowed to develop
at his own pace. Distinction between linguistic knowledge that a
student has, and how he uses this knowledge in communicative
situation. The Communicative Approach is based on the when
whom and how of language rules. Teacher imparts knowledge of
how to use those rules. Comprehensible Output Hypothesis:
Students acquire skill through use. Input Generation and
Language Learning: Learners generate their own input.
Negotiation of Meaning: Learner and native speaker work together
to help the meaning become clear. The native speaker will use
strategies such as: Relinquishing topic control, checking
understanding and tactics, e.g Topic switching, speed reduction,
repetition and synonyms. The leaner also has a role to play. He
can signal his lack of comprehension, use extralinguistic
resources and he must have persistence.

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Test your understanding of unit 2 by answering the following questions.

1. Give a brief definition of communication.

2. What is the cooperative principle?

3. Explain the comprehensible Output Hypothesis.

4. Explain the Role of the learner.

5. Which tactics can be used in the negotiation of meaning?

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