Machine Tools - 2015-16

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
MACHINE TOOLS
(2015-16)
Dr. G. R. C. PRADEEP
E-mail: grcpradeep@gmail.com
1
MACHINE TOOLS
INTRODUCTION:
The process of metal cutting in which chip is formed is
effected by a relative movement b/w the work piece and
the hard edge of the cutting tool.
The relative motion is produced by a combination of rotary
and translatory motion of either work piece (or) tool (or)
both.
The relative motion
present between Work
and Tool in various
Machine Tools.
Relative Motion
Machine Tool
Work
Tool
Lathe
R
T
Shaper, Planer
T
T
Drilling
Fixed R & T
Milling
T
R
Surface Grinding
T
R
Cylindrical Grinding R & T
R
2
Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com
The motion responsible for the cutting action is known as

the primary motion or cutting motion.
The motion responsible for gradually feeding the uncut
portion is termed as the secondary motion or feed motion.
Depending on the nature of these relative motions, various
types of surfaces can be produced.
The line generated by the CUTTING MOTION is called
the GENERATRIX and the line generated from the
FEED MOTION is called the DIRECTRIX.
Various geometries can be obtained depending on the
shapes of the Generatrix and the Directrix and their relative
directions.
They are represented in the following figures:
S.No
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Generation of various surfaces

Generatrix (G) Directrix (D) Surface obtained
Straight Line Straight Line Plain Surface
Circular
Straight Line Cylindrical Surface
Circular
Straight Line Plain Surface (Lines)
Surface of revolution
Plain Curve
Circular
Process
Tracing of G
Tracing of G
Envelope of G
Tracing of G
LATHE MAIN PARTS
grcpradeep@gmail.com
Email:
CARRIAGE ASSEMBLY
Video
1
TOOLPOST (1)
COMPOUND SLIDE (2)
SWIVEL PLATE (2B)
HANDWHEELS (2A, 3B, 5A)
CROSS-SLIDE (3)
SADDLE (4)
APRON (5)
CARRIAGE FEED MECHANISM (5C)
SPECIFICATIONS OF LATHE
1) Height of centers over
bed U.K. spec.
2) Maximum swing over
bed USA spec.
carriage
Gap
5) Maximum distance b/w
centers
6) Length of bed
7) No. of speeds and
feeds etc.
EARLY LATHES
EARLY LATHES
EARLY LATHES
10
EARLY LATHES
11
TYPES OF LATHES
1) Bench lathe:
It is a very
small
lathe
mounted
on
separately
prepared bench
or cabinet and
used for small,
precision
works.
12
2) Speed lathe: They do not have provision for power feed

and have no gear box, carriage, lead screw etc.
Two or three
spindle
speeds are
available by
cone pulley
arrangement.
They are used
for wood
turning,
polishing,
metal
spinning etc
13
3) Engine lathe: In olden days lathe was driven by a steam

engine. Hence the name is still in existence even after
modern lathes are provided with motor drive.
14
4) Tool Room Lathe: It is nothing but the engine lathe

equipped with some extra attachments for accurate and
precision work like taper turning attachment, follower
rest, collets, different types of chucks etc. The bed is
relatively small.
15
5) Capstan & Turret lathes: These are semi automatic type

machines very useful for mass production (small lot sizes).
Less skill is required for operator and wide range of
operations can be performed. They carry special mechanisms
for indexing their tool heads. They are provided with a front
tool post which can hold 4 turning related tools and rear tool
post which can hold 2 to 4 turning related tools. The turrets
can hold only drilling related tools. The turning tools used in
the rear tool post are reverse tools with reverse geometry.
Video
2,3
16
Turret Indexing
Backward travel of turret
17
Turret Indexing in Capstan and Turret Lathes

Just before indexing at the end of the return stroke, the locking
pin is withdrawn by the lever which is lifted at its other end by
gradually riding against the hinged wedge as shown.
Further backward travel of the turret slide causes rotation of
the free head by the indexing pin and lever as shown.
Rotation of the turret head by exact angle is accomplished by
insertion of the locking pin in the next hole of the six
equi-spaced holes.
18
Turret Lathe
19
Turret Lathe Layout
20
Capstan Lathe
21
Capstan Lathe Layout
22
Turret Lathe
Capstan lathe
1. Turret head (square (or) 1. Turret head (round (or) square
hexagonal) is mounted on
(or) hexagonal) is mounted on
saddle
auxiliary slide that moves on
guide ways provided on saddle
2. The above arrangement gives 2. Less rigidity, vibrations occur,
rigidity as forces
are
hence suitable for lighter and
transferred to bed. Hence
smaller jobs (up to 60mm) and
capable of handling heavy
precision work.
jobs (up to 200mm) and
severe cutting conditions.
3 Tool travel is along entire bed 3. Tool travel is limited because of
length
auxiliary slide traverse limitation.
4. Tool feeding is slow and 4. Tool feeding is fast and causes
causes fatigue to operator
less fatigue to operator hands.
hands
5. No tail stock
5. No tail stock
23
6) Automatic lathes: These are designed so that all the

working and Job handling movements of the complete
Manufacturing process for a job are done automatically.
No participation of the operator is required during the
operation. They fall in the category of heavy duty, high
speed lathes employed in mass production(large lot sizes).
Geneva mechanism is used for indexing the turret.
Video
Types of automatic lathe:
4,5,6,7
1) According to type of stock material
Bar automatics;
Chucking automatics
2) According to No. of spindles
Single spindle;
Multiple spindle
3) According to the directions of the axis of m/c spindles
Horizontal;
Vertical
24
25
The general purpose single spindle automatic lathes are widely

used for quantity or mass production (by machining) of high
quality fasteners; bolts, screws, studs, bushings, pins, shafts,
rollers, handles and similar small metallic parts from long bars or
tubes of regular section and also often from separate small blanks.
Unlike the semiautomatic lathes, single spindle automats are :
used always for producing jobs of rod, tubular or ring type and
of relatively smaller size.
run fully automatically, including bar feeding and tool
indexing, and continuously over a long duration repeating the
same machining cycle for each product
provided with up to five radial tool slides which are moved by
cams mounted on a cam shaft
of relatively smaller size and power but have higher spindle
speeds
26
Swiss type automatic lathe

The characteristics and applications of these single spindle
automatic lathes are :
In respect of application:
Used for precision machining of thin slender rod or
tubular jobs, like components of small clocks and wrist
watches in mass production.
Job size Diameter range 2 to 12 mm; Length range
3 to 30 mm.
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish almost as good
as provided by grinding
In respect of configuration and operation:
There is no tailstock or turret
High spindle speed (2000 10,000 rpm) for small job
diameter.
27
The headstock travels enabling axial feed of the bar stock

against the cutting tools as shown
The cutting tools (up to five in number including two on
the rocker arm) are fed radially
Drilling and threading tools, if required, are moved axially
using swivelling device(s)
The cylindrical blanks are prefinished by grinding and are
moved through a carbide guide bush
Video
8
28
7) Special purpose lathes: These are designed to perform

certain specified operations only.
Video
Eg: Facing lathe, vertical lathe, crank shaft lathe 9,10,11,12
29
30
31
WORK HOLDING DEVICES

1) Chucks ---a) 3 Jaw Self centering, smaller in size, used for round
cross sections
b) 4 Jaw Not self centering, medium in size, used for round,
square, rectangular cross sections.
32
c) Collets Fixed size. They are air operated or hand operated.

Used in Tool Room lathes, Bar Automatic Lathes,
Vertical Milling m/c to hold end mills.
33
d) Pneumatic Chucks In chucking Automatics

Note: In bar automatics the component is parted of from
the bar and in chucking automatics, the component is
released from the chuck and another blank is loaded from
the magazine.
e) Magnetic Used for ferrous metals in Lathe, Milling,
Surface Grinding machines for light works and also where
Distortion is not permitted like in aerospace components.
f) Vacuum Similar to above, used for non ferrous metals
34
2) Face plate
Used for
large size
work
pieces
of round,
square,
rectangular,
and also
very
complex
geometries
not possible
in any other
devices.
35
3) Carriers, Catch plates or Carrier Dogs

Used for supporting shafts, mandrels for imparting rotation.
They clamp around the work piece and allow the rotary
motion of the machine's spindle to be transmitted to the
work piece.They are used in Lathes and also Cylindrical
grinding operations.
36
4) Centers For supporting the rotation

a) Live centre used with face plate
b) Dead centre used in tail stock
Live centre
NonRevolving
Dead centre
37
Revolving Dead centre

(Used for high speeds
and high clamping
pressures)
5) Mandrel Used to support the work pieces and also for

holding hollow parts to meet concentricity requirements
Live
Centre
Work piece
Dead
Centre
Face Plate
Mandrel
Carrier Dog
38
6) Steady rest mounted on bed, used for long heavy jobs

that deflect centrally by self weight.
7) Follower rest mounted on carriage and moves with
tool, used for long thin jobs that deflect laterally by cutting
force.
39
TOOL POST
40
Tool Setting on Lathe

1. Setting the tool below the centre decreases the effective rake angle
and increases the effective clearance angle. This increases the
cutting forces.
2. Setting the tool above the centre increases the effective rake angle
and decreases the effective clearance angle. This increases
rubbing with flank surface.
Effective Rake is the apparent
Rake angle w.r.t tool and work
position and not the actual rake
angle provided on the tool.
1)
2)
41
TOOL HOLDERS
HSS Tool Holders
Brazed Carbide tip Tool Holders

(Can be grinded)
Throw away Carbide Tip Tool holders (Can not be Grinded)
42
Box Tool Holders Used in turret lathes to apply heavy cuts

& act as travelling steadies.
43
OPERATIONS
1) Straight turning: Here
the work rotating about
lathe axis, tool is fed
parallel to it, depth of cut
is perpendicular to it,
thus producing a straight
cylindrical surface. Here
Diameter is effected but
Length is not effected.
2) Shoulder / Step turning:
Same as above except
that diameter is reduced
only up to certain length.
44
L
D
3) Facing:- Here the tool is fed

perpendicular to the lathe axis
and depth of cut is parallel to
the lathe axis and thus
producing a flat surface. Here
Length (in Shafts) / thickness
(in plates) is effected, but
Diameter is not effected.
4) Knurling:- Process of
embossing a diamond
shaped pattern on work
surface which is used for
gripping purpose.
Video
13,14
45
5) Taper turning:- Operation of producing tapered surfaces.

The following methods are used
1. Swiveling of
compound rest
Any Angle, Any
D1
D2
Corresponding
Taper length.
L
D1 = Larger Dia
D2 = Smaller Dia
L = Taper length
= Half Cone Angle
2= Included Angle /
Full cone Angle
46
2. Tailstock set over Small Angle, Long Job
Distance
S = Set over Distance

L = Total Length of Work Piece
47
3) Form Tool Any Angle, Short taper length
d, f
4) Combined Feeds 450 Chamfers
48
5) Taper turning attachment

The cross slide is delinked (Movement of tool is similar to
from the saddle and is
combined feed)
connected to the attachment
fixed on the bed. As the
carriage (saddle) moves
longitudinally, the cross
slide is moved crosswise by
the guide block which
moves along the guide bar
preset at the desired taper
angle. This action causes the
d
f
cutting tool to move at an
angle to the axis of the work
Video
piece to produce a taper.
15
49
Video
16
6) Metal Spinning:- It is
the operation of pressing
and forming cup shaped
components from sheet
metal.
50
7) Spring winding:- We can

wind spring on lathe. Here
coiled spring can be
made by passing a wire
around the mandrel which
is rotated in a chuck.
51
8) Miscellaneous Operations:Drilling, Boring, Milling, Grinding etc.
52
9) Thread cutting:- There are different thread forms like V,

Square, Acme, buttress etc. Here the tool has the shape of
thread profile. Zero rake angle is used for form tools like
threading tool, parting tool, grooving tool etc.
53
Majority of screws are right handed threads. They are

tightened by clock wise rotation. When cut on lathe, tool
advances from right to left. Screws with left handed threads
are used in exceptional cases. They are tightened by counter
clock wise rotation. When cut on lathe, tool advances from
left to right. Spindle rotation is same for both operations but
lead screw rotation is opposite. Left hand threads are used on
lathe spindles, left hand pedal of bicycle, connections on the
acetylene Cylinders (to avoid wrong connections), left-hand
grinding wheel on a bench
Helix
grinder, in Turnbuckles in
combination with right handed
threads to adjust the tensions in
Left Hand Right Hand
cables, tie rods etc.
Thread
Thread
54
Tapered threads are used for water (or)

Gas pipes and plumbing supplies,
which require a water tight (or) air
tight connection. Tapered
threads
Single
produce a wedging action and hence
produces a pressure tight joint.
Double Thread Terminology:
Lead The distance moved by screw
or nut in one revolution.
Pitch (P) The distance between two
successive peaks or valleys.
Lead = P for single start thread
Triple Lead = 2P for double start threads
(It has two start points)
Lead = 3P for triple start threads
(It has three start points)
55
V threads are the standard threads used on most threaded

fasteners and are by far the most common.
Due to its profile, the square thread is more difficult to
machine than a V thread and is only used where strength
and wear resistance make it worthwhile.
The Acme and Buttress threads are easier to machine.
The Buttress thread can be used only where the applied
loading is always in one direction. It is sometimes used in
bench vices.
The Lead screw in lathe in combination with split nut uses
an Acme thread which can apply load in both directions.
Lathe spindle and lead screw must be in same relative
position for each cut. A Thread-chasing dial is attached to
carriage for this purpose. It will take care of engagement of
thread at the same starting point for every cut.
56
Thread-Chasing dial
Half Nut / Split Nut
Video
17,18,19
Video
17,18,19
57
Feed Rod is provided in medium to big size lathes and is

engaged for other lathe operations except threading and
operates by rack and pinion mechanism operated by change
gears and other gears in apron.
58
Video
20
59
Back Gear
Back gear" is a gear mounted at the back of the headstock
and allows the chuck to rotate slowly with greatly-increased
turning power.
Screw cutting also requires slow speeds.
With a back gear fitted, the lathe not only becomes capable
of cutting threads but can also tackle heavy-duty drilling,
big-hole boring and large-diameter turning and facing; in
other words, it is possible to use it to the very limits of its
capacity and strength.
60
61
TIME ESTIMATION
1) Machining Time = T = Length of cut / (feed x rpm)
= L / (f x N) min
f = feed in mm/rev
2) Cutting speed= V = DN / 1000 m/min
D = Starting diameter of work in mm,
N = RPM of work
Note: Some times D is taken as mean diameter also.
3) Combining above two formulae we can write,
T = DL / 1000fV min
3) Feed per minute, fm = f x N mm/min
4) Depth of cut = d = (Di Df) / 2
Di = Initial dia, Df = Final dia
5) Power or Work done = F x V N-m/min
F = Cutting Force = k x d x f;
k = material constant
62
6) Total Time for Threading = Time per cut x No. of cuts

Time per cut = L / (p x N) [For Single Start Thread]
p = Pitch = 1 / No. of threads per unit length
L = Length of W.P + Approach Length + Over Travel
7) Time for Drilling = DL / 1000fV
L = Depth of hole, D = Dia of drill
8) Time for Boring = DL / 1000fV
L = Depth to be bored,
D = Starting Dia of hole
9) Time for facing = L / (f x N)
L = Radius of W.P
10) MRR = 1000Vfd mm3/min
63
Gear Train Calculation for Thread cutting:

1) Transformation ratio = Gear Ratio
= Lead of Work piece / Lead of Lead screw
= Speed of Lead screw / Speed of Work piece (Spindle)
These relations are true for threads cut in metric or inches units. All
lathes are generally provided with set of change gears having teeth from
20 to 120 with a variation of 5 teeth. (20, 25, 30, 35, 40, etc). In addition
the set has gear with 127 teeth called translating gear.
For a simple Gear train,
Gear Ratio =
No. of teeth on Driver Gear
(On Spindle) / No. of
teeth on Driven Gear (On
Lead Screw)
The number of teeth on

intermediate gear has no effect on the gear ratio.
64
For a Compound Gear train,

Gear Ratio =
(a/b) x (c/d)
a, b, c, d = Teeth of
respective gears
65
SHAPER
INTRODUCTION: The shaper is a reciprocating type of
machine tool intended primarily to produce flat surfaces.
These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Here the cutting tool is given a reciprocating motion, and
after every cutting stroke, the work is fed (during return
stroke) to provide an uncut layer for machining.
Here cutting is not continuous
and hence the machining is
known as Intermittent cutting
operation. This is used
for
initial rough machining. The
cutting tool is a single point
tool similar to lathe.
66
Video
3,4
67
Bull Gear used in shaper to reduce the speed of rotation

obtained from motor
68
69
TYPES
1. According to the type of mechanisms used for giving
reciprocating motion to the ram.
a) Crank Shaper:
Crank and Slotted
lever mechanism is
used to change rotary
motion of the driving
gear called bull gear.
70
Stroke length = P1P2 = 2AP (CB/AC)

71
b) Geared Shaper: Rack and pinion mechanism is used.

Geared shapers have a
reversible electric motor
or
any
mechanical
mechanism which quickly
returns the ram, in
readiness for another cut.
72
c) Hydraulic Shaper: By hydraulic power i.e. oil with

high pressure is pumped into a cylinder with piston.
73
Advantages
1) The cutting speed is constant almost throughout the
stroke unlike the other shapers where the speed changes
continuously.
2) Power available remains constant through out hence it is
possible to utilize the full cutting capacity of the tool.
3) The ram stroke reverses quickly with out any shock as
the oil on either side of the piston provides a cushioning
effect hence vibrations are minimum. Inertia of moving
parts is relatively small.
4) The range and number cutting speeds possible are
relatively large and control is simple.
5) More strokes per minute can be obtained by consuming
less time for the cutting and return strokes at a given cutting
speed.
74
2. According to the position and travel of ram.

a) Horizontal shaper: Reciprocates in a horizontal axis.
b) Vertical shaper: Reciprocates in a vertical axis.
It has a round table that can rotate
and also can be fed longitudinally
and cross wise. Also the ram can
be reciprocated at an angle up to
100 from the vertical position
enabling
machining
inclined
surfaces.
75
c) Traveling head shaper: The ram moves cross wise for

feed during reciprocation. Used for heavy jobs where table
feed is not possible.
76
77
3. According to the type of design of the table:

a) Standard Shaper: Table has only 2 movements, to give
feed.
b) Universal shaper:
In addition to the 2
movements, the table
can be swiveled about
a
horizontal
axis
parallel to the ram
ways and the upper
portion of the table
can be tilted about a
second horizontal axis
to the first axis.
78
SPECIFICATIONS AND OPERATIONS

SPECIFICATIONS:
1) The max. Length of stroke or cut
2) Table size
3) Return time to cutting time ratio.
4) Number of speeds and feeds.
5) Floor space required
6) Weight of machine etc
OPERATIONS ON HORIZONTAL SHAPERS:
1) Machining Horizontal, Vertical, Angular surfaces
2) Cutting Slots, Grooves, Key ways, Splines, Gears etc
(External Only)
OPERATIONS ON VERTICAL SHAPERS:
Similar to Slotters.
79
80
TIME ESTIMATION
(1) Cutting speed V = NL(1+m)/1000 m/min
(This theoretical formula is used in calculations)
L = Length of cutting stroke in mm
m = Ratio of return time to cutting time
N = No. of double strokes per min = RPM of bull gear
Note:
1. In actual practice, the cutting speed changes during the
cutting stroke in the crank type and geared type shapers.
Hence the average cutting speed is expressed as:
Vavg = V / 2 = NL(1+m) / 2 x 1000
2. The stopping point of cutting stroke in hydraulic shapers
can vary depending on the resistance offered to cutting by
the work material.
81
(2) Time required by cutting stroke = L / 1000V

(3) Return stroke time = m x cutting stroke time= mL/ 1000V
(4) No. of double strokes required to complete the job = W / f
W = Width of W.P.
f = feed in mm (or) mm/Cutting stroke (or) mm/double stroke
(5) Total time taken for one complete cut = LW(1+m)/1000fV
(6) Metal Removal Rate (MRR) = 1000Vfd mm3 / min,
where d = depth of cut in mm
(7) Power consumed = K x MRR hp
where K = constant for calculating horse power consumed
(8) Theoretical peak to valley height = Rt = 0.5 f / tan mm
Where 2 = Angle b/w the two cutting edges in the single
point tool
f /2
Rt
82
SLOTTER
INTRODUCTION:
This operates almost on the same principle as that of a
shaper. Slotter was invented before shaper. Here the ram
reciprocates in a vertical axis. There is no quick return
and the mechanism used for ram is Crank and connecting
rod mechanism. The slotter is provided with a rotary
table that can be moved longitudinally and cross wise.
The slotter is used for making regular and irregular
surfaces both internal and external and also for handling
complex work pieces. Slotter is more robust compared to
vertical shaper.
Video
1,2
83
TYPES
1) Puncher slotter:
A heavy, rigid
machine,
for
removing large
amount of metal
from
large
forgings
and
castings.
The
length of stroke
is very large
(1.8 - 2m).
84
2) Precision slotter: It
is a lighter machine
and is operated at
high speeds. Used
for accurate finish,
using light cuts.
85

SPECIFICATION:
1. Length of stroke
2. Diameter of table
3. Amount of cross and longitudinal travel of the table
4. No. of speeds and feeds
5. Floor space required
6. Net weight of the machine etc.
OPERATIONS:
1) Machining slots, keyways, grooves of various shapes,
both internal and external, Internal machining of blind
holes, machining of dies, punches etc.
2) Machining flat surfaces, Cylindrical surfaces, Cams,
internal and external gears.
86
87
PLANER
INTRODUCTION: The planer like shaper is a m/c tool
primarily intended to produce plane and flat surfaces by a
single point cutting tool. A planer is very large compared
to shaper. In a planer the work which is supported on
the table reciprocates past the stationary cutting tool and
feed is given by the lateral movement of the tool.
Video
5,6
88
TYPES
1)Double housing planer (or) standard planer: Has two
vertical housings connected by a cast iron member on top.
Table is mounted on the bed and can reciprocate. The Cross
rail can move up and down on the
vertical housings and one or two tool
heads provided can travel cross wise
for tool feed across the cross rail.
89
2) Open side planer: Only one side housing and the cross
rail is suspended as cantilever. Used for very wide Jobs.
90
3) Divided Table Planer: Also called Tandem Planer. This

type of planer has two tables on the bed which may be
reciprocated separately together. This type of design saves
much of the idle time while setting large no. of identical
pieces on the machine.
CROSS RAIL
TABLES
91
4) Pit planer: It is a massive construction. The table is

stationary, the column carrying the cross rail reciprocates
on massive
horizontal
rails
mounted on
both sides
of the table.
Suitable for
very large
works.
92
5) Edge or plate planer: This is specially intended for

squaring and beveling the edges of steel plates used for
different pressure vessels and ship building works.
93

SPECIFICATIONS:
1.The size of the largest rectangular solid that can
reciprocate under the tool.
2. No. of speeds and feeds available,
3. Floor space reqd.
4. Net wt. of machine etc.
OPERATIONS:
(1) Planning flat horizontal, vertical, angular surfaces
(2) Slots and grooves.
94
95
DRILLING
INTRODUCTION: A drilling machine
was primarily designed to originate a
hole, but it can also perform a No. of
similar operations.
In a
drilling
machine holes may be drilled quickly
and at low cost. The hole is generated
by the rotating edge of a cutting tool
known as the drill which exerts large
force on the work clamped on the table.
The cutting motion is provided by
rotating the drill and feeding is done by
giving rectilinear motion to the drill in
the axial direction. Here the drill used
has two cutting edges called lips.
96
Video
1
TYPES
(1) Portable drilling machine:
This type of D.M. can be operated with ease anywhere
in the work shop and is used for drilling holes in work
pieces in any position which cannot be drilled in a
standard D.M. The entire D.M. including the motor is
compact and small in size. The max. size of the drill that
can accommodate is not more than 12 to 18 mm.
97
(2) Sensitive D.M. It is a small

machine designed for drilling
small holes at high speed in light
and small jobs. The base of the
machine may be mounted on a
bench or on the floor. There is
no
arrangement
for
the
automatic feed of the drill
spindle. High speed and hand
feed are necessary
for drilling small holes. As the operator can sense the
progress of the drill it is called S.D.M. Drills size is 1.5
to 15.5 mm can be used in this machine. Super sensitive
D.M. are designed to drill holes as small as 0.35 mm and
can be rotated at a speed of 20,000 rpm or above.
98
(3) Upright D.M.: This is designed for

handling medium sized W.P. It is
similar to a S.D.M. but is heavier
and larger than S.D.M.
and is
supplied
with
power
feed
arrangement.
a) Round Column Section (or) Pillar
D.M.: It consists of round column
and a round table. The table can be
moved up and down on the column for
accommodating W.P. of different
heights. The table may be rotated
360o about its own centre. The max.
size of the hole that can be drilled is
not more than 50mm.
99
(b) Box Column

Section
Upright D.M.: The upright
D.M.
with box
column
section has a square table
fitted on the slides at the
front face of the machine
column. Heavy box column
gives the machine strength
and rigidity. The table is
raised or lowered by an
elevating screw that gives
additional support to the table.
Heavier W.P.
and holes
more than 50 mm dia can be
drilled by it.
100
(4) Radial D.M: It is intended for drilling medium to

large and heavy W.P. It consists of a heavy, round
vertical column mounted on a large base. The column
supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered to
accommodate work pieces of difference heights The arm
may be swung around to any position over the work bed.
The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and
feeding the drill is mounted on the radial arm and can be
moved horizontally on the guide ways and clamped at
any desired position. This can be further classified as
101
(a) Plain RDM.:- It has the movements explained above.
102
(b) Semi Universal RDM:- In addition to

the above 3 movements, the drill head
can be swung about a horizontal axis to
the arm. This 4th movement of the drill
head permits drilling hole at an angle to
the H.P. other than normal position.
(c) Universal RDM:- In addition to

the above 4 movements the drill
head
may be
rotated on a
horizontal axis. All
these 5
movements enable it to drill on a
W.P. at any angle and in any plane.
103
(5) Gang D.M.: When a No. of

single spindle D.M. columns
are placed side by side on a
common base and have a
common, work table,
the
machine is known as G.D.M.
In a G.D.M. 4 to 6 spindles
may be mounted side by side.
The speed and feed of spindles
are controlled independently.
This type of machine is specially adapted for production
work. A series of operations may be performed on the work
by simply shifting the work from one position to the other
on the work table each. Spindle may be set up properly
with difference tools for different operations.
Video 2, 3
104
(6) Multiple spindle D.M.: The function of the multiple

spindle D.M. is to drill a No. of holes in a piece of work
simultaneously and to reproduce the same pattern of holes
in a No. of identical pieces in a mass production work such
machines have several spindles driven by a single motor and
all the spindles holding drills are fed into the work.
Simultaneously. Feeding motion is usually obtained by
raising the work table. But the feeding motion may also be
secured by lowering the drill heads. The spindles are so
constructed that their centre distance may be adjusted in any
position as required by various jobs within the capacity of the
drill head. For this purpose, the
drill spindles are
connected to the main drive by universal joints. The spindles
are connected by a number of planetary gears so that even
different size drills can be loaded.
105
Video
4,5
106
7) Deep Hole Drilling machine: Special machine and drills

are required for drilling deep holes in rifle barrels, long
spindles, oil holes in crank shafts, long shafts etc. The
machine is operated at high speed and low feed. A long
job is usually supported at several points to prevent any
deflection. The work is usually rotated while the drill is
fed into the work. This helps in feeding the drill in a st.
path. The machine may be Horizontal type (or) Vertical
type. The drill is withdrawn automatically each time when
it penetrates in to the work to a depth equal to its dia.
This process permits the chip to clear out from the
work.
Video
6,7,8
107
108
There are different types of deep hole drilling processes and

are categorized by how the cutting coolant flushes heat and
chips from the cutting face. They are:
Gun drilling - The cutting tool is a
straight fluted solid rod that has a
hole bored down the center. Coolant
is pumped through a hole in the
inside of the drill. It flows back
outside the drill, through the flute,
bringing the
chips with it.
Drilling size
(dia) is
3-50 mm.
109
BTA (Boring and Trepanning Association) - The cutting

tool is a tube. Coolant is pumped around the outside of the
cutting tool at heavy pressure and carries chips out through
the center of the tube. Very high penetration rates can be
achieved with this system along with good surface finish.
Depth to Diameter ratio is highest.
Because
tubes
have minimum
sizes, this is only
an
acceptable
technology for
holes of diameter
over 15 mm and
up to 600 mm.
110
Examples of Deep Hole Drilling
111
Specifications
1. Max. size of drill that the machine can operate,
2. Max. spindle travel
3. Table diameter / size
4. Morse taper No. of the drill spindle
5. No. of spindle speeds and feeds available.
7. Net wt. of the machine
112
TERMINOLOGY
Drills are
manufactured
as:
1. Straight
shank drills
(up to
13.5 mm)
2. Taper shank
Drills (
14.0 mm
onwards)
Tang
Shank
Neck
Body
Tip
113
Drilling M/c Spindle
Drill Chuck with Chuck key

Morse taper is provided on all
drilling accessories, inside drilling
machine spindle, lathe tail stock,
lathe turret, and lathe centres
Drift
Sleeve
114
DRILL GEOMETRY
Lip angle/ Tip Angle/ Point Angle
115
Land / Margin: It maintains the alignment of the drill so

that hole is straight and to the right (correct) size.
116
Helix angle: Angle formed b/w a plane containing drill

axis and the leading edge of land. Based on the value of the
angle the drills can be classified as
1) Slow spiral series: 12o to 22o - Used for brass, bronze,
CI that produce broken chips (brittle materials). They
provide less lifting power, but are stronger, used for
shallow holes. Also used in horizontal applications where
drill is not rotating.
2) Regular spiral series: 28o to 32o - most widely used
3) Fast/High spiral series: 34o to 38o Used for softer
ferrous and non-ferrous materials producing long string
like chips (ductile materials). They provide great lifting
power, but are weak, used for deep holes.
117
118
Lip angle: Angle formed b/w the cutting edges (lips).

Smaller point angles results in lower effective rake. Effect of
change in effective rake is negligible on drill performance.
Smaller the point angle, longer the lip length. Smaller point
angles generate wider and thin chips. Higher point angles
generate narrow and thick chips. Higher point angle
increases the cutting efficiency of the drill because most
materials are cut efficiently in the form of thick chips.
Longer lip lengths reduce load per unit length of the lip and
helps in resisting the wear caused by abrasive action during
machining of metals like C.I.
119
1) M.S.
2) Steel
3) Steel
4) Grey C.I.
5) Grey C.I.
6) Chilled C.I.
7) Aluminum
8) Copper
9) Bronze
10) Brass
1180 (< 180 HB)

1180 (180 - 280 HB)
1350 - 140o (280 380 HB)
900 (< 180 HB)
1180 (180 - 280 HB)
1350 1400 (> 350 HB)
1180
1180
1180
1110
120
Clearance / Lip relief Angle:

Angle formed b/w flank and a
plane normal to drill axis at the
tip of the drill. Large angles
(80120) are used for ductile
matls. to compensate elastic
recovery. Small angles (6080)
are used for brittle matls.
121
OPERATIONS
1) Drilling Process of making hole in solid body.
2) Boring Enlarging a hole completely with an adjustable
tool with only one cutting edge.
3) Counter boring - Enlarging one end of the hole to form
a square shoulder with original hole to avoid projections
in assemblies.
4) Counter sinking - Making a cone shaped enlargement to
provide a recess for a screw head.
122
5) Reaming Sizing and finishing a small unhardened hole.

a) Straight flute reamer is used for
through holes in materials that do
not form chips like C.I, Bronze,
Brass. They form fine powder that
will fall by gravity.
b) Left hand spiral flute reamer is
used for through holes in other
a)
b)
c)
materials and is very effective as
they push the chips out of the
through hole.
c) Right hand spiral flute reamer Manual Reamer & Wrench
is used for blind holes as they pull
M/c Reamers
the chips out of them.
Chucking (M/c) Reamer
123
d) Rose reamers are primarily used for roughing prior to

final reaming. The cylindrical part of the reamer has no
cutting edges, but merely grooves cut for the full length of
the reamer body, providing a way for the chips
to escape and a channel for lubricant to reach
the cutting edges. To prevent binding they have
a slight back taper. The cutting edges at the end
are ground to a 450 bevel.
124
e) Shell reamers are similar to cutting portion of a

chucking reamer. They are supplied without a shank and
has a hole through the center. A arbor is used in
conjunction with the shell reamer, the slots in the reamer
engage lugs on the arbor for driving power.
125
6) Lapping Sizing and finishing a hole already hardened.

7)TappingProcess of making internal threads in small holes.
Machine Tap with holder

Manual Tap
8) Spot facing Process of smoothing and squaring the
surface around the hole or seat for a nut (or) head of a
screw for burr removal.
Spot facing tools with pilot

126
Burr
formation
during
drilling
Centre Drill used for making a

centre impression on surface for
locating the drill point, locating
the lathe & Grinding centres.
127
9) Trepanning Operation of producing a hole by removing

metal along the circumference of a hollow cutting tool. Used
for producing large holes in plates.
Video
9,10,11
128
TIME ESTIMATION
1) Cutting speed, V= DN / 1000 m/min
2) Machining Time, T = L / (f x N) = L / fm
L = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 (Some times L= L1 + 0.5D)
L1 = Depth of hole
L2 = Approach length
L3 = Length of tip
= 0.5D / tan
= 0.29D (For 2 = 1180)
(where, 2 = Lip angle)
L4 = Over Travel
3) Depth of cut, d = D / 2
4) MRR = D2fN / 4 = D2fm / 4
129
MILLING
INTRODUCTION:
A milling machine is a
machine tool that removes
metal as the work is fed
against a rotating multi
point cutter. The cutter
rotates at a high speed, and
because of the multiple
cutting edges it removes
the metal at a very fast rate.
The first milling machine
came into
existence in
about 1770 and was of
French origin.
130
TYPES
1. Column & knee type: Most commonly used for
general shop work. The table is mounted on the knee
casting, which in-turn is mounted on the vertical slides of
the main column. The knee is vertically adjustable on
the column, so that the table can be moved up and down
to accommodate work of various heights. The table can
be moved longitudinally and cross wise on the knee
casting. Classification of this type is based on methods of
supplying power to the table, diff. movement of the table
and diff. axis of rotation of the main spindle.
131
(a) Hand milling machine Feeding is done by hand and

used for light and simple operations like slots, grooves,
keyways. This is available in both horizontal & vertical
models Table movements are as above.
132
(b) Plain milling

machine This is a
horizontal
type
milling m/c. This is
more rigid
and
sturdy, for heavy
work, can be fed by
hand or power.
Table can be fed as
above.
Video
1,2
133
(c)Universal
milling
machine This is also a
horizontal type milling
m/c. In addition to 3
movements
in
plain
milling machine the table
has a fourth movement
i.e. it is fed at an angle to
milling cutter.
This
enable it to perform
helical milling.
This
machine can produce
spur, spiral, bevel gears,
twist drills, reamers,
milling cutters etc.
134
(d)Omniversal
milling machine
This is a horizontal
type milling m/c. The
extra fifth movement
is the table can be
tilted in
vertical
plane by providing a
swivel arrangement
at the knee. This
enables milling in
any plane. Taper
spiral
groves
in
reamers, bevel gears
etc can be done.
135
(e) Vertical milling machine

Here the position of the
spindle is vertical and to
the work table. The spindle
head is clamped to the
vertical column and can be
swiveled at an angle . Also
the spindle head can be
adjusted up / down relative
to
work.
The
table
movements are same as
plain milling machine.
Video
3,4
136
2. Plano Miller:
It resembles a planer. It is
having multiple spindle
heads both in vertical and
horizontal planes. It has a
cross rail which can be
raised or lowered along with
cutters. Hence no. of work
surfaces can be machined
simultaneously,
thereby
Video
reducing production time. In
5
a plano miller, the table has
feed movement instead of reciprocation. Hence the table
movement here is much slower than planning machine.
137
3. Rotary table Machine A

modification of vertical milling
machine adopted for machining
flat surfaces. A No. of work pieces
can be mounted on a circular table
which rotates about vertical axis.
The face milling cutters can be
mounted on two (or) more vertical
spindles and can be set at diff.
heights relative to work so that
when one cutter is roughing the
other is finishing them. Continuous
loading and unloading of work
pieces can be done by the operator
while milling is in progress.
138
4.Planetary milling
machine: Here the
work
is
held
stationary while the
revolving cutter
/
cutters
move in a
planetary
path to
finish a cylindrical
surface on the work either
internally / externally /
simultaneously.
This
machine
is
particularly
adopted for milling internal
/ external threads of different
pitches.
Video
6,7
139
5. Pantograph milling machine It can duplicate a job

by using a pantograph mechanism which permits the size o
the work piece reproduced to be smaller than, equal to or
greater than the size of a template or model used for this
purpose. A pantograph is a mechanism that is generally
constructed of four bars or links joined in the form of
parallelogram. Pantograph machines are available in 2D or
3D models. 2-D models are used for engraving letters
or other designs, 3-D models are used for copying any
shape and contour of the work piece. The tracing stylus
is moved manually on the contour of the model to be
duplicated and the milling cutter mounted on the spindle
moves in a similar path on the work piece, reproducing the
shape of the model.
140
Video
8
141
SPECIFICATIONS
1. The maximum length of longitudinal, cross and vertical
travel of the table.
2. No. of spindle speeds,
3. No. of table speeds and feeds
5. Net weight required
6. Spindle nose taper (for vertical milling machine spindle)
and taper on horizontal milling machine arbors
142
MILLING GEOMETRY
Peripheral cutter: As the cutting edges are arranged radially
on the periphery the rake angle is called radial rake which is
the cutting edges angle w.r.t to the periphery of the cutter. +ve
radial rake gives better performance in peripheral milling.
Face cutter: Two rake angles are defined here.
(a) Radial rake is the cutting inserts angle w.r.t the periphery
of the cutter
(b) Axial rake is the cutting inserts angle w.r.t the central axis
of the cutter.
Axial Rake has significant effect on axial force and thrust
applied to the spindle. Radial rake has major effect on
tangential and radial forces. +ve axial rake, - ve radial rake
gives best performance.
143
PERIPHERAL CUTTER
144
FACE CUTTER
Side View
Bottom View
145
METHODS OF MILLING
1. Peripheral Milling: It is the operation performed by a
milling cutter to produce a machined surface parallel to the
axis of rotation of the cutter. Here the cutting force is not
uniform throughout the length of cut by each tooth. Due to
this reason, a shock is developed in the mechanism of the
machine that leads to a vibration. The quality of surface
generated and the shape of the chip formed is dependent
upon the rotation of the cutter relative to the direction of feed
movement of the work. According to the relative movement
between the tool and work, the peripheral milling is
classified into two types:
146
147
(a) Up milling / Conventional milling: The metal is removed

by the cutter which is rotated against the travel of the W.P.
The thickness of the chip is min. at the beginning of cut max.
when the cut terminates. The cutting force is directed up
wards and this tends to lift the work from the fixtures. This
is used for roughing operations. The chips accumulate at the
cutting zone, and
may be carried
over with the
cutter,
spoiling
the work surface.
It generates a poor
finish.
Cutting
force and power
are more.
148
(b) Down milling/ Climb milling: The metal is removed by

the cutter which is rotated in the same direction of travel of
the W.P. The thickness of the chip is max. when the tooth
begins its cut and it reduces to the min. when the tooth
leave the work. The cutting force is directed down wards and
this tends seat the work firmly in the work holding devices.
Hence fixture design is easier. This operation cannot be used
on old machine as the back lash error present in the screw
elements that may cause vibration and damages the work
surface considerably. Hence this operation should be
performed on rigid machines provided with back last
eliminator. This is used for finishing operations. The chips
are also disposed off easily and do not interfere with the
cutting. This results in improved surface finish. Cutting
force and power are less.
149
BACKLASH ELIMINATOR: This eliminates the backlash

(play) between nut and table lead screw. Two independent nuts
are mounted on lead screw. The nuts engage common crown
gear which meshes with rack. The axial movement of rack is
controlled by the backlash eliminator, engaging a knob on
front of saddle. Turning the knob forces the nuts to move
along lead screw in opposite directions.
150
2. Face Milling: This is performed to produce a flat

machined surface to the axis of rotation of the cutter. In this
operation both up milling and down milling may be
considered to be performed simultaneously on the work
surface. When the cutter rotates through half of the
revolution the direction of movement of the cutter tooth is
opposite to the direction of feed and the condition reverse
when the cutter rotates through other half of revolution. The
chip thickness is min. at the beginning and at the end of the
cut, and it is max. when the work passes through the centre
line of cutter. The surface generated in face milling is
characterized by the tooth circular marks of the cutter. Face
milling gives superior finish than peripheral milling.
151
Draw Bolt
Spindle
Cutter Holder
Spindle Nose Taper
152
3. End Milling: It is a combination of peripheral and face

milling operations. The cutter has cutting edges both on the
end face and on the periphery. The cutting characteristics
may be of peripheral or face milling type according to the
particular cutter surface used. When end cutting edges are
only used to remove metal, the direction of rotation of the
cutter and direction of helix of the cutter should be same.
When peripheral cutting edges are used, the direction of
rotation of the cutter and direction of helix of the cutter must
be opposite to each other.
153
Draw Bolt
Collet Holder
Collet Wrench
Collet
End Mill
154
TAPER USED IN MILLING MACHINES

American Standard Taper of
3.5 per foot is made standard
taper in all milling machines
built in U.S.
Brown and Sharpe Taper of 0.5
per foot is also widely used on
collets, arbors of horizontal
machines, inside of vertical
machine spindles and on
grinding machine spindles. This
is used in European and Asian
Countries
155
OPERATIONS
1. Plain Milling: Producing plain, flat horizontal surface.
This is called slab milling if performed with a peripheral
cutter and called face Milling if a face milling cutter is
used.
2. Side Milling: Producing flat vertical surface on the side of

a work piece by using side milling cutter.
156
3. Straddle Milling: Producing flat vertical surfaces on both

sides of the work piece by using two side milling cutter
mounted on the same arbor. The distance between the two
cutter can be adjusted by using spacing collars.
Video
9
4. Gang Milling: Machining several surfaces simultaneously

using a No. of cutters of same or diff. diameters mounted
on the arbor of the machine, used widely for repetitive work
157
5. Form Milling: Producing irregular contours using form

cutters like concave, convex or any other shape.
Convex Cutter
Concave Milling
Convex Milling
Concave Cutter
6. End milling: Producing flat surfaces which may
be vertical, horizontal or at an angle in reference to
the table surface like slots, grooves, key ways,
steps etc. A vertical milling machine is most
suitable for end milling.
158
7. Saw milling: Producing narrow slots or grooves using

saw milling cutter. It can also be performed for complete
parting off operation.
8. Gear cutting: By using form relieved cutter having the

same profile of the tooth space of the gear.
9. Helical Milling: Producing helical flutes or grooves
around the periphery of a cylindrical or conical work piece.
10. Cam Milling: Producing cams by using universal dividing
head and a vertical milling attachment.
Note: 8, 9, 10, above can be done in indexing.
159
INDEXING
It is the operation of dividing the periphery of a piece of
work into any No. of equal parts. This is adopted for
producing hexagonal and square headed bolts cutting
splines on shafts, flutes in milling cutters, drills, taps and
reamers, cutting of Gears, cams etc.
Indexing is
accomplished by using a special attachment known as
dividing head or Index head. They are of 3 types
1) Plain / Simple dividing head 2) Universal Dividing head
3) Optical Dividing head
Using these dividing heads, the work can be set in vertical,
horizontal or in inclined positions relative to the table
surface. There are several methods of indexing. The choice
of any one method depends upon the No. of divisions
required and the type of dividing head used.
160
PLAIN / SIMPLE INDEXING HEAD
UNIVERSAL INDEXING HEAD
OPTICAL
INDEXING
HEAD
161
METHODS OF INDEXING
1) Direct Indexing: Also called rapid indexing, is used
making small No. of divisions. This can be performed in
both plain and universal dividing head. The spindle and index
crank are connected by bevel gears. The required No. of
divisions on the work is obtained by means of the rapid index
plate generally fitted to the front end of the spindle nose.
The plate has 24 equally spaced holes, into any one of
which a spring loaded in is pushed to lock the spindle with
the frame. While indexing, the pin is first taken out and then
the spindle is rotated by hand, and after the required
position is reached, it is again locked by pin. when the
plate is turned throughout the required part o a revolution,
the dividing head spindle and the work are also turned
through the same part of the revolution.
162
With a rapid index plate having 24 holes, it is possible to

divided the work into equal divisions of all factors of 24 i.e.
2,3,4,6,8,12,24
Video
10
Rule:
No. of holes
to be moved
= No. of holes in the direct index plate

No. of divisions required
Q) Find out the index movement required to mill a

hexagonal bolt by direct indexing.
Ans. No. of holes to be moved = 24/6 = 4
After machining one side of the bolt the index plate will
have to be moved by 4 holes for 5 times to machining the
remaining 5 faces of the bolt.
163
2) Simple Indexing: Also called plain indexing, is more

accurate and suitable for numbers beyond the range of rapid
indexing. The bevel gears are replaced by a worm and worm
wheel. The shaft carrying the crank has a single threaded
worm and it meshes with the worm wheel on spindle having
40 teeth. 40 turns of crank are necessary to rotate the spindle
thro' one revolution,
i.e one complete turn
of the index crank
will cause the worm
wheel to make 1/40
of a revolution. For
indexing fractions of
a turn, various index
plates are used.
164
Rule:
Index crank movement = 40/N,
where N = No. of divisions required.
If the crank movement obtained from the formula is a
whole No. the index crank should be rotated equal to the
whole No. derived. If the crank movement obtained from
the above formula is a whole No. and a fraction then, the
numerator and denominator of the fraction are multiplied by
a suitable common No. which will make the denominator of
the fraction equal to No. of holes in the index plate. The new
numerator now stands for the No. of holes to be moved by
index crank in the hole circle derived from denominator, in
addition to the complete turns of crank.
Eg: Index plates- 12, 14, 16, 18, 21 hole circles etc.
165
Q) Set the dividing head

to mill 30 teeth on a spur
wheel blank. Use 21 hole
index plate.
Video
Ans.
11
Index crank movement
= 40/30 =
=
=
Thus for indexing, one
complete turn and 7 holes
in 21 hole circle of the index plate will have to be moved by
the index crank, if 21 hole plate is selected. This can also be
performed with 18 hole plate [
] or 24 hole plate [
]
also.
166
3) Compound indexing:- The indexing method is called

compound due to the two separate movement of the index
crank in two diff. hole circles of one (same) index plate to
obtain a crank movement not obtainable by plain indexing.
4) Differential Indexing: The differential indexing may be
considered as an automatic method (mechanization) of
performing compound indexing. Here the Index crank is
connected to milling machine feed rod through a set of gears
to get continuous rotation for spindle for making helical
grooves as shown.
Video
12
167
Setting of universal dividing head for spiral or helical grooves

168
TIME ESTIMATION
1. Time required per cut = L / (f x N) = L / fm
L = L1+ ATT
L1=Length of W.P ;
ATT = Added Table Travel
2. Total Milling time= Time per cut x No. of cuts(or) Indexing
3. Cutting speed, V = DN / 1000; D = Cutter Diameter
4. Feed per tooth. ft = f / Z = fm / NZ, Z = No. of teeth
5. MRR = Wdfm ; d = depth of cut; W= Width of WP
Calculation of ATT: Operations performed on the milling
machines are done by peripheral cutters / slab cutters/ side
and face cutters (Horizontal M/c) and face cutters or end mills
(Vertical M/c).
a) For Peripheral / Slab Cutters / Side and Face Cutters
= Clearance at entry /exit
169
General Case
FRONT
VIEW
FRONT
VIEW
ATT calculation neglecting clearance
170
(v) Maximum uncut chip thickness =
(vi) Average uncut chip thickness =

(vii) Peak to valley height for surface roughness =
(viii) Effective no. of teeth cutting at same time =
(ix) Mean Tangential Force =Fmt = K d fm W / DN
K = Material Constant
(x) Mean Cutting Power = Fmt V
171
b) For Face Cutters/End Mills

i) Tool fully engaged, Roughing Pass
doesnt require Full Wipe
General Case
Special Cases
ii) Tool fully engaged, Finishing Pass
requires Full Wiping (Single pass feed)
iii) Tool not fully engaged with W<D/2;
Offset Cases
iv) Tool not fully engaged but W D/2;
172
OT
L = L1 + OT
L1
(i)
TOP
VIEW
W/2
C
(ii)
AL = 0.5 cm
TOP
OT = 0.5 cm VIEW
L1
W
W/2
L = L1 + AL + OT + D
173
(iii)
L1
AL
A
B
TOP
VIEW
(iv)
OT
AL
L1
OT
AL = OT = D/2
174
TOP
VIEW
BROACHING
Broach is bar type cutter with series of cutting edges
gradually increasing in size to remove all materials in one
stroke. In broaching there is only one motion, i.e. the
primary cutting motion is provided by the machine, where
as the feed is obtained by placing the teeth progressively
deeper. Since there is no feed motion, the shape of the
broach determines
the shape of the machined part.
Broach is used to produce internal forms like spline holes,
non-circular holes, slots, grooves, gears etc. Internal
broaching is done by either pulling (or) pushing the broach
through a hole drilled in the work piece. Pulling is highly
preferred to facilitate alignment and avoid buckling.
Video
1
175
Similar external forms can also be produced by using pot

broach. Here the broach is made in segments and fixed
inside a fixture called pot fixture. The broach is stationary
but the W.P. is pulled / pushed through it.
Pot broach
Internal broaches
176
GRINDING
Introduction: Grinding is the process of removing excess
material by the abrasive action of a rotating wheel on the
surface of the work piece. It is basically a finishing process
employed to produce high accuracy and surface finish. The
grinding wheel consists of sharp crystals called abrasives
held together by suitable bonding. Natural abrasives available
in nature include sand stone (natural silica), diamond,
corundum and emery (natural alumina). Artificial abrasives
are free from impurities and possess better performance
properties. They include Al2O3, SiC, CBN etc.
177
Natural Silica
Corundum
White Al Oxide
SiC
178
Emery
CBN
The various bonding materials used are:

a) Vitrified bond (V) It is made of clay and feldspar (rock
forming mineral in earths crust). This is the strongest bond
of all and is not effected by water/oils/acids. Vitrified bond is
suitable for high stock removal even at dry condition. It
cannot be used where mechanical impact or thermal
variations are likely to occur. This bond is also not
recommended for very high speed grinding because of
possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
b) Resinoid bond (B) It is a synthetic thermosetting resin
(phenolic resins) that becomes hard after heating. This
occupies next place to Vitrified bond. Conventional abrasive
resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding
because of their ability to withstand shock load.
179
c) Silicate bond (S) It is made of sodium silicate and is used

for operations that generate less heat.
d) Rubber bond (R) It is made of synthetic or natural
rubber. Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut-off
operation. They are denser than resinoid bonds but are less
heat resistant. Rubber bond was once popular for finish
grinding on bearings and cutting tools. They are also used for
making regulating wheels in centreless grinding.
e) Shellac bond (E) This is also an organic bond and has
considerable strength. This not suitable for heavy duty work.
At one time this bond was used for flexible cut off wheels. At
present use of shellac bond is limited to grinding wheels
engaged in fine finish of rolls.
180
Vitrified Bond
Resinoid Bond
Silicate Bond
Rubber Bond
Parting Wheels
Rubber Bond
Regulating Wheels
Shellac Bond
181
Specification of Grinding Wheel

Eg: 51 A 60 K 5 V 05
51 Manufacturers identification no. for exact kind of
abrasive used
A Type of abrasive
A Al2O3, B CBN, C SiC, D Diamond
60 Average grit size or Mesh Size - 8-24 Coarse;
30-60 Medium; 80-180 Fine; 220-600 Very fine
K Hardness of wheel (Bonding Strength)
A Softest to Z Hardest
5 Porosity of wheel 1 to 15/20
1- Low porosity / Closed structure / More denser
15/20- High porosity / Open structure / Less denser
V Bonding material
05 Wheel manufacturers identifier
182
Classification of Grinding Machines
Video
1,2
Surface Grinding M/c: Similar to Milling

a) Horizontal Machine
b) Vertical Machine
183
Cylindrical Grinding M/c: Similar to lathe. Can perform both

External and Internal Grinding.
Video
3
184
185
Centerless Grinding M/c:
186
EXTERNAL CENTRELESS GRINDING

187
INTERNAL CENTRELESS GRINDING

188
Feeding System in External Machine

1) Through feed is for step less small components like piston
pins, rollers of roller bearings, cam shafts, dowel pins.
Here the regulating wheel rpm is less and also inclined.
2) In feed / Plunge feed is for stepped components like Bolts,
valve tappets etc. Stopper is provided.
3) End feed is for tapered components. Here the grinding
wheel and regulating wheel are profiled to get the taper.
Video
4,5
189
Special Grinding M/c

a) Tool & Cutter grinder
b) Thread Grinder
Video
6,7
190
Different Dressers
Radius & Angular

Dressing Attachment
191
Dressing: Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface

which ensures that grit cutting edges are exposed from the
bond and thus will be able to penetrate into the work piece
material and substantially influence the condition of the
grinding wheel.
Truing: Truing is the act of regenerating the required
geometry on the wheel. Truing is required whenever a new
wheel is loaded to ensure concentricity with machine spindle.
It is done with a diamond truing tool (dressing tool) by
removing the outer layer and creating a concentric layer w.r.t
the spindle axis.
Glazing: Glazing of the wheel is nothing but abrasive
particles getting blunt. Dressing will remove the blunt layer.
192
Loading / Clogging: It is the condition when pores of the

grinding wheel get filled/clogged with chips. This can occur
due to grinding of soft materials or by improper selection of
grinding wheels or improper process parameters or improper
cutting fluids. Dressing will remove the clogged layer.
193
Note: 1.The specific energy requirement in Grinding

(50 J/mm3)is more than that required in turning (2 - 5 J/mm3).
This is because of the large contact area between the wheel
and the work resulting due to the large no. of cutting edges.
2. The Grinding wheels have random geometry. The rake
angle varies from +450 to -600 and more. The negative rake
increases the cutting forces and promote rubbing action
affecting the cutting action. Hence high rotational speeds are
used for minimizing the effect of negative rake.
3. The ratio of thrust force to cutting force in Grinding is > 1.
This is opposite in turning (i.e < 1).
4. Soft wheels are used for hard materials as they break
easily to release worn out grains (High self sharpening
capability). Hard wheels are used for soft materials as wear
out is less and they retain the grains for more time.
194
5. GRINDING RATIO:
Grinding Ratio or G Ratio is the cubic mm of stock
removed divided by the cubic mm of wheel lost.
In conventional grinding it is 20:1 to 80:1
It is a measure of grinding production and reflects the
amount of work a wheel can do during its useful life.
As the wheel loses material it must be reset to maintain the
required work piece size.
6. Al. oxide is the preferred abrasive compared to SiC to
grind high tensile strength material like steel as Al. oxide is
tougher than SiC. Also Al. oxide shows higher chemical
inertness towards steel giving more wear resistance during
grinding.
195
Creep feed Grinding: It is different

from conventional grinding. Here the
entire depth of cut is completed in one
pass only using very small feed rates
(0.005 mm). High depth of cuts of
order 1 to 30 mm with low speeds of 1
to 0.025 m/min are used. Cutting
forces and power required are more.
Open and soft wheels are used to
accommodate large volume of chips
generated. The cutting fluids are oil
based due to low grinding speeds. This
is mainly used for grinding work pieces made out of hard
materials with deep slots or complex profiles and also for
removing large amounts of material.Wheel wear rate is more.
196
SUPER FINISHING PROCESSES

The surface finish produced by various processes are:
PROCESS: SURFACE FINISH (m) : TYPE OF PROCESS
Turning, boring :
0.05 to 25
: Machining Process
Milling
:
0.25 to 25
: Machining Process
Planning, shaping : 0.375 to 25
: Machining Process
Drilling
:
0.75 to 12.5
: Machining Process
Reaming, Broaching : 0.5 to 6.25
: Machining Process
Grinding
:
0.025 to 6.25 : Finishing Process
Honing
:
0.025 to 1.5 : Super Finishing Process
Lapping
:
0.013 to 0.75: Super Finishing Process
Burnishing
:
0.01 to 0.25 : Super Finishing Process
Polishing & Buffing:
: Super Finishing Process
197
Honing
This is used for finishing the inside surface of a hole. It can
also be used for finishing external surfaces. Here abrasives
are in the form of sticks which are mounted on a mandrel
which is given a reciprocating motion along the hole axis
super imposed on a uniform rotary motion. The grit size is
b/w 80 to 600 mesh size. Honing finds special
application for cylinder bores as it produces
a cross hatched pattern useful for lubrication.
Special cutting fluids like sulphurised oils are
used. Honing can also be used for finishing
gears where tool is made in plastic or any
bonding material impregnated with abrasives.
Other examples include bearings, hydraulic
cylinders, and gun barrels.
198
Video
1
199
Lapping
A lap is generally made of material softer than work and has
the same shape of the opposed mating part. Straight narrow
grooves are cut at 90o on the lap surface and abrasive powder
is sprinkled on the surface. A suitable fluid (carriers) is also
applied like M/C oil, grease etc. Lapping is performed by
hand or machines. To carry out the process, the lap is pressed
against the work and moved back and forth over the surface
in a figure-eight or other motion pattern, (unrepeated paths)
subjecting all portions of the surface to the same action. C.I.
is the mostly used lap material, other materials are soft steel
Cu, Brass, hardwood etc. Abrasives are oxides of Al, Si, Cr
and diamond etc. The grit size is b/w 120 to 1200 mesh size.
This process has wide applications like gauges, measuring
wires, m/c Spindles, threads, gears, lenses, bearing races etc.
200
Video
2,3
201
Burnishing
It consists of pressing hardened steel balls or rolls on to the
surface of W.P. and also imparting feed motion to the same
so that it causes plastic flow of minute irregularities like
dents, projections etc.
Eg: Burnishing of shafts.
Shaft
burnished
on lathe
Video
4
Hydraulic cylinders
roller burnished on lathe
202
Polishing
Polishing is a finishing operation to improve the surface
finish by means of a polishing wheel made of fabrics or
leather and rotating at high speed. The abrasive grains are
glued to the outside periphery of the polishing wheel.
Polishing is used to remove scratches and burrs and to
smoothen the rough surfaces. Polishing may be used to
enhance and restore the looks of certain metal parts or object
on cars and other vehicles, handrails, cookware, kitchenware,
and architectural metal.
203
Buffing
Buffing is a finishing operation similar to polishing, in which
abrasive grains are not glued to the wheel but are contained in
a buffing compound that is pressed into the outside surface of
the buffing wheel while it rotates. Buffing is used to provide
attractive surfaces with high lustre. In applications such as
pharmaceutical, dairy, and specialty plumbing, pipes are
buffed to help prevent corrosion and to eliminate locations
where bacteria or mold may reside. Buffing is also used in
manufacture light reflectors.
204
THREAD MANUFACTURING
Threads are of prime importance to Engg. They are used as
fasteners to transmit power / motion. The following are the
methods of thread mfg.
Casting Methods:
Threads made by sand casting are rough
and not used much, except some times
in vices and rough machinery like
construction equipment, mouth of glass bottles, spun cast iron
pipes etc.
Threads made by die casting are very accurate and of high
finish. But as they can be made with low melting point non
ferrous metals, they are not fit for repeated use and hence
used in sewing machines, toys, type writers etc.
205
Video - 1,2
Forming Methods:
Thread Rolling is a cold working process in which a blank of
dia. approximately equal to pitch dia (or) effective dia of
reqd. thread is rolled between hardened steel rolling dies
having the thread profile. This is the fastest method of
producing threads at a rate of 200 to 1000 pieces / min.
Being chip less forming there is lot of material saving. This
is limited to external threads only (up to dia. 25 mm). This is
widely used for mass production
of fasteners like bolts, screws etc.
206
Machining Methods:
Thread cutting on lathe by a single point
tool is a slow process but produces very
accurate threads. Hence to increase
Video - 3
productivity thread chasing has been
developed with a little compromise on quality where a partly
cut thread using a single point tool (one or two cuts) is
finished by a multi point tool called thread chaser in one cut.
Threads are cut in milling (internal & external) by a form
cutter having the thread profile. It is more efficient and
productive than lathe, when large amount of metal is to be
removed. Special purpose machines are also available. Used
for coarse threads, trapezoidal threads etc.
207
Finishing Methods:
Thread Grinding is used for producing very accurate
threads. This is employed to cut threads on hardened
materials, for which other methods are not possible. This is
used to cut threads on taps, micro meter screws, lead
screws, thread gauges, thread milling cutters etc. The
principle of thread grinding is same as thread milling. A
thread grinding m/c. is similar to that of a cylindrical
grinding m/c.
Miscellaneous Methods:
Taps are used for cutting internal
threads in small holes.
Dies are used for cutting external
threads on pipes and small parts.
208
GEAR MANUFACTURING
Gears are classified according to the shape of the tooth pair
and disposition into Spur, Helical, Double Helical, Straight
Bevel, Spiral Bevel, Hypoid Bevel, Worm and Spiral gears.
209
Spur gears have their teeth parallel to the axis and are used
for transmitting power between two parallel shafts. They
have highest efficiency and excellent precision rating. They
are used in high speed and high load application in all types
of trains and a wide range of velocity ratios. Hence, they find
wide applications right from clocks, household gadgets,
motor cycles, automobiles, and railways to aircrafts.
Helical gears are used for parallel shaft drives. They have
teeth inclined to the axis. Hence for the same width, their
teeth are longer than spur gears and have higher load carrying
capacity. They operate smoother and quieter than spur gears.
Their precision rating is good. Their efficiency is slightly
lower than spur gears. They are recommended for very high
speeds and loads. Thus, these gears find wide applications in
automotive gearboxes.
210
Double helical or Herringbone gears used for transmitting

power between two parallel shafts. They have opposing
helical teeth and their load capacity is very high and are
costly. Their applications are limited to high capacity
reduction drives like that of cement mills and crushers.
Rack is a segment of a gear of infinite diameter. The tooth
can be spur or helical. This type of gearing is used for
converting rotary motion into translatory motion or vice
versa.
211
Straight bevel gears are used for transmitting power

between intersecting shafts. They can operate under high
speeds and high loads. Their precision rating is fair to good.
Wide application of the straight bevel drives is in automotive
differentials, right angle drives of blenders and conveyors.
Spiral bevel gears are also used for transmitting power
between intersecting shafts. The teeth contact length is more
and they operate smoother than straight bevel gears. They
have higher load capacity, but their efficiency is slightly
lower. Usage is in automobile differentials.
Hypoid bevel gears are also used for right angle drive in
which the axes do not intersect. This permits the lowering of
the pinion axis which is an added advantage in automobile
drives. Their efficiency is lower than other two types of bevel
gears. Usage is in current day automobile drives.
212
Worm and worm gear pair consists of a worm, which is

very similar to a screw and a worm gear, which is a helical
gear. They are used in right-angle skew shafts. In these gears,
the engagement occurs without any shock resulting in quieter
operation. High reduction ratios are possible. Efficiency of
these gears is low. Their precision rating is fair to good. The
drives are very compact. Worm gearing finds wide
application in material handling and transportation
machinery, machine tools, automobiles etc.
Spiral gears are also known as crossed helical gears. They
have high helix angle and transmit power between two nonintersecting non-parallel shafts. Their precision rating is poor.
They are used for light load and low speed application such
as instruments, sewing machine, textile machinery etc.
213
The following are manufacturing methods.

Casting Methods:
Sand casting is used for large size gears used in farm
machinery and Hand operated devices like cement mixer
barrels, hoist gear box of dam gate lifting etc.
The materials that can be sand cast are CI, cast steel,
Bronzes, brass and ceramics.
214
Die Casting is used for making large quantity of small gears

used in lawn movers, instruments, cameras, toys etc.
Materials used to manufacture die casted gears are zinc,
aluminium and brass.
Centrifugal casting is used for making phosphor bronze (as it

is resistant to sliding loads) worm wheel rims.
Semi Centrifugal casting is used for making Gear blanks.
215
Investment casting process is used for making complicated

shapes economically. The process is useful if the gear is
integral with some complicated shape that is very difficult to
produce by machining. The process is used only if no other
process is suitable since production cost is high.
Tool steel, nitriding steel, monel, beryllium copper are the
materials that can be investment casted for gears.
Critical
gear set
Casting
with pattern
used in the
surface-toWheel Gear used in
air missile
petroleum machinery
system.
216
Injection moulding is used for making light gears of thermo

plastics and used in toys, projectors, Wind shield wipers,
Xerox m/c, Washing m/c, Speedo meters, etc.
The materials for injection molding components are Nylon,
cellulose acetate, polystyrene, polyimide, phenolics.
217
Video 1
Forming methods:
Roll forming is the method where
the gear blank is mounted on a shaft
and is pressed in hard rolling dies. Both
spur and helical gears can be made.
Extrusion is used for small sized gears.
After extrusion, a no. of gears can be
parted from extruded rod of gear.
Operations like piercing, hole upsetting
are needed after parting and used in
clocks, typewriters, toys etc.
Aluminum, copper, naval brass, architect-ural bronze and
phosphor bronze are the materials that are commonly extruded
218
Forging has long been used in the manufacture of gears. Gear

blanks can be produced by open-die forging, closed die
forging
and hot upset forging. Precision-forged gears
requiring little or no finish machining are commonly used in
the automotive, truck, off-highway, aerospace, railroad,
agriculture, and material handling industries, as well as the
energy and mining fields. Gears can be forged from low-alloy
steel, brass, Al alloys, S.S,
titanium, and some of the heat
-resistant alloys. Although spur
gears are the easiest to forge,
helical and spiral-bevel gears
can also be forged if their
configurations permit ejection
of the gear from the die cavity.
219
Powder Metallurgy techniques also are used for making of

balancer gears and oil pump gears in automotives, gear motors
for household appliances, crane drives, motor driven window
lift and seat adjustors, cluster gears,
different types of gears that can be
combined with built in keyways etc.
Accuracy is similar to die-cast gears.
Typically suited for small size gears.
Economical for large lot sizes only.
Sheet metal blanking is used
for producing thin metallic
gears form sheet metal to be
used in wrist watches, toys,
electricity & water meters,
hand operated machine gears for slow speed mechanisms etc.
220
Machining methods:
a) Form cutter methods: They use a form tool having the
shape of teeth space. Disadvantages are low productive, less
accurate, high tooling cost as they need a change in tool if no.
of teeth or pitch dia. is changed.
Gear can be cut in shaper by a single point form tool. To
increase productivity a shear speed process called shear speed
gear shaper was developed which uses a ring of single point
form tools arranged radially to cut all teeth simultaneously.
This method is economical only for large qty production.
Gear can be cut by milling using rotating form cutter. It is
used for spur, helical, bevel and racks and has the same
disadvantages.
Gear cut by broaching are very accurate and used for large
qty production but has same disadvantages except accuracy.
221
b) Gear Generating method: The process is based on the

principle that any two gears of same module will mesh
together properly (module = pitch dia / no. of teeth). If one
of the gears is made into a cutter by proper sharpening and
it meshes with the gear blank, then the teeth on the blank are
developed / generated by :
a) The relative rolling and reciprocation motion of the cutter
and the blank (for Planing and Shaping)
b) Rotation of hob and blank, feeding of hob and tilting of
hob at the helix angle (for Hobbing).
If the generating tool is a rack it is called Gear Planing.
If the generating tool is a pinion, it is called Gear Shaping.
If the generating tool is threaded and gashed (like worm) it is
called hob, and the process is called Gear Hobbing.
222
Gear planning is less accurate than other generating methods

but more accurate than form cutting methods.
Gear Hobbing is highly productive and highly accurate
among all generation methods.
Gear planning and Gear Hobbing are limited to external gears
only. [(i) and (ii)]
Gear Shaping can be used for both external and internal
gears. [(iii) and (iv)]
The major advantage of generating is that same cutter of
particular module can cut gears of different no. teeth.
223
Gear Planing
Gear Shaping
Video
2
224
Video
3
Gear Hobbing
225
Finishing methods:
Video 4
For smooth running, and good performance, the gears should
be accurate. Common finishing methods that are employed
after machining are:
(a) For soft & unhardened gears
1. Gear shaving: Shaving cutters
perform minute cutting of flash or
burr, correct profile errors, etc
when meshed with machined gears.
226
2. Gear burnishing: Gears are rolled under pressure with

hardened gears to cause plastic flow of minute irregularities
like dents, projections, cutter marks etc and also work
hardens the surface creating beneficial compressive residual
stresses.
(b)For hard &
hardened
gears
1. Grinding using
form wheels
227
2. Honing
3. Lapping
228
JIGS AND FIXTURES

Jig:- It is a device which
holds and positions the
work with the help of
locating pins and clamps
and locates (or) guides
the cutting tool relative to
the work. It is of lighter
construction
and
is
usually not fixed to the
m/c. They are used for
drilling
and
related
operations like reaming,
tapping, counter boring
etc.
Locating pins: These are inserted

in the body of Jigs and fixture to
establish the desired relationship
between work and jig or fixture.
229
Fixture: It is a
device which only
holds and positions
the works but does
not itself locate (or)
guide the cutting
tool. It is of heavy
construction and is
usually fixed to the
machine. They are
used in turning,
shaping, milling,
grinding etc.
Machine Vice
Clamps: These are used to hold the

work piece opposite to the action of
cutting forces when ever fixtures are
unable to do so.
230
3-2-1 Principle of pin location
231
Also called 6 - Point location principle. For anybody in free

space there are 6 translatory moments and 6 rotary moments
about x-y-z axis hence these 12 degrees of freedom (dof) are
to be arrested for performing the machining operation. The
figure shows how six pins can be used to arrest 9 dof. The
pins A, B & C will not allow rotation about X & Y axis and
also downward movement restricting 5 dof. The pins D & E
will not allow rotation about Z-axis and also leftward
moment arresting 3 dof. The pin F will not allow backward
moment and hence arresting 1 more dof. To arrest the
remaining 3 dof, 3 more pins will be required but this will
enclose the work completely and makes loading (or)
unloading of work piece impossible. Thus to arrest these
clamping devices are used.
232
Other Principles of pin location:

1) Principle of minimum locating pins: The no. of locating
pins used must be as min as possible.
2) Principle of extreme positions: The locating pins must be
placed as far as possible from each other to achieve
greatest degree of accuracy in location.
3) Principle of mutually planes: The work should be
located such that the planes in which it is located are
mutually .
233
Classification of locating pins

1) Locating pins: These are used when
work pieces are having holes in them and
are used for location purpose.
a) Conical pins Provide line contact and
used for light jobs. Also can accommodate
work pieces with varying hole sizes.
b) Cylindrical / Round pins Provide
surface contact and used for heavy jobs.
They can not accommodate work pieces
with varying hole sizes. Provides uniform
all around sliding clearance when work
piece sits on it.
234
c) Diamond pins To be used in combination with round

pins. They provide more lateral clearance and will take care of
pitch distance variation in work pieces.
235
2) Support pins:
These are used
when work
pieces are not
having holes in
them.
a)
b)
a) Fixed Type When work piece is having uniform
dimensions. (Fixed Distance)
b) Adjustable Type When piece is having non-uniform
dimensions. (Adjustable Distance)
236
3) Jack Pins: Used to accommodate different work pieces

with different sizes and also in press tools for sheet metal
location
V-Locators: Used for locating
circular or semi-circular work
pieces.
237
Principles of clamping
1. The clamping pressure applied must counteract with the
tool forces.
2. The clamping pressure should not deform the work piece.
3. The clamping should be simple, quick and foolproof.
4. The clamping pressure must be directed towards the point
of support, otherwise the work may lift from the support.
5) Clamp should be arranged above the point of support. If
not the clamping force may distort the work piece.
238
TYPES OF CLAMPS
1. Light Clamping:
a) Clamping Screws
b) Hook Bolt Clamp
239
2. Rigid Clamping Lever type clamps:

b) Swinging
Latch Clamp
a) Bridge Clamp
c) Heel / Dog Clamp

d) Hinged Clamp
240
3) Quick Clamping:
a) Quick Acting Nut

WP
c) Cam operated clamp
b) C-Clamp
241
Spherical Washers: They accommodate misalignment

between clamp surface and clamping nut due to inclination of
the strap. This can be done by using a pair of spherical
washers (male and female) instead of using a plain washer.
242
Types of Drill Jigs

1)Template Jigs:- A template jig
consists of a hardened template with
holes in required position to guide
the drill. Here it is not possible to
vary the size of the drill.
2) Plate type jig:- It is similar to the

above and is provided with Jig bushes
instead of simple holes. Hence the
same plate can be used for different
size of the drill by replacing the jig
bush provided the configuration of
work piece is not changed.
243
3) Box-type Jig :- This is

used when holes are to be
drilled in more than one
plane.
244
4) Swinging leaf Jig :- This

will help easy loading and
unloading of work piece.
Note: Jigs can be made for drilling when large qty work pieces
are required, otherwise it can be managed by marking and
centre punching. But for drilling related operations like
Reaming, Tapping, Counter boring etc, it is compulsory
irrespective of qty of production.
Types of fixtures:
1) Turning fixtures: Chucks, face plates, mandrels.
2) Shaper fixtures: M/c Vice
3) Milling fixtures: Milling m/c. vices, Setting blocks.
4) Surface grinding fixtures:
Magnetic chucks (Ferrous metals),
Vaccum chucks (Non-Ferrous metals)
5) Cylindrical grinding fixtures:
Chucks, Face plates, Mandrels (external grinding)
Chucks, Face plates (internal grinding)
245
Setting Blocks Used to set the work in relation to cutters

for mass production
246
Design principles common to jigs & Fixtures

1) The methods of location and clamping should be such
that less time is consumed.
2) The jig / fixture must be as open as possible to enable the
operator to remove the chips during operation.
3) Enough clearance must be provided to allow for variation
in components sizes.
4) The Jig & fixture must be as rigid as possible.
5) Ejector devices must be used to
force the work out of the Jig (or)
fixture due to : a) Work piece is heavy
b) Use of cutting fluids creates a
film b/w surfaces which causes the
work piece stick to the surface
247
NON-TRADITIONAL M/C ING PROCESS

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM):
248
This involves use of a high speed stream of abrasive particles

(100 to 300m/s) carried by a high pressure (2 to 10 bar) gas
(Co2,N2) / air on the work surface through a nozzle (ID = 0.2
to 1mm). The metal removal occurs through erosion caused
by abrasive particles impacting the surface at high speed.
The size and shape of the cut is controlled by moving the
nozzle / work piece by cams, pantographs (or) other
mechanisms. The abrasives generally used are Al2O3, SiC,
glass powder, etc. General Abrasive size is 10-50m. Best
cutting is achieved if size is b/w 15 m to 20 m. Nozzle
life for WC is 30hrs. Sapphire (Gem Stone) is 300 hrs.
Mass flow rate of abrasives 2 to 20 gm/min
Flow rate of air / gas 5 to 30 lit/min
Stand-off Distance (SOD) or Nozzle tip distance 0.5to5 mm
Mixing ratio Mass flow ratio of Abrasives to Gas / Air
249
Applications: Producing different shapes/cavities in

hard/brittle materials, fragile materials like Ag, Germanium,
heat sensitive materials like glass, quartz, mica, silicon,
Gallium, cleaning and polishing of plastics/Nylon/Teflon
components, ceramics, deburring etc.
Video
1
AWJM:
Here a high force jet of water with abrasives can be used for
cutting thick plates of steel, Al, Metal Matrix Composites,
Ceramic Matrix Composites, Fibre Reinforced Plastics etc.
Video
2,3
WJM:
Here a high force Jet of water can be used for cutting thin
plates and foils of soft materials, paint removal, cleaning,
cutting frozen meat, textile and leather industry.
250
1. MRR = Volume of the material removed x

(Mass flow rate of abrasives / Mass of abrasive grit)
2. Volume of material removed = 2r3 / 3
r = radius of indentation = (dg )
dg = Diameter of abrasive particle
= Depth of indentation
3. Mass of abrasive grit = dg3g / 6
g = Density of abrasive particle
4. MRR for Brittle WP = MaVa3/2 / g1/4w3/4
Va = Velocity of abrasive jet
Ma = Mass flow rate of Abrasives
w = Flow strength of WP
5. MRR for Ductile WP = MaVa2 / 2w
6. = Va dg (g/6w)
251
Ultrasonic Machining (USM):

Ultrasonic is vibratory wave of frequency > 16 KHz. Here a
tool having the same shape of the cavity to be machined
which is vibrating at 20 to 30 KHZ with amplitude between
0.01 to 0.06mm is pressed on to the work with a light force.
An abrasive slurry is made to flow under pressure through
tool W.P. interface. This causes metal removal by abrasion.
The tool is made of low carbon and other ductile metal
alloys.
Applications: Mainly used for brittle materials that have poor
electrical conductivity and can not be machined by
ECM/EDM. Machining of glass, ceramic, tungsten, gems,
making tungsten carbide and diamond wire drawing dies,
forging dies, extrusion dies etc.
252
Video
4
253
Chemical Machining (CHM):

This is the stock removal process for producing desired
shapes by removal of material by controlled chemical attack
with acids/ alkalis (Etchant solution). Areas where material is
not removed is protected by an etchant resistant material
known as Maskant.
a) Chemical Milling: Also called contour machining (or)
etching is used for producing shapes by removing material
from large surface areas.
Application: Weight reduction by removing unwanted
material from skin of Aeroplane, Rockets, Space crafts etc.
254
255
b) Chemical Blanking: Also called photo forming / photo

etching where material is completely removed by chemical
action. The maskant is sensitive to ultraviolet light which is
applied on W.P. A negative is first developed having the
contour from the photograph of an enlarged drawing of the
complex profile. It is placed on the coated W.P. under
vaccum pressure and then exposed to U.V. light. The U.V.
light hardens the selective areas of resist which gets washed
away in further developing, thus, exposing the areas to be
machined. Etchant solution will now remove the material
from W.P.
Application:
Printed circuit cards, intricate burr free
stampings
c) Chemical Engraving: Similar to above to create irregular
shapes (narrow) on forgings, castings, extrusions etc.
256
Video
5
257
Electro Chemical Machining (ECM):

This is the process of metal removal by controlled dissolution
of the anode of an electrolytic cell. The tool is cathode and
work is anode. The tool advances towards the anode through
the electrolyte and metal is removed from work through
electrical action. The electrolyte is pumped at high pr.
through the gap to conduct current and carry heat. MRR is
independent of work hardness, Strength and thermal
properties. MRR depends on Atomic weight and Valency.
Electrolyte is so chosen that only anode is dissolved but no
deposition takes place on cathode. The tool is made of Cu,
Brass, Steel. Practically there is no tool wear. This process is
used for machining any conducting material, complex
profiles like turbine blades, nozzles, complex cavities in high
strength materials, drilling holes, die sinking etc.
258
Alloy machined
Iron based
Ni based
Ti based
Co-Cr-W-based
WC based
Electrolyte
Chloride Sol. In water (20% NaCl)
HCl (or) mixture of brine & H2SO4
10% HF+ 10% HCl + 10% HNO3
NaCl
Strong alkaline solution
259
FORMULAE:
1. Metal Removal Rate, Q = AI/ZF cm3/sec
A = Gram Atomic weight of the metallic ion
I = Current (Amp), = Density of the anode (g/cm3)
Z = Valence of the cation, F = Faraday = 96500 Coulombs
2. Current density in the gap = J = K(V-V) / y = KV/y
V = Over voltage (extra voltage) required for ion transfer
1/K = Specific resistance of electrolyte in - cm
y = Inter electrode gap in cm, V = Supply voltage
3. Current passing through electrodes = I = J x S.A
4. Let % P in AlloyPQ = X%, % Q in AlloyPQ = (100-X)%
= Gram equivalent weight of the metal = A/Z
As 100 % of Alloy = X % of P + (100-X) % of Q
Hence,
5. Electrode feed rate = (MRR / Surface area) cm/sec
260
6. Electrolyte Flow rate = q (cm3/sec)

= [I2 x (1/K) x y] / [4.187 x SA x e x Cpe x (B A)]
e = Density of electrolyte; Cpe = Specific heat of electrolyte
B = Boiling temp of electrolyte; A = Ambient temp
7. Velocity of flow of electrolyte = U = q / by (cm/sec)
Cross section of electrode = SA = b x l
U= [I2 x (1/K)] / [4.187 x SA x e x Cpe x (B A) x b]
Resistance of electrolyte, Re = (1/K) y / A
If V = Applied Voltage, then V = I Re
Also, U = [V2 x l] / [4.187 x (1/K) x y2 x e x Cpe x (B A)]
261
Electro-chemical grinding (ECG):

This is modification of ECM and Grinding. The grinding
wheel is made cathode. The work is Anode. The electrolyte
is carried past the work surface at high speed by rotary
action of grinding wheel. The electrolyte entrapped in small
cavities of semi conductive oxide between projecting nonconducting abrasives form electrolytic cells. When these
cells come into contact with work the current flows from
wheel to work causing electro chemical decomposition of
work. Wheel will have shape of work. Metallic grinding
wheels embedded with non- conductive abrasive particles
such as aluminium oxide, diamond etc set in the conducting
material like copper, brass, and nickel are used. Around 90%
of the metal is removed by electrolysis action and only 10%
is due to the abrasive action of grinding wheel.
262

Video
6
Applications: Tungsten carbide inserts, Burr free sharpening

of syringe needles, Super alloy turbine blades, Aerospace
materials, Super alloys Haste alloy, Inconel, Rene alloy etc.
263
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM):

Spark Erosion is metal removal process by an interrupted
electric spark discharge between tool (cathode) and work
(anode). A spark gap is maintain between tool and work. A
dielectric is passed at the interface like Transformer Oil,
Paraffin Oil, Kerosene, Lubricant Oil etc which have high
flash point. Dielectrics is a fluid that does not conduct
current under normal circumstances. In EDM it insulates,
cools the electrode & W.P., conveys Spark, flushes the
removed metal. At a suitable range of voltage the dielectric
breaks down and electrons are emitted ionizing the gap,
which creates compression shock waves developing a
localized temp. of order 10000oC which melts a small amount
of material.
264
Tool should have High electrical and thermal conductivities

and high density. Work should have low specific heat for
better MRR. (It is the heat required to raise the temp of
material by 10C). In EDM process, fine openings and deeper
slots need to be avoided. Very fine surface finish values
should not be specified.
Application: Stamping tools, wire drawing and extrusion
dies, forging dies, mould cavities, slots and ribs, collets, jet
engine blade slots, mould cooling slots, die sinking etc.
265
Video
7
266
Wire EDM is a variant in EDM process. It is a CNC machine.

A part program is prepared according to the complex profile
to be cut. Wire is a tool. Brass wire (60% Cu, 40% Zn) is
used for quick cutting applications. Molybdenum wires are
used for more accurate applications. Deionised water is the
dielectric because it has low conductivity levels.
Application: Wire EDM is used in Aerospace, Medical,
Electronics and Semiconductor applications. It is mainly used
for Tool & Die making industries, for cutting the hard
Extrusion Dies, in making Fixtures, Gauges & Cams, Cutting
of Gears, Strippers, Punches and Dies, Manufacturing hard
Electrodes, Honey comb structures etc.
Video
8
267
268
FORMULAE:
Spark EDM:
1. MRR = 40 I / Tm1.23 (cm3/min)
Where, I is the current amp,
Tm is the melting temperature of work piece in 0C
2.Idle Time = RC ln [Vs / (Vs Vc)] sec
R = Charging resistance, C = Charging capacitance
Vs = Supply Voltage or Open circuit voltage
Vc = Charging Voltage
3. Average power Input
= Total energy consumed per cycle / Cycle time
4.Total energy consumed per cycle (or) Spark Energy =
0.5CVc2 (J/cycle)
269
5. On Time or Discharge Time = RmC ln [Vc / Vd]

Vd = Discharge Voltage
Rm = Machine Resistance
6. For RC type generator to get maximum power dissipation
during charging Vc = Vs x 0.716
7. Cycle Time = Idle Time + Discharge Time
Wire EDM:
7. MRR = (CSA of cut x Wire feed) mm3 /sec
CSA of cut = Width of cut x thickness of WP
Width of cut = Wire Diameter + Spark gap around wire
270
Electron Beam Machining (EBM):

This is metal removal process by high velocity focussed
stream of electrons which heats, melts and vapourises metal
at point of bombardment. A beam of electrons is emitted
from the electrode gun (Tungsten or Tantalum filament) is
directed electro magnetically (deflecting coils) on to the
work. The gun is supplied with electric current from a high
voltage dc source. The kinetic energy of high velocity
electrons is converted into thermal energy vaporizing the
material. However hole made by this process will have taper
of 20 40 when sheet thickness exceeds 0.1mm.
Application: Fine gas orifices less than 0.002mm in space
nuclear reactors, holes in injector nozzles in diesel engines,
turbine blades for supersonic aero engines, contours in sheets,
narrow slots etc.
271
272
Video
9
273
Laser Beam Machining (LBM) :

Laser is electromagnetic radiation hence a laser beam is
focused on the spot to be machined. The laser provides
enough heat to melt and vapourise the metal. We can
focus the laser on a spot 1/100 of a square mm in size.
However taper is observed in the holes up to 10 20 when
thickness exceeds 0.25 mm
Application: Extremely small
holes in hard materials
(micro machining production), fuel filters, carburetor
nozzles, Syringe needles, Jet engine blade cooling holes,
Holes in lock nuts for safety wires etc.
274
Video
10
275
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM):

When a flowing gas is heated to sufficiently high
temperature to become partially ionized, it is known as
plasma. The temperature is 11000oC to 30000oC. Gas
like H2 / N2/ O2 is passed through a small chamber in
which a high frequency spark (Arc) is maintained
(Electrode is Copper electrode with tungsten tip and
ceramic nozzle). This spark ionizes the gas atoms
liberating large amounts of thermal energy which further
vapourises the metal.
Application: Profile cutting of S.S., Al. alloys,
Tantalum, Zirconium and other very difficult to m/c
materials.
276
Video
11
277
Ion Beam Machining (IBM):

Here the process does not depend on heating of work to
point of evaporation. It consists of an electron gun which
discharges free electrons into a chamber filled with Argon
gas. The gas is ionized by the electrons. The work piece is
then bombarded with this ion-beam. The bombarding ions
dislodge the surface atoms of work by transferring the
kinetic energy to them.
Application: Micro Machining of computer parts, fine wire
drawing dies, machining and polishing of optical
components, preparation of materials for various
investigations such as the thinning of samples for
transmission electron microscopy or for structuring surfaces
in the semi conductor industry etc.
278
Video
12
279
Mechanism of
Energy type
Energy source Process
material removal
1) Mechanical Erosion
Mechanical/Fluid AJM,
motion
USM
2) Electro
Chemical
Ion displacement
Electric current
ECM
3) Mechanical Plastic shear and Electric current ECG

and Electro- ion displacement and mechanical
chemical
motion
4) Chemical
Corrosive
reaction
Corrosive agent
CHM
5) Electro
thermal
Fusion,
Vaporization
Electric spark
EDM
280
Mechanism of
Energy type
Energy source Process
material removal
6) Electro
Thermal
Fusion,
Vaporization
High
electrons
speed EBM
7) Electro
Thermal
Fusion,
Vaporization
Powerful
radiation
LBM
8) Electro
Thermal
Fusion,
Vaporization
Ionized substance PAM
9) Electro
Thermal
Fusion
Ionized substance IBM
281
Surface
Finish
Process
(m)
Tolerance (mm)
MRR
(cm3/ sec)
USM
0.2 1.6
0.0125
AJM
0.3 2.3
0.002 to 0.005 0.0001
EDM
0.05 12.5
0.005 to 0.125 0.10
LBM
0.4 6.3
0.015 to 0.125 0.0001
EBM
25 35
0.3 to 0.4
0.001
ECM
0.2 1.5
0.005 to 0.25
1.0
PAM
24
0.125
1.5
282
0.005
NC, CNC, DNC, NC PART PROGRAMING

Numerical control: An NC system consists of 3 basic
components
a) Program of Instructions: Detailed step by step directions
which tells the machine tool what to do and is given by
punched tape of paper / plastic. There are eight tracks. Two
systems are used in preparation of tape. EIA system
(Electronics Industry Association) follows Odd parity and
stops the machine in event of finding even no. of holes. ISO
system (International Organization for Standardization)
follows even parity. Track 5 is used to punch extra hole to
convert to odd (or) even system accordingly.
283
Track No.:
1 to 4 Numerical values for dimensions, speeds etc.
5 Parity check Check for errors in hole punching.
6 & 7 Alphabets To identify various operations
8
End of block instruction
b) Machine Control Unit Which has 2 modules
(i) Data processing unit Consisting of a tape reader,
reading circuits, decoding circuits etc.
(ii) Control loop unit Consisting of position control loops,
velocity control loops, coolant on / off, spindle on / off
functions etc.
c) Machine tool Which performs the operation.
284
285
Computer Numerical control:

CNC is a NC system that utilizes a computer to perform
the basic NC functions. NC systems are based on hard
wired based controllers, where as CNC systems are based
on soft wired based controllers. In a Hybrid CNC, the
hardware components
perform
fns.
like feed rate
generation, circular interpolation etc. and the computer
performs the remaining control functions. In a straight CNC
all the NC functions are performed by computer.
Direct Numerical Control:
It is a manufacturing system in which No. of M/Cs are
controlled by a computer through direct connection. The
DNC computer provides instructions to each M/C/T on
demand. DNC has a central computer, bulk memory to store
NC part programs, telecommunication lines and M/C/T.
286
Stepper motors:
For operation of
main spindle,
AC or DC or
servo motors
are used. Servo
motors have feedback sensors to give feed back to the
controller. Stepper motors are used for rotary table control,
tool (or) work positioning etc and are used without need for
feedback system. In these motors the rotation of the shaft is
divided into no. of parts known as step. Distances are
converted to pulses and are fed to the stepper motor, and then
the motor rotates the given angle. Eg: For 41 pulses, a 1.80
stepper motor (360/200) rotate precisely by (= 41 x 1.80)
= 73.8o 4% of step accuracy which is 0.07o (0.04 x 1.8)
287
BLU (Basic Length Unit):

BLU represents the accuracy or resolution of the Machine
Tool, which is defined as the minimum distance the machine
tool slide can move. The units of measurement of
coordinates can be given inches (or) mm in any NC system.
But the values given in a programme are to be whole
numbers (integers) only. Hence to represent the fractional
dimensions, those values are divided by the resolution of the
N.C. system.
Eg; To represent a displacement of 1.115 in a NC M/C
having resolution of 0.001, it can be written as
= 1.115 / 0.001 = 1115 BLU
288
FORMULAE:
1.BLU = U x n x P x N
U = Gear ratio, n = No .of starts of lead screw
P = Pitch of lead screw, N = No. of revolutions/step
2. Speed of movement of table or m/c slide on lead screw =
Distance travelled for one rotation / Time for one rotation
3. Frequency of pulses generated (Pulses /sec or Hz) =
Speed of the table or m/c slide / Distance moved per pulse
4. Distance moved per pulse = BLU
5. 1 Pulse will cause rotation of stepper motor by 1 step
6. Any applied voltage will cause the table or m/c slide to
move at a particular speed. If speed of movement has to be
increased, voltage supplied has to be increased.
289
Part programming
Types of control systems:
1. Point to - Point Control: In this system, the m/c. tool
slide reaching a particular fixed coordinate point in the
shortest possible path at rapid feed. This is suitable for
drilling, tapping, reaming, punch presses, Jig boring etc.
2. Straight line control: This is an extension of point to point
system, with a provision for machining along a st. line as in
case of milling and turning operation at controlled or
programmed feed rate. P
P4 P5
P1
P3
P4
P3
P3
P2
P1
(1)
(2)
290
P2
P1
P2
(3)
3. Continuous path (or) contouring control:

This system enables machining of profiles, contours and
curved surfaces. The method by which continuous path
system moves from one point to another point is called
interpolation. Three types of interpolation are used linear,
circular and parabolic. Only few systems use parabolic
interpolation. Linear interpolation enables machining along
st. line including taper and circular interpolation enables
machining circles and arcs. In linear interpolation, the
coordinates of the end point of line act as the beginning of
next line. In circular interpolation also, the current point acts
as the starting point and hence the end point of arc, arc
radius etc. have to be mentioned.
291
Methods of listing coordinates of points:

(i) Absolute coordinate system: Here the coordinates of a
point are always referred with reference to the same datum.
Error correction is easy as any mistake made effects only that
value.
(ii) Incremental coordinate system: Here the coordinates of
any point are calculated with reference to the previous
point. Error correction is difficult as any mistake made effects
all successive values also.
4
P3
P4
3
2
1
(0, 0)
P1
1
P2
2
4
292
POINT
ABSOLUTE
INCREMENTAL
P1
(1, 2)
(1, 2)
P2
(2, 2)
(1, 0)
P3
(2, 4)
(0, 2)
P4
(1, 3)
(-1, -1)
Programming formats:
Format is the method of writing the words in a block of
instruction. Three program formats are used.
Fixed Block Format: Here the instructions are always
given in the same sequence. All instructions must be given
in every block, including those which remain unchanged
from the preceding block.
Tab Sequential Format: Here the instructions a block are
always given in the same sequence as in case of fixed block
format and each word is separated by the TAB character
(>). If the word remaining same in succeeding block, the
word need not be repeated but TAB (>) is required to
maintain the sequence of words .
293
Word address Format: Here each word is preceded and

identified by its address letter. Here there is no fixed
sequence. If word is unchanged, it need not be repeated in
next blocks. Example:
Fixed block format
00115.020.0200500EOB
N
X
Y
F
S
EOB
001 15.0 20.0 200 500 EOB
002 75.0 20.0 200 500 EOB
TAB sequential format
N
X
Y
F
S EOB
001 > 15.0 >20.0 >200 >500>EOB
002 > 75.0 >>>>EOB
Word Address Format
N001 X15.0 Y20.0 F200 S500 EOB
N002 X75.0 EOB
294
Writing a part program:

The first instruction in any part program is to inform the
control system about the various set-up conditions for the
machining task to be taken up and should specify the
following.
1. Block Number (Sequence number - N)
2. Coordinate value absolute (or) incremental
3. Dimensional units inches or metric
4. Tool Number ( T word)
5. Spindle speed (S Word)
6. Feed function (F Word) (mm/min or mm/rev)
Each block is terminated by typing EOB character.
295
Some codes:
a) Preparatory function (or) operation code G
G00 - Point to point positioning, rapid traverse
G01 - Linear interpolation
G02 - Circular Interpolation C.W.
G03 - Circular Interpolation C.C.W.
G04 - Dwell
G70 - Dimensioning in inch units
G71 - Dimensioning in metric units
G90 - Absolute dimensions
G91 - Incremental dimensions
G92 - Zero preset [Presetting the origin (changing the
starting point) to any point other than (0,0)]
G94 Feed rate mm/ min
G95 Feed rate mm/rev
296
b) Dimensional words
X,Y,Z Primary set of axes
c) Miscellaneous functions, M
M00
Program stop
M01
Optional stop
M02
End of program
M03
Spindle C.W.
M04
Spindle C.C.W.
M05
Spindle OFF
M06
Tool change
M07, M08
Coolant ON
M09
Coolant OFF
297
CANNED CYCLES / FIXED CYCLES:

These are use for reducing length of part program so that the
need to write repetitive instructions is avoided and less
memory required.
1. Drill Cycle: (G81) When used the tool movements are
(i)
Rapid in X and / or Y to reach location
(ii) Rapid in Z-axis to gauge height
(iii) At a programmed feed in Z-axis to the depth
(iv) Rapid retract to gauge height
If used these 4 steps are automatically executed in same
order every time G81 is used.
298
2. Mill Cycle: (G78, G79) when used the table movements

are
(i)
Rapid in X and / or Y to reach location
(ii) Rapid in Z-axis to gauge height
(iii) At a programmed feed in Z-axis to the depth
(iv) Movement to remaining position if further
programmed.
G78 & G79 can be alternately used when moving in different
planes for next cuts.
3. Cancel cycle: (G80) must be used to cancel the previous
fixed cycle in the program to start another fixed cycle, in
case of multiple operations.
299
APT (Automatically Programmed Tools):

The parts discussed previously are not so complex. They
require less No. of instructions. However, most of the parts
machined on NC M/C are more complex and hence the
manual part programs become lengthy and very tedious in
terms of defining parameters. Computer Aided Part
Programming (CAPP) offers solution to these type of
complex programs through programming languages like APT,
ADAPT, AUTOMAP, EXAPT etc. The syntax rules of APT
are very near to FORTRAN language. APT can be used to
control up to 5 axis. In APT it is assumed that W.P. is
stationary and tool does all the moving. The field length of
each word is limited to 6 characters.
300
Part Geometric definitions:

Defining a point: Point is the smallest and basic element
required to define a geometry.
P1 (6,5,4)
(a) Cartesian coordinates

P1 = POINT / 6,5,4
L1
P1
(b) By intersection of two lines
L1
P1 = POINT / INTOF, L1, L2

(c)
P1
By centre of circle
P1 = POINT / CENTER, C1
301
C1
(2)
(a)
Defining a Line:
L1
P1
By joining two points
P2
L1 = LINE / P1, P2
(b)
By a point and parallel line
P1
L1
L2
L1 = LINE / P1, PARLEL, L2

(c)
By a point and a perpendicular line

L1 = LINE / P1, PERPTO, L2
P1
L1
L2
302
(d)
By a point and tangent to circle

L1 = LINE / P1 , LEFT, TANTO, C1
C1
L1
C1
P1
L1 = LINE / P1, RIGHT, TANTO, C1
L1
P1
3)
DEFINING A CIRCLE:
C1
20
(a)
By centre point and radius
P1
C1 = CIRCLE / CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 20
303
(b)
By Centre point and a point on circumference

P2
C1 = CIRCLE / P1, P2
C1
P1
(c)
Centre point and tangent line
C1 = CIRCLE / CENTER, P1, LEFT, TANTO, L1

P1
P1
C1 = CIRCLE / CENTER, P1, RIGHT, TANTO, L1

304
4)
(a)
DEFINING A PLANE:
By 3 points
P3
P1
PL = PLANE / P1, P2, P3
P2
(b) By a parallel plane which

is at a distance
PL1
Z = 30
PL2
PL2 = PLANE / PARLEL, PL1, ZLARGE, 30

Note: ZLARGE & ZSMALL can be used for telling the
computer to use the largest (or) smallest values for Z.
305
MISCELLANEOUS STATEMENTS:
a)
Spindle speed
SPINDL / 2000, CLW
SPINDL / 2000, CCLW
SPINDL / OFF
b)
Feed Rate
FEDRAT / 2,MMPM
MMPM mm / min.
FEDRAT / 0.1, MMPR MMPR mm / rev.
c)
Tool Change
LOADTL /1
Note: LOADTL also unloads the previous tool and replaces
it in the tool magazine.
d) Tool definitions
CUTTER / 10
Cutter of dia 10 mm.

306
e) Motion statement of Tool

(i)
Initial position:
FROM / 6,5,4
FROM / P1
FROM / SETPT
Reference point
Predefined point
Starting point
(or)
(or)
(ii) Point to point motion :

GOTO / P1 To position cutter above the required location.
GODLTA / 0,0,10 Incremental instruction to move tool.
Note: GODLTA is useful in drilling and related operations.
iii) Contouring motion statements:
GO/TO, L1, TO, C2 Tool moves touching surface of
line L1 and moves towards circle C2
307
iv) Intermediate movement commands

GOLFT
Leftward
GORGT Rightward
GOFWD Forward
GOBACK Backward
BACK
GOUP
Upward
GODOWN Downward
UP
LFT
FWD
RGT
DOWN
TO
These six commands are

Used with one of the four
ON
Modifiers to define the surfaces.
SURFACE
TO
Just touching the surface
PAST
ON
On the surface
PAST Touching the surface on the far side
TANTO Used mostly for circles
308
The surfaces defined are:

(a) Drive surface (DS)
(b) Part surface (PS)
(c) Check surface (CS)
Guides the tool for producing

desired shape of part.
Guides the tool point (or) tool
bottom
Stops the tool indicating the
end of motion.
CS
PS
DS
309
Auxiliary and post processor statements:

(a) MACHIN / UNIV For defining name of machine.
(b) COOLNT / ON
Coolant on
COOLNT / OFF Coolant off

(c)
FINI
Program is terminated
(d)
END
Shuts down the NC including the MCU
310

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Machine Tools - 2015-16

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MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

The motion responsible for the cutting action is known as

Generation of various surfaces

LATHE MAIN PARTS

2) Speed lathe: They do not have provision for power feed

3) Engine lathe: In olden days lathe was driven by a steam

4) Tool Room Lathe: It is nothing but the engine lathe

5) Capstan & Turret lathes: These are semi automatic type

Turret Indexing in Capstan and Turret Lathes

Turret Lathe Layout

Capstan Lathe Layout

6) Automatic lathes: These are designed so that all the

The general purpose single spindle automatic lathes are widely

Swiss type automatic lathe

The headstock travels enabling axial feed of the bar stock

7) Special purpose lathes: These are designed to perform

WORK HOLDING DEVICES

c) Collets Fixed size. They are air operated or hand operated.

d) Pneumatic Chucks In chucking Automatics

3) Carriers, Catch plates or Carrier Dogs

4) Centers For supporting the rotation

Revolving Dead centre

5) Mandrel Used to support the work pieces and also for

6) Steady rest mounted on bed, used for long heavy jobs

Tool Setting on Lathe

Brazed Carbide tip Tool Holders

Throw away Carbide Tip Tool holders (Can not be Grinded)

Box Tool Holders Used in turret lathes to apply heavy cuts

3) Facing:- Here the tool is fed

5) Taper turning:- Operation of producing tapered surfaces.

2. Tailstock set over Small Angle, Long Job

S = Set over Distance

3) Form Tool Any Angle, Short taper length

4) Combined Feeds 450 Chamfers

5) Taper turning attachment

7) Spring winding:- We can

8) Miscellaneous Operations:Drilling, Boring, Milling, Grinding etc.

9) Thread cutting:- There are different thread forms like V,

Majority of screws are right handed threads. They are

Tapered threads are used for water (or)

V threads are the standard threads used on most threaded

Half Nut / Split Nut

Feed Rod is provided in medium to big size lathes and is

6) Total Time for Threading = Time per cut x No. of cuts

Gear Train Calculation for Thread cutting:

The number of teeth on

For a Compound Gear train,

Bull Gear used in shaper to reduce the speed of rotation

Stroke length = P1P2 = 2AP (CB/AC)

b) Geared Shaper: Rack and pinion mechanism is used.

c) Hydraulic Shaper: By hydraulic power i.e. oil with

2. According to the position and travel of ram.

c) Traveling head shaper: The ram moves cross wise for

3. According to the type of design of the table:

SPECIFICATIONS AND OPERATIONS

(2) Time required by cutting stroke = L / 1000V

SPECIFICATIONS AND OPERATIONS

3) Divided Table Planer: Also called Tandem Planer. This

4) Pit planer: It is a massive construction. The table is

5) Edge or plate planer: This is specially intended for

SPECIFICATIONS AND OPERATIONS

(2) Sensitive D.M. It is a small

(3) Upright D.M.: This is designed for

(b) Box Column