GE 10 Lecture 13

LEVELING:
Errors and Adjustments

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Objectives:
At the end of the lecture, the student should be able to:
Enumerate errors in leveling and determine ways on how
to eliminate or reduce them.
Define what an error of closure is in a level circuit.
Apply appropriate corrections to observed elevations of
points in a level route.

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Outline:
I.
II.

Errors in Leveling
Adjustment of Intermediate Bench Marks
A.
B.

Error of Closure
Corrections to the Observed Elevations

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

1. Imperfect adjustment of the

Instrument
LOS should be parallel to the axis of the level tube.
Any inclination produces systematic error.
Error in rod reading is proportional to the distance from
the instrument to the rod.
Error in elevations will be eliminated when SDB.S. = SDF.S.
To minimize:
adjust the instrument
balance BS and FS distances
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

2. Parallax
Effect: relative movement between the image
of the cross hairs and image of the object
when the eye is moved up and down.
Causes a random error
To eliminate: careful focusing

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

3. Earths Curvature
Produces an error only when BS and FS
distances are not balanced.
Error varies as the square of the distance from
instrument to rod.
correction: cm = 0.0785 K2
To eliminate: balance each DB.S. by a
corresponding DF.S.
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

4. Atmospheric Refraction
Varies as the square of the distance
1/7 and opposite in sign of that error due to the Earths
curvature
Usually considered together with Earths curvature:
(c & r) = 0.0675 K2 meters
Often changes rapidly and greatly in a short distance
In ordinary leveling: effect is negligible
In leveling of greater precision: can be minimized by
keeping the LOS well above the ground (at least ~0.7m)
Taking BS and FS readings in quick succession
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

5. Variations in Temperature
Cause: suns ray falling on top of the telescope, or on
one end and not on the other.
Effect: will produce a warping or twisting of its parts and
hence may influence rod readings through temporarily
disturbing the instruments.
Error: usually random but under certain conditions it
may become systematic
To eliminate: shield the instrument from the rays of sun.

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

6. Rod not of Standard Length

If distributed over the length of the rod:
Systematic error is produced
Varies directly as the difference in elevation
Bears no relation to the length of the line over which levels
are run

To eliminate:
Compare the rod with a standard rod
Apply correction analogous to a tape that is too short or too
long
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

7. Expansion or contraction of the rod

Cause: change in moisture content

Resultant error: systematic
Coefficient of thermal expansion (e) is small
Error is of no particular consequence in ordinary
leveling
For precise leveling: gage points may be established
using metal plugs in the rod
Correction for e may be based upon observed
temperatures of the rod.
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

8. Rod not held plumb

Result: rod readings that are too large
Appreciable inclinations of the rod must be avoided
particularly for high rod readings
Can be eliminated by:
Swinging the rod
Use a rod level

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

9. Faulty turning points

Error: random
Cause: when TPs are not well defined
To eliminate: choose definite and stable points

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

10. Settlement of tripod or turning points

Settlement of tripod:
FS will be too small Elev will be too high

Settlement of a TP:
BS will be too great HI will be too high

Overall effect: observed elevations are too high!

To eliminate:
choose stable locations
Take BS and FS readings in quick succession preferably
alternating order of sights

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

11. Bubble not exactly centered at

instant of sighting
Result: produces random error which tends to vary as the
distance from instrument to rod.
The longer the sight, the greater is the care that should
be observed in leveling the instrument.

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Errors in Leveling

12. Inability of the observer to read the rod

exactly or to set the target exactly on the LOS
Causes a random error of a magnitude depending upon
the:
Instrument
Weather conditions
Length of sight
Observer

To reduce: by proper choice of the length of sight

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Error of Closure
Corrections to the Observed Elevations
Sample Problem

Adjustment of Intermediate
Bench Marks
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Error of Closure
When a line of level makes a complete circuit, almost
invariably the BMelevinitial BMelevfinal
This difference is the error of running the circuit and is
called the Error of Closure
Result intermediate BMs are also in error
Problems:
Determining the error for intermediate points
Adjusting their corresponding elevations

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Corrections to the Observed Elevations

The appropriate correction to the observed elevation of a
given bench mark in the circuit is directly proportional to
the distance of the BM from the point of beginning

d
C EC
L
C = correction to be applied to a BM
d = distance of a BM from the point of beginning
L = length of the circuit
EC = error of closure of the level circuit = Elevobserved - Elevtheoretical
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Example
The accepted elevation of the
initial bench mark B.M.1 of a level
circuit is 150.92 m. The length of
the circuit is 1.78 km. The final
elevation of B.M.1 as calculated
from the level notes is 151.04 m.
The observed elevations of bench
marks and the distances to the
bench marks from BM1 are shown
in the third and second columns,
respectively, of the accompanying
tabulation. The adjusted elevations
of these intermediate points are
required.
Department of Geodetic Engineering
Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

Point

Distance
from B.M.1
(km)

Observed
elevation
(m)

B.M.1

150.92

B.M.2

0.35

238.45

B.M.3

0.89

203.3

B.M.4

1.24

165.81

B.M.1

1.78

151.04

GE 10 General Surveying I

Solution to the Sample Problem

EC = Elevobs - Elevtheo = 151.04 150.92 = 0.12 m

d
C EC
L

L = 1.78 km
C = - d (in km) * 0.12 m
1.78 km

Point

Distance
from B.M.1
(km)

Observed
elevation
(m)

Corrections
(m)

B.M.1

150.92

0.00

B.M.2

0.35

238.45

-0.02

238.43

B.M.3

0.89

203.3

-0.06

203.24

B.M.4

1.24

165.81

-0.08

165.73

B.M.1

1.78

151.04

-0.12

150.92

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

Adjusted
Elevation
(m)

GE 10 General Surveying I

References
Anderson, James & E. Mikhail (1998), Surveying:
Theory and Practice 7th Edition, McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
Davis, Raymond E., et.al. (1981), Surveying: Theory and
Practice 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
La Putt, Juny P. (1987), Elementary Surveying 3rd
Edition, Cacho Hermanos Inc.

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I

Thank you for your attention!

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry

GE 10 General Surveying I