High-Denition SpectroscopyDetermining

Mineralogic Complexity
Neutron-induced capture spectroscopy tools measure the concentrations of specic
elements in downhole rocks. From these data, petrophysicists can derive mineralogic,
lithologic and matrix properties. Early spectroscopy tools lacked the spectral sensitivity
to derive total organic carbonan important measurement for understanding
unconventional resource plays. A new tool delivers total carbon, from which organic
carbon concentrations can be determined. This tool also has the ability to resolve
complex lithology with a degree of accuracy never before possible.
Manuel Aboud
Rob Badry
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Jim Grau
Susan Herron
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Farid Hamichi
Jack Horkowitz
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
James Hemingway
Houston, Texas
Robin MacDonald
Saudi Aramco
Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia
Pablo Saldungaray
Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia
Don Stachiw
Northern Cross (Yukon) Ltd.
Calgary, Alberta
Christian Stoller
Princeton Junction, New Jersey, USA
Richard E. Williams
BHP Billiton
Houston, Texas
Oileld Review Spring 2014: 26, no. 1.
Copyright 2014 Schlumberger.
CMR-Plus, ECS, ELANPlus, GST, Litho-Density,
Litho Scanner, Minitron, Platform Express, RST, SpectroLith
and TerraTek HRA are marks of Schlumberger.
LECO is a mark of the LECO Corporation.

34

Rocks comprise an assortment of minerals and

uids. Many processes combine to form the complex mixtures found in the subsurface, including
the transport mechanisms that delivered sediments and rock fragments to their current resting place, heat and pressure applied during
burial and subsequent lithication and a myriad
of internal and external forces acting on the
rocks. Using downhole spectroscopy tools, also
referred to as geochemical tools, geologists can
unravel the composition of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous formations and better
understand their stratigraphy, mineralogy, diagenesis and hydrocarbon potential.

In the early days of well logging, geologists

and petrophysicists developed models to help
identify the presence of hydrocarbons, estimate
their quantities and determine production potential. Saturation models such as those described in
equations proposed by Gus Archie, later modied
to account for the inuence of shale, usually
assume homogeneous, isotropic formations.1
These methods provide reasonable results when
computing hydrocarbon saturations in conventional reservoirs; however, to determine the oil
and gas potential in complex reservoirs and
unconventional resource plays, petrophysicists
have replaced simple models with techniques

Oileld Review

Pulsed Neutron Generator

Highvoltage
supply

n
Controls

Ion source

Americium-Beryllium Source Reaction

(60 keV)

On-Off
switch
Main
power

Target
241

Am

237

237

Np*

Np

(4.4 MeV)

(5.5 MeV)
n
p+

Deuterium
2
H

n n
p+

n n
p+ p+

Tritium
3
H

Helium
4
He

n
Neutron
n

Kinetic
energy
E (17.6 MeV)

Be

13

C*

12

C*

n (4 MeV, average)
12
C

> Neutrons from a pulsed neutron generator (PNG) and an americium beryllium [AmBe] radioisotopic source. PNGs (top left) are self-contained particle
accelerators that produce neutrons from a fusion reaction (bottom left). The neutrons leave with high kinetic energy of approximately 14 MeV of the total
17.6 MeV released. Typical PNG output is 3 108 neutron/s. AmBe sources, on the other hand, generate neutrons as by-products of nuclear reactions
(right). The AmBe source contains a mixture of americium [ 241Am] and beryllium [ 9Be]. When 241Am decays to an excited state of neptunium [237Np*]the *
denotes an excited stateit emits 5.5-MeV alpha particles (). To reach its nal ground state, the excited 237Np* emits a 60-keV gamma ray (). A small fraction
of the alpha particles from the 241Am react with the 9Be, resulting in the formation of an excited state of carbon [13C*], which emits 4-MeV neutrons (n) to reach
an excited state of 12C*. The 12C* reaches its stable state through the emission of a high-energy gamma ray (approximately 4.4 MeV). A typical AmBe source
generates 4 107 neutron/s.

that require greater understanding of the composition and mineralogy of the rocks.
In the laboratory, scientists have an array of
instruments at their disposal to peer into the
rock structure. Using these tools, they can determine the chemical and mineral composition of
the rocks, hypothesize about their origins and
diagenesis and establish empirical relationships
of rock properties that affect generation, accumulation and production of hydrocarbons. In the
downhole environment and in words familiar to
most petrophysicists, All interpretations are
opinions based on inferences from electrical or
other measurements. 2 However, as technologies
and techniques advance, service companies are
providing a number of laboratory-grade measurements from tools at the end of a wireline cable or
attached to drillpipe.
Spectroscopy measurements, which are crucial to understanding complex reservoir rocks
and unconventional resource plays, have been
used by scientists in the laboratory for several
decades. Downhole spectroscopy tools have been
available since their introduction in the 1980s,
but the recently introduced Litho Scanner highdenition spectroscopy service delivers geochemical data at a level of precision and accuracy
that has never before been available downhole.
The tool acquires measurements of a greater
number of elements than were available from
earlier tools and includes an accurate measurement of carbon, from which total organic carbon
(TOC) can be derived. For understanding unconventional resources such as oil- and gas-bearing
shales, TOC is crucial.

Spring 2014

This article reviews the basic theory of spectroscopy measurements and the development of
neutron-induced capture spectroscopy tools,
including advances in spectroscopy measurements introduced by the Litho Scanner tool. Case
studies from an Arctic wildcat well, an oil-bearing resource play in the US and an unconventional resource play with complex lithology in the
Middle East demonstrate various applications of
spectroscopy data.
SpectroscopyCapturing Complexity
Two families of downhole spectroscopy tools are
used in the oil and gas industry: spectral natural
gamma ray tools and neutron-induced gamma ray
spectroscopy services. Geoscientists primarily
use spectral gamma ray tools to quantify the concentrations of naturally occurring thorium,
potassium and uranium in rocks by measuring
the energy level of gamma rays emitted as these
radioactive elements decay. From these data, log
analysts can estimate clay type, quantify radioactive mineral effects on natural gamma ray measurements and identify radioactive deposits.
Neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy,
which is a more comprehensive measurement
technique than that of spectral gamma ray tools,
delivers concentrations of the most common elements found in the minerals and uids of reservoir
and source rocks. A neutron-induced spectroscopy
tool records transitory effectslasting a few
microseconds to a few millisecondsfrom formations bombarded with neutrons from a source:
either an electronic pulsed neutron generator

(PNG) or an americium [241Am] and beryllium

[9Be] radioisotopic source [AmBe] (above).3 The
AmBe chemical sources used for downhole logging
output a relatively stable number of neutrons with
a predictable energy level. Compared with AmBe
sources, PNGs generate many more neutrons and
at much higher energy levels, but their output can
vary with temperature, tool power and PNG age.
Unlike AmBe sources that are always generating
neutrons, when electrical power is removed from
PNGs, neutron generation ceases.
Laboratory spectroscopy tools such as X-ray
diffraction (XRD) and X-ray uorescence (XRF)
spectrometers bombard rock samples with X-rays
or gamma rays and measure the resulting emissions. To determine mineralogy, technicians use
XRD devices; to perform elemental analysis, they
use XRF equipment. The XRF equipment in the
laboratory can measure more elements than can
downhole tools. However, the subset of elements
measured downhole includes the common mineral-forming elements, which are sufcient for
geologists to determine the mineralogic composition of most reservoir and source rocks.
1. For more on the Archie water saturation equation:
Archie GE: The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in
Determining Some Reservoir Characteristics,
Petroleum Transactions of AIME 146 (1942): 5462.
2. For many years, these words, or a similar statement,
appeared on the printed logs provided by most service
companies.
3. For more on PNGs used as neutron sources: Allioli F,
Cretoiu V, Mauborgne M-L, Evans M, Grifths R,
Haranger F, Stoller C, Murray D and Reichel N:
Formation Density from a Cloud, While Drilling,
Oileld Review 25, no. 2 (Summer 2013): 415.

35

Inelastic Neutron
Scattering

Electronic source
High energy

Excited
nucleus

Traditional source
10 6

Neutron energy
leaving source

Inelastic
region

Deexcited
nucleus

Neutron energy, eV

Intermediate energy
10 4

Inelastic
gamma rays
10 2

Epithermal energy

Neutron Capture
Capture
gamma ray
emitted

10 0

Excited
nucleus

Deexcited
nucleus

n
Average
thermal
energy
0.025 eV

10 2

Thermal
neutron

Neutrons with thermal energy

Capture
gamma ray
200

400

Time, s

> Life of a neutron and neutron scattering. Both electronic (PNG) and traditional (radioisotopic) sources emit high-energy
neutrons. Neutrons from the PNG used in the Litho Scanner tool have approximately 14 MeV initial kinetic energy, whereas
AmBe sources emit neutrons with around 4.4 MeV (left). These fast neutrons rapidly reach thermal energy level (approximately
0.025 eV). During those rst few microseconds, before their energy falls below about 1 MeV, the neutrons experience inelastic
interactions (top right). Inelastic neutron scattering occurs when high-energy, fast neutrons collide with, pass closely by or are
absorbed by atomic nuclei. The now excited nucleus emits inelastic gamma rays to return to a deexcited state. Neutron capture
(bottom right) occurs when thermal neutrons are absorbed by atomic nuclei. The capturing atom generates gamma rays to
return to a deexcited state.

The rst geochemical logs were created by

combining measurements from several existing
tools. In the late 1980s, scientists at the
Schlumberger Houston Product Center, supported by researchers at the Schlumberger-Doll
Research Center in Ridgeeld, Connecticut, USA,
combined the data from an NGT natural gamma
ray tool, a GST gamma ray spectrometer tool and
an AACT aluminum activation clay tool.4 From
these data, they computed simple elemental concentrations for the following: aluminum [Al], calcium [Ca], iron [Fe], gadolinium [Gd], potassium
[K], sulfur [S], silicon [Si], thorium [Th], titanium [Ti] and uranium [U]. These elemental
concentrations provided information about mineralogy and rock composition.
Although early geochemical tools provided
geologists with information about the geochemistry of the rocks, rst-generation tools suffered
from some inherent limitations. These limitations
include slow logging speeds, lack of combinability
with other logging tools, degradation of both quality and resolution of the measurements in downhole environments, an inability to differentiate
organic carbon from inorganic carbon and a lack
of sensitivity for some elements that are essential
for understanding complex lithology. For instance,

36

geologists use magnesium [Mg] to differentiate

dolomite from calcite, and an accurate Mg measurement was difcult to obtain with older generation tools.
Many geologists and petrophysicists consider
geochemical logging data crucial for accurately
characterizing reservoir rocks, but the tools were
not universally included in traditional evaluation
suites for many reasons. Among these were the
facts that the tools were long, could not be combined with other services and had to be run
slowly; also, the information could be obtained
from core data. The application of the ECS elemental capture spectroscopy tool for shale gas
exploration revolutionized the service.5 Because
of its ability to provide the mineralogic composition of the rocks, a geochemical tool was frequently included in logging programs for
unconventional reservoir evaluation and completion design.
Elements of Neutron Capture Spectroscopy
Of the many types of nuclear radiation, two are of
particular interest for spectroscopy measurementsgamma rays and neutrons. Gamma rays
are similar to X-rays and visible light and are the
highest energy form of electromagnetic radiation. Visible light has a wavelength range of about

400 to 700 nm; gamma rays, with wavelengths

much smaller than 1 nm, have a range of frequencies. Wavelengths typically encountered in downhole measurements are roughly 0.001 nm.
However, gamma rays are not usually described
by their wavelength, but by their energy level,
expressed in electron volts (eV) or the larger
units of keV (thousand eV) and MeV (million eV).
Induced neutron spectroscopy tools count
gamma rays over a range of discrete energy
binsthe gamma ray spectrum. In essence, they
measure the energies of articially induced
gamma rays emitted by elements in the formation that have been bombarded by high-energy
fast neutrons supplied by the tool. These neutrons collide with other particles and rapidly lose
energy until they eventually reach thermal
energy level of about 0.025 eV. Because neutrons
are similar in mass to hydrogens single proton,
the maximum energy transfer and the neutrons
most rapid slowing occur from collisions between
neutrons and hydrogen atoms (above).6
Thermal neutrons are eventually absorbed
capturedby the atomic nuclei of various elements found in the formation, the borehole and
the tool. These now excited nuclei emit gamma

Oileld Review

Spring 2014

Si Inelastic

Probability

Si Capture

10

Gamma ray energy, MeV

Capture Gamma Ray Spectrum
H

Gd

Cl

10

Gamma ray energy, MeV

Inelastic Gamma Ray Spectrum

Si

Fe

CTB

Al

Ca

Fe

Ca

ITB

Counts

raysreferred to as capture gamma rays

because they are a product of neutron capture
to return to their lowest stable energy state.
Capture gamma rays have energy levels that are
characteristic of the element from which they are
emitted. Elastic scattering and eventual capture
can take place over a few tens to hundreds of
microseconds. Most downhole neutron capture
spectroscopy tools rely on neutron-induced capture gamma rays for their measurements.
Prior to reaching thermal energy level, highenergy neutrons that have not yet been signicantly slowed may cause inelastic reactions.
Inelastic reactions differ from elastic scattering
and occur in about a microsecond after neutron
bombardment. These interactions are characterized by atomic nuclei that become excited by
encounters with neutrons with energy levels
above 1 MeV. During inelastic interactions, neutrons may collide with an atomic nucleus, transfer energy to that nucleus and then emerge with
reduced energy, or the fast neutron may be
absorbed after rst knocking a subatomic particle from the nucleus. As in neutron capture,
nuclei become excited by these encounters and
emit one or more gamma rays to return to a deexcited state; however, the gamma rays resulting
from inelastic reactions have specic energy levels that differ from those of neutron-induced capture gamma rays for the same element (right).
Only PNG-based tools can accurately distinguish between the effects of capture and inelastic neutron interactions, but not all PNG-based
tools can make this measurement. To measure
inelastic interactions, the neutron generator
must be turned on and off rapidly, emitting pulses
of high-energy neutrons. Furthermore, for accurate measurements, the pulse must have a welldened, repeatable burst shape, meaning the
neutron emissions have a constant and identical
output for each pulse of neutrons. Most spectroscopy tools, including the ECS tool, detect gamma
rays from inelastic reactions but cannot accurately determine elemental yields from these
measurements. Some downhole logging tools may
offer qualitative inelastic scatter data, but without hardware and measurement techniques to
take advantage of the inelastic interactions,
quantitative measurements are not possible.
Measurements from inelastic interactions are
less sensitive to environmental effects than those
from capture interactions. For instance, chlorine
[Cl] has a high thermal neutron capture cross
section and can signicantly reduce the number
of thermal neutrons available for capture by
other elements.7 Reducing the pool of available

C
Mg

Ti

Al

Gamma ray energy

Si

Mg

Gamma ray energy

> Gamma ray spectra. Most neutron capture gamma ray spectroscopy logging tools rely on capture
gamma rays to determine elemental yields. After absorbing thermal neutrons, atomic nuclei emit
capture gamma rays with characteristic energies. For example, silicon [Si] (top left ) emits gamma rays
with several emission energies, but the highest probabilities are approximately 3.5 and 4.8 MeV. The
full capture gamma ray spectrum (bottom left ) is the combination of contributions from all the elements
generally found downhole. Inelastic gamma rays are generated when fast neutronsthose with
energies above 1 MeVinteract with nuclei in the formation, mud and the tool and result in the
emission of gamma rays. These inelastic gamma rays have an energy spectrum (bottom right ) that
looks similar to the capture gamma ray spectrum, but the characteristic energies differ. The Si inelastic
gamma ray energy (top right ) is about 1.8 MeV. The Litho Scanner tool takes advantage of both
spectra, which gives enhanced resolution to some elements, such as Mg and Fe, and adds others
such as C, which is not available from the capture spectrum. Capture tool background (CTB, bottom
left ) and inelastic tool background (ITB, bottom right ) are contributions to the measurement from the
tool and the borehole environment detected during spectral acquisition.

thermal neutrons for capture increases the statistical variability of the measurement. Because
the inelastic measurements are not affected by
neutron absorbers, they can serve to enhance the
resolution or precision of some capture data in
the presence of high Cl levels.

The Litho Scanner tool utilizes capture

gamma rays to determine concentrations of Al,
Ca, Fe, Gd, K, S, Si and Ti, as other tools have
done, but also quanties concentrations of barium [Ba], Cl, hydrogen [H], Mg, manganese [Mn],
sodium [Na] and metals such as copper [Cu]

4. Hertzog R, Colson L, Seeman B, OBrien M, Scott H,

McKeon D, Wraight P, Grau J, Ellis D, Schweitzer J and
Herron M: Geochemical Logging with Spectrometry
Tools, SPE Formation Evaluation 4, no. 2 (June 1989):
153162.
5. For more on the ECS tool: Barson D, Christensen R,
Decoster E, Grau J, Herron M, Herron S, Guru UK,
Jordn M, Maher TM, Rylander E and White J:
Spectroscopy: The Key to Rapid, Reliable Petrophysical
Answers, Oileld Review 17, no. 2 (Summer 2005): 1433.
6. Radioisotopic neutron sources emit neutrons with energy
levels on the order of 4 million eV and typically output
4 107 neutron/s. PNGs emit neutrons with energies

around 14 million eV and typically output 30 107 neutron/s

and higher. Thermal neutrons are dened as those with
energy of 0.025 eV.
7. Neutron capture cross section is a relative measurement
of the probability of a nucleus capturing a neutron and
has the unit of barns (1 barn = 1024 cm2). Of the elements
commonly encountered downhole, Cl is one of the most
receptive for absorbing thermal neutrons, thus has
a high capture cross section of 35 barns. Thermal
neutron capture cross section is low for most other
common downhole elements such as O (0.00019 barns),
C (0.0035 barns), Si (0.17 barns) and Ca (0.43 barns). Its
low capture cross section is one reason C concentrations
are determined using inelastic interactions.

37

Element

Element Name

Al

Aluminum

Ba

Barium

Carbon

Ca

Calcium

Cl

Chlorine

Cu

Copper

Fe

Iron

Gd

Gadolinium

Hydrogen

Potassium

Mg

Magnesium

Mn

Manganese

Na

Sodium

Ni

Nickel

Oxygen

Sulfur

Si

Silicon

Ti

Titanium

Capture

Inelastic

> Elements determined through capture and inelastic gamma ray

spectroscopy. (Adapted from Radtke et al, reference 9.)

and nickel [Ni]. The tool uses inelastic data primarily to quantify carbon [C] and Mg (above).
With an accurate Mg measurement, petrophysicists can differentiate calcite [CaCO3] from dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]. The accurate C measurement
is crucial for determining TOC levels.
Hidden in the Spectra
Most downhole gamma ray logging tools use scintillation crystal detectors. When a gamma ray
encounters the detector crystal, the energy of that

Gamma rays

Scintillation crystal

Light
output

gamma ray is converted into a ash of light

hence the name scintillationand the magnitude of the light pulse is proportional to the energy
transferred to the crystal by the incident gamma
ray. A photomultiplier tube converts the ash of
light to a current, which it amplies many times
before sending it to additional electronics, where
the analog signal is further amplied and converted to a digital value. The amplitude of the signal is determined by a pulse height analyzer, and
these data are combined with all the other pulses
Photomultiplier
tube (PMT)

Amplification,
pulse shaping and
pulse height analyzer

Dynodes
Gamma ray counts

Photo cathode

Anode

100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0

Gamma ray energy, MeV

> Scintillation detector. Gamma rays enter the scintillation crystal (top left ) causing a ash of light. The
intensity of the ash is directly related to the energy transferred to the crystal by the incident gamma
ray. The photomultiplier tube receives the light, converts it to a current, amplies the current through
a series of dynodes and passes the signal along for additional amplication, shaping and pulse height
analysis (top right ). The information from all the gamma rays is combined, and counts are plotted
versus discrete energy levels (bottom right ).

38

that arrive at the detector to produce a gamma ray

spectrum (below left).
Sodium iodide [NaI] crystals doped with thallium [Tl] are used as detectors in most conventional
gamma ray logging tools, including some neutroninduced spectroscopy tools. Although the NaI crystal is robust, it is not efcient enough, nor is its
resolution great enough to separate the spectra of
all the desired elements. The ECS tool uses a bismuth germanate [Bi4Ge3O12], or BGO, crystal,
which, because of its high density and atomic number, produces a unique gamma ray spectrum.
However, the BGO scintillator is temperature sensitive; its spectral response broadens and loses denition or resolution, at elevated temperatures. The
Litho Scanner tool uses a cerium-doped lanthanum
bromide [LaBr3:Ce] crystal, which has a fast decay
time that permits high counting rates as well as
stable yields up to 200C [400F]. The light output
of the crystal is 50% brighter than that of NaI crystals, the benchmark for scintillation crystals; at
room temperature, its brightness is an order of magnitude higher than that of BGO crystals. The use of
the LaBr3:Ce scintillator marks a signicant
increase in the ability to detect and count gamma
rays, and thus when combined with the high neutron output of a PNG, constitutes a major advance in
spectroscopy logging.
To be useful to petrophysicists, the gamma ray
spectrum measured by spectroscopy tools must
be translated into relevant mineralogy, a multistep process. The rst step is the acquisition of
the gamma ray spectrum, which is a measure of
gamma ray counts versus energy bins as determined by the scintillation detector. After the
spectral response has been recorded, the spectrum must be converted to elemental yields.
Each element detected by the tool has a unique
signature, or elemental standard (next page, top).
8. Sedimentary minerals contain single or multiple oxides.
Examples are quartz [SiO2], calcite [CaCO3] and dolomite
[CaMg(CO3)2]. Clay minerals can also be treated as
complex mixtures of oxides. Examples are illite {(K,H3O)
(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2,(H2O)]} and montmorillonite
[(Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2(Si4O10)(OH)2nH2O]. Concentrations
are expressed in weight %; the mass and not the volume
of any given element contributes to the spectrum.
For more information about the oxide closure method:
Grau JA, Schweitzer JS, Ellis DV and Hertzog RC: A
Geological Model for Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy Logging
Measurements, Nuclear Geophysics 3, no. 4 (1989):
351359.
9. Radtke RJ, Lorente M, Adolph B, Berheide M, Fricke S,
Grau J, Herron S, Horkowitz J, Jorion B, Madio D,
May D, Miles J, Perkins L, Philip O, Roscoe B, Rose D
and Stoller C: A New Capture and Inelastic
Spectroscopy Tool Takes Geochemical Logging to the
Next Level, Transactions of the SPWLA 53rd Annual
Logging Symposium, Cartagena, Colombia, June 1620,
2012, paper AAA.
10. Radtke et al, reference 9.

Oileld Review

Capture Standards

Capture Standards

Counts, arbitrary log scale

Fe
Ca

Inelastic Standards

Cl

Na

Mg

Al

S
Ti

Si

Si

Mn

Al

Ba

Ca

Mg

Gd

Fe
C

H
Gamma ray energy, MeV

Gamma ray energy, MeV

Gamma ray energy, MeV

> Elemental standards and tool calibration. Engineers characterized the Litho Scanner tool at the Schlumberger Environmental Effects Calibration Facility in
Houston. The tool was placed in slabs of formation rocks (left ) and laboratory-prepared, simulated formations (right ) with known geochemical and
lithologic composition. Standards were derived for 18 elements using capture spectroscopy and 13 elements using inelastic spectroscopy (center, not all
shown). These standards are the basis for computing elemental yields.

tists apply the oxide closure model to the dataset.8

The closure model assumes that dry rock consists of a
set of oxides or compounds, and the sum of the proportions of all the oxides must equal 100%, or unity.
This closure requirement produces a unique normalization factor at each depth level, which in turn is
applied to the relative spectral yields to produce the
dry weight concentrations of specic elements.9
Dry weight elemental yields are then converted to mineralogy and lithology using software
modeling programs. SpectroLith lithology pro-

These elemental signatures can be used to

decompose the total measured spectrawhich
are rst corrected for environmental and electronic factors that distort theminto the contributions from the elemental standards. In the
case of the Litho Scanner tool, these standards
were established in test formations at the
Schlumberger Environmental Effects Calibration
Facility in Houston.
To obtain elemental weight fractions and produce
realistic mineralogic models of the formation, scienSpectral Acquisition
Inelastic
Capture

Spectral Stripping
Elemental yields

Oxide Closure
Elemental weight
fractions

Interpretation
Minerals
Total organic carbon (TOC)
Matrix properties
C
t d
Corrected
Density

Inelastic
Normalized counts

Normalized counts

Al

Ca

Fe

ITB

Si

Ca

Fe Mg

Al

Na Mn

Ti

Gd

Illite
Quartz
K-feldspar
Na-feldspar
Calcite
Dolomite
Anhydrite
Pyrite
Kerogen

Inelastic

cessing for spectroscopy tools is one example. It

is an empirical model developed from hundreds
of laboratory measurements in known rock
types.10 ELANPlus advanced multimineral log
analysis is another technique. This analysis program computes the most probable formation
mineralogy and pore volume based on inputs
from several tools, including Litho Scanner yields
(below). Geologists may use knowledge of
expected rock types to guide the modeling software toward the correct mineralogic solution.

2 g/cm3 3

Matrix
Density
TOC

2 g/cm3 3

O
C
Si

Mg

Energy channel

Energy channel

Capture

Capture

Normalized counts

Normalized counts

Energy channel

Gd

Cl

Si

Fe

CTB

Ca

Mg

Ti

Al

Energy channel

> From acquisition to interpretation. Capture gamma ray and inelastic data (left ) are acquired with the Litho Scanner tool. Using elemental standards
established for the tool, spectral stripping converts data to elemental yields (center left ). Software computes elemental weight fractions from these elemental
yields based on the oxide closure model (center right ). Elemental analysis programs convert the yields or weight fractions to mineralogy (right, Track 1).
The Litho Scanner tool also directly measures carbon, from which TOC is computed (Track 2). Petrophysicists can use matrix density computed from the
elemental weight fractions and corrected for TOC (Track 3) to improve computed properties such as density porosity.

Spring 2014

39

Litho Scanner
tool standard
ECS tool standard

Room Temperature
Fe

Nal (Tl)

BGO

LaBr3:Ce

Density, g/cm3

3.67

7.13

5.29

Effective atomic number

50.8

75.2

46.9

Primary decay time, ns

230

300

25

8.2

61

Property

43.0

Light yield, photon/keV

Gamma ray counts

Si

Ca

LaBr3:Ce at 150C, BGO at 60C

1.8

LaBr3:Ce

1.6

Fe

1.2

Si

1.0

Nal (Tl)

0.8

Gamma ray counts

Relative light yield

1.4

0.6
0.4

BGO

0.2
0

50

100

150

Ca

200

Temperature, C
H

10

Gamma ray energy, MeV

> Crystal scintillator comparisons. Several types of scintillation crystals are used in gamma ray logging tools; the NaI crystal is
the most common because of its ruggedness and low cost. A BGO scintillator is used in the ECS tool. For the Litho Scanner tool,
engineers chose the LaBr3:Ce scintillator because of its superior qualities compared with those of other scintillators. The quick
response time of the LaBr3:Ce scintillatorbased on primary decay timecompared with that of other detectors (top left )
translates into greater efciency and much higher counting capability. The relative light yield is stable from 0C to 175C [32F to
350F] (bottom left ), a clear improvement over the BGO scintillator, which can operate up to only about 60C [140F] before the
output drops below a usable level. The light yield of the LaBr3:Ce detector is higher than that of either the NaI or BGO crystals.
The LaBr3:Ce crystal detector is also more immune to thermal degradation than other detectors (right ). The clearly dened peaks
for elemental standards at room temperature (top right, green) are similar to those at 150C (bottom right ). The elemental
standards response for the BGO crystal used in the ECS tool (red) broadens and loses denition at 60C.

Litho Scanner Development

Neutron-induced capture spectroscopy data have
proved their value in characterization of complex
lithologies in both conventional reservoirs and
unconventional resource plays. However, petrophysicists who use these data have recognized
some of the limitations of early spectroscopy
tools. Engineers and scientists at Schlumberger
worked for many years to develop a spectroscopy
tool to address these concerns and correct issues
that affect data accuracy and precision.

40

Since the raw spectra measured by the tool

are the foundation upon which all other information is based, engineers searched for an
alternative to BGO detectors used in the ECS
tool, the gadolinium orthosilicate (GSO) [Gd2SiO5]
detector used in the RST reservoir saturation tool
and NaI detectors used in many other tools. One
of the major operational reasons for replacing
BGO detectors is their temperature sensitivity.
BGO crystals are sealed in a Dewar ask and
cooled with carbon dioxide [CO2] to keep the

tool internal temperature below 60C [140F]

for the entire logging operation. The BGO crystal output drops dramatically with temperaturelight output when the crystal temperature
is greater than 60C is too low to make acceptable logging measurements. This severely limits
the use of the ECS tool for long duration logging
such as drillpipe-conveyed or tractoring operations.
Schlumberger design engineers chose a largediameter LaBr3:Ce gamma ray detector for use in
the Litho Scanner tool. Compared with NaI and

Oileld Review

Neutron output, relative counts

Litho Scanner Tool, Zero-Porosity Limestone Example

-2

10

Time, s

> Stable and rapid neutron output. The hot

cathode method used by the Minitron PNG
delivers a rapid response when current is applied
to the PNG and an even faster decay when power
is switched off. This repeatable, controlled output
allowed design engineers to develop the inelastic
measurement that complements traditional
neutron capture gamma ray spectroscopy.

Gamma ray count, arbitrary scale

High count rate

Low count rate
Pileup corrected

10

Gamma ray energy, MeV

BGO crystals, this scintillator has an order of

magnitude faster response time. The faster
response enables high counting rates, improving
the tools precision compared with that of other
devices. The brighter output compared with that
of NaI and BGO scintillators translates to
improved spectral resolution. The LaBr3:Ce scintillator has a stable response from 0C to 150C
[32F to 300F], and even above 150C, the light
yield is not signicantly reduced (previous page).
The engineers also focused on the neutron
source when developing the Litho Scanner tool.
The PNG in the Litho Scanner tool includes a
Minitron PNG tube that uses a proprietary hot
cathode technology to produce crisp 8-s bursts
with 400-ns rise and fall times (above). The rapid
response of this neutron generator allows precise
separation of inelastic and capture interactions.
Rated to 175C [350F], the PNG is capable of
producing 3 108 neutron/s; this high output
makes full use of the LaBr3:Ce scintillators fast
counting capabilities, as the count rate can
exceed 2.5 million count/s.
Engineers designed a new state-of-the-art
photomultiplier tube that is able to handle the
output from the high count rates now possible
from combining the LaBr3:Ce scintillator and the
new PNG. The Litho Scanner tool also incorporates specialized electronics to process the high
rate signals to avoid pileup, a condition in which
more counts arrive than can be separated by the
detector or the electronics (above right).11 Using
fast signal processors to handle the load avoids
spectral distortion caused by nearly coincident

Spring 2014

> Pileup distortion. When more gamma rays arrive at the detector than can
be counted, pileup occurs, and the result is spectral distortion. The problem
is more evident during high count rates (red) than low count rates (blue).
Because the Litho Scanner tool utilizes a high neutron output PNG and an
efcient LaBr3:Ce detector, pileup is most pronounced during inelastic
spectrum measurements. Algorithms have been developed to remove the
pileup degradation from the eld spectrum based on the count rate (purple).

gamma ray arrivals. Unprecedented spectral resolution and precision are attained with the coupling of the scintillator, PNG, downhole electronics
and signal processing. The combination of these
enhancements results in the Litho Scanner tool as
a high-denition, third-generation neutron capture gamma ray spectroscopy service.
Spectroscopy, Rocks and TOC
Because of the increased development of unconventional resources, the ability to quantify TOC
in organic-rich rocks may be one of the most
important features of the new tool. TOC is the
weight % of organic carbon that resides within
the pore space of rocks. TOC includes carbon in
kerogen, bitumen and other solid, volatile and
liquid hydrocarbons trapped within the pore
space. Kerogen is the insoluble organic matter
from which hydrocarbons are generated.
Kerogen density is slightly higher than that of
uids that ll the pore space; using only bulk
density measurements, petrophysicists have difculty differentiating between liquid-lled pore
volume and the presence of immovable bitumen
in pores or kerogen in the rock framework.
Computing the true porosity of organic-rich

shales requires the removal of solid hydrocarbon

from the porosity measurement, which can be
accomplished with accurate TOC data combined
with other measurements such as those from
magnetic resonance tools.
For organic-rich shale exploration, geologists
and petrophysicists target formations that have
TOC values between 1.5 and 10 weight %. Rocks
with more than 10 weight % TOC from kerogen
only are usually considered too immature for
development.12 TOC values are typically derived
from core samples using a combustion technique
in which inorganic carbon is removed using phosphoric acid. The remaining sample material is
combusted in an oxygen-rich environment, and
the resulting CO2 is measured in an infrared
detection cell such as the LECO carbon analyzer.
A limitation of determining TOC from cores is that
11. Pileup occurs when more gamma rays arrive at the
detector than can be resolved by the system. Because
of the high output of the PNG used in the Litho Scanner
tool, pileup can be problematic during inelastic
processing. If the response of the system to pileup can
be characterized, the condition may be correctable.
12. Alexander T, Baihly J, Boyer C, Clark B, Waters G,
Jochen V, Le Calvez J, Lewis R, Miller CK, Thaeler J and
Toelle BE: Shale Gas Revolution, Oileld Review 23,
no. 3 (Autumn 2011): 4055.

41

Litho Scanner TOC

0

20 0

Core TOC
Depth, 0
m

Schmoker TOC

LogR TOC

Litho Scanner TOC

20 0

Core TOC
20 0

Litho Scanner TOC

0
20

Core TOC
20 0

LogR TOC

Schmoker TOC
20

Schmoker TOC
0

20

LogR TOC

20
0

20

Calculated TOC, weight %

Schmoker TOC

20
15
10
5
0
-5

10
Core TOC, weight %

20

Measured TOC, weight %

Litho Scanner TOC

XX,000

20
15
10
5
0
-5

XX,025

10
Core TOC, weight %

20

Calculated TOC, weight %

LogR TOC

XX,050

20
15
10
5
0
-5

10
Core TOC, weight %

20

> Comparison of methods to determine TOC. Several techniques have been developed to quantify organic carbon indirectly from well
logs. The Schmoker method utilizes density logs, and logR is based on sonic and resistivity data. The logs (left ) compare continuous
outputs for Schmoker TOC (Track 1, blue), Litho Scanner TOC (Track 2, purple) and logR TOC (Track 3, tan) with core-derived TOC
values (red dots). The three methods are shown together for direct comparison (Track 4). The crossplots (right ) compare calculated TOC
weight % with core-derived TOC weight % values. The TOC data from the Litho Scanner tool (center right ) compared most favorably with
core-derived TOC values, especially in rocks with high TOC weight %.

the core sample may not be representative of the

rest of the reservoir; TOC can vary considerably
across a reservoir section, which can be tens or
even hundreds of meters thick.
The Litho Scanner tool offers a continuous
carbon measurement from which TOC data can
be computed. A continuous dataset of TOC is a
more cost-effective and statistically accurate
option than measuring TOC on hundreds of core

samples. Many log-derived techniquessuch as the

Schmoker and logR methodshave been used to
estimate TOC.13 The uncertainty can be high for the
various indirect measurement techniques and most
require calibration to core data (above).
Log analysts use the carbon component from
the Litho Scanner inelastic spectral measurements to quantify TOC. The carbon measurement
from the formation includes both inorganic (car-

bon in minerals) and organic carbon. The inorganic carbon can be quantied by assigning it to
the calcium and magnesium measurements,
which are associated with calcite and dolomite;
the amount of carbon bound up in these rocks
can be computed by rst quantifying these elemental weight fractions. Some calcium and magnesium may be associated with minerals other
than carbonates. To address this situation, an

13. Gonzalez J, Lewis R, Hemingway J, Grau J, Rylander E

and Schmitt R: Determination of Formation Organic
Carbon Content Using a New Neutron-Induced Gamma
Ray Spectroscopy Service That Directly Measures
Carbon, Transactions of the SPWLA 54th Annual
Logging Symposium, New Orleans, June 2226, 2013,
paper GG.
For more on the Schmoker technique: Schmoker JW:
Determination of Organic-Matter Content of
Appalachian Devonian Shales from Gamma-Ray Logs,
AAPG Bulletin 65, no. 7 (July 1981): 12851298.
For more on the logR method: Passey QR, Bohacs KM,
Esch WL, Klimentidis R and Sinha S: From Oil-Prone
Source Rocks to Gas-Producing Shale Reservoir

Geologic and Petrophysical Characterization of

Unconventional Shale-Gas Reservoirs, paper SPE 131350,
presented at the CPS/SPE International Oil and Gas
Conference and Exhibition in China, Beijing,
June 810, 2010.
14. Gonzalez et al, reference 13.
15. Several varieties of calipers are used to measure
borehole diameter. An X-Y caliper measures the
borehole diameter with two sets of arms positioned 90
apart and can more accurately describe the borehole
geometry than can single-axis calipers.
16. Canadas Arctic, Alberta Online Encyclopedia,
Canadas Petroleum Heritage, http://www.albertasource.
ca/petroleum/industry/historic_dev_canada_arctic.html
(accessed March 24, 2014).

17. Some historians consider Norman Wellsdiscovered

around 1910at 65 16 52 N latitude in Northwest
Territory, the rst arctic oil eld in Canada; however,
it is located just south of the Arctic Circle, which is the
dening line of the Canadian Arctic at 66 33 44 N
latitude. For reference, the Eagle Plain basin, located in
Yukon, Canada, straddles the Arctic Circle.
18. For more on Arctic exploration: Bishop A, Bremner C,
Laake A, Strobbia C, Parno P and Utskot G: Petroleum
Potential of the Arctic: Challenges and Solutions,
Oileld Review 22, no. 4 (Winter 2010/2011): 3649.

42

Oileld Review

extensive set of Litho Scanner rock matrix

measurements has been developed. Other less
common minerals with inorganic carbon that
might be encountered in oil and gas exploration
include siderite [FeCO3], rhodochrosite [MnCO3]
and ankerite [Ca(Fe, Mg, Mn)(CO3)]. Litho Scanner
tools measure the elemental concentrations necessary to correct for the presence of these carbonbearing minerals.14
Remaining carbon can then be considered
organic in nature and is equivalent to TOC.
The organic carbon determined using this technique includes carbon in the kerogen, bitumen
and any hydrocarbonssolid, oil and natural
gasin the pore volume.
Correcting for Borehole Fluids
Borehole uids are another potential contributor
of carbon to computed TOC. Determining TOC in
wells drilled with water-base mud (WBM) systems is fairly straightforward. In the absence of
organic-based additives, the organic carbon computed from tool measurements can be associated
with solid, liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons.
Additives in a WBM system may contribute to the
total carbon measurement, and a constant correction is often applied to compensate for it. Oilbase mud (OBM) systems present a different
challenge, and applying a constant offset may not
always account for the borehole contribution,
which is sensitive to borehole size and shape and
to environmental effects.
Scientists at Schlumberger-Doll Research,
working in collaboration with engineers in the
eld for a solution to the OBM contribution to
TOC, discovered that the correlation between the
borehole carbon contribution and TOC is not a
simple linear relationship. Because the composition of mud in the borehole can vary considerably
from TD to surface, application of a simple offset
correction may not be valid. The researchers
were, however, able to develop a correction algorithm that has been successfully tested in both
OBM and WBM systems.
This new method computes an empirical carbon offset from the Litho Scanner carbon measurement as a function of borehole geometry
determined from caliper data. Software then
determines a correction factor to normalize
results for the specic mud system. For the purpose of computing this nal correction, an X-Y
caliper is preferred, especially in hole sections
prone to ovality or enlargement.15 The correction
is applied at each depth frame (right). This technique recently proved its value in an Arctic exploration well in Yukon, Canada.

Spring 2014

Arctic Exploration
Indigenous peoples in the Canadian Arctic were
aware of oil seeps in that region for centuries and
used pitch from these seeps to waterproof their
shing boats.16 But it wasnt until 1974 that the

rst Canadian Arctic oil eld was discovered.17 In

the recent past, oil, rather than natural gas, has
often been the target of exploration in the Arctic
because of oils portability; today, however, both
natural gas and oil are viewed as targets.18

Litho Scanner TOC (Borehole Offset)

0

20

Litho Scanner TOC (Constant Offset)

Litho Scanner TOC (Constant Offset)
2.5

Depth,
m

Effective Hole Size

200

mm

20
0
325

20

Core TOC
%

20

Correction Difference

X,X00

X,X50

X,Y00

> TOC correction for borehole contribution. Early methods of compensating

for borehole uid TOC contributions applied a constant offset to the TOC
output; however, this method is sensitive to changes in borehole geometry.
For example, the TOC computed with a constant offset (Track 1, black)
generally follows the effective borehole size (magenta) when the hole is
washed out. Because borehole integrity is often difcult to maintain while
drilling in shales, data quality problems may be encountered. Recognizing
this limitation, Schlumberger scientists developed a more effective method
to compensate for TOC contributions from the mud system. This method
computes the TOC contribution in an in-gauge hole section, uses X-Y axis
calipers to model enlarged boreholes more accurately and applies a
realistic depth-by-depth offset. The TOC computed with the new method
(Track 2, blue) no longer reects borehole geometry. The yellow shading
indicates the difference between the constant offset correction (gray curve)
and the borehole offset correction (blue curve) methods.

43

Ar

ct

ic

Cir

cle

Eagle Plain

Y u k o n

Arctic Circle

> Exploration in Arctic regions. Northern Cross (Yukon) Ltd. is exploring an area near the Arctic Circle in Yukon, Canada. Only 34 wells
had been drilled in the companys 5,000-km2 lease in the Eagle Plain basin prior to the operators recent activity. Harsh conditions in
and around the Arctic Circle limit the drilling season and can potentially increase exploration and development costs. (Photograph
courtesy of Don Stachiw.)

Northern Cross (Yukon) Ltd. has recently begun

a campaign to actively explore the Eagle Plain
region in northern Yukon, Canada, a basin covering more than 5,000 km2 [2,000 mi2] (above).
Northern Cross speculates that Eagle Plain has
the largest oil and gas potential of any onshore
basin in the Yukon.
The Arctic region is a harsh environment for
drilling and exploration operations. Unlike locations in more temperate climates, vast areas in
the Arctic have seen little to no drilling activity
because of logistical difculties. Across the
expanse of the Eagle Plain basin, only 34 wells
had been drilled prior to the Northern Cross
exploration campaign, and these were drilled
mostly in the 1960s and 1970s. The existing seismic data were 2D legacy surveys acquired before
many of the recent advances in high-resolution
3D techniques. From previous drilling programs,
engineers with Northern Cross knew that the
basin was geologically complex, and drilling
through some sections, including organic-rich
shales, posed operational difculties.
Northern Cross targeted formations that
include conventional reservoirs and unconventional resource plays. A strong potential for structural and stratigraphic traps in the basin exists,

44

and these traps may provide opportunities for

conventional hydrocarbon production. For the
initial exploration phase, the operator planned
six wells, of which four had been drilled by the
end of 2013. Because of their close proximity to
the Dempster Highway, three wells are accessible
year-round and have been drilled. Typical of
many wells drilled in northern Canada, the other
three locations are accessible only during winter
months; one of these locations was drilled during
the 20122013 drilling season.
In addition to the logistical problems attributed to weather, operators exploring in the Arctic
face other challenges. In developing petrophysical analysis programs, geologists must decide
which tools and techniques should be utilized to
best evaluate exploratory wells. These geologists
face a daunting task, especially in complex reservoirs such as those of the Eagle Plain basin
because there are few wells with legacy datasets
for correlation and little state-of-the-art information about subsurface geology. Acquiring as much
data as is economically feasible is the norm,
which often includes taking conventional core.19
However, these are rank wildcat wells, and there
are no offset wells to offer guidance in determining which intervals to core. To avoid the expense

of coring rock that has no production potential,

engineers with Schlumberger suggested a traditional logging suite augmented with data from
the Litho Scanner tool. These data could then be
processed using the TerraTek HRA heterogeneous rock analysis service to determine optimal
sidewall core points, which could be taken using
a rotary coring tool.20
The output of the TerraTek HRA software is
commonly used for determining geomechanical
rock properties, but it also groups similar rock
types.21 Engineers and geologists used the rocktyping feature to pick rotary core depths, thus
ensuring desired rock types were represented in
the sampling program while avoiding oversampling in rocks with similar properties. The geologists also used TOC data from the Litho Scanner
tool to help further dene core points. Because the
wells were drilled with a water-base mud system,
any conventional zones that displayed elevated
TOC values should correspond to hydrocarbons in
the pore space and be further evaluated.
Because the processing was conducted in real
time, the geologists were able to cross-reference
rocks identied from Litho Scanner data as having high TOC content with superior reservoir

Oileld Review

quality rock types identied from TerraTek HRA

software (right). Rotary sidewall cores were taken,
and recovery was considered excellent in both
quality and quantity. Data from the high-graded
rotary coring program helped conrm results
from the Litho Scanner tool and provided lithology information similar in quality to that obtainable from whole core without the expense and
operational inefciencies associated with cutting
conventional core. In addition, the operator
avoided costly conventional coring over intervals
of little interest.
While processing the Litho Scanner data during the initial log evaluation, petrophysicists
observed some puzzling results; a few intervals
exhibited elevated TOC values where none were
expected. These intervals generally corresponded
to borehole washouts, pointing to the mud system
as the source of the organic carbon. A review of
the mud report revealed the culprit of the elevated TOCs. In some wells, the mud engineer
occasionally used a lignite-based additive to
improve drilling performance. Lignite, a low-rank
coal, is a source of organic carbon, and its presence explained the elevated readings. The additive was not uniformly dispersed in the wells and
was not present across all intervals. Schlumberger
researchers had developed a borehole correction
technique to account for organic carbon in oilbase mud systems. Engineers used the technique
to correct for the presence of lignite, resolving
the problem.
In addition to the effects of mud additives
encountered by log analysts evaluating these
Arctic wells, operational issues related to drilling
affected the logging programs. During the course
of drilling two of the exploration wells, openhole
logs were acquired prior to a planned casing
point. Drilling deeper, the operator encountered
difculties in a shale section that necessitated
drilling with a technique referred to as casing
drilling, in which the drill bit and mud motor are
attached to the casing. The interval is drilled,
and rather than being pulled from the well
when the rig reaches TD, the casing is cemented
in place.22
Schlumberger and Northern Cross petrophysicists and geologists acquired Litho Scanner data
in the cased section. Although spectroscopy data
can be acquired in cased hole, the inuence of
the steel and cement behind the casing create
data offsets that require corrections. No openhole logs over the casing-drilled section existed
for comparison, but portions of the cased section
overlapped some previously logged openhole
intervals. By comparing openhole data to well
logs obtained inside the casing, engineers were

Spring 2014

Litho Scanner
Mineralogy
Anhydrite
Density Porosity

Siderite
Core TOC

Pyrite
Dolomite

Calcite
Depth,
m

30

Quartz+Feldspar+Mica 0
Clay

12
30

Litho Scanner TOC

%

TOC

10

Neutron Porosity
%

10

Corrected Porosity

12
30

10

TerraTek HRA
Rock Types

Rotary
Core
Depth

X,700

X,750

> The Litho Scanner tool as an alternative to conventional coring. Because of cost and drilling
efciency, conventional coring may not be an ideal choice for Arctic exploration wells; sparse offset
well data may provide little guidance for determining coring intervals. Northern Cross geologists used
the continuous mineralogy data from the Litho Scanner tool (Track 1) and TOC content computed from
carbon data (Track 2, gray shading) to identify zones with hydrocarbon potential. They then applied
TerraTek HRA software to identify similar rock types (Track 4) and determine the best depths for rotary
sidewall coring (Track 5, black dots). TOC measurements from those cores (Track 2, red dots) compare
favorably with Litho Scanner TOC measurements. The integration of these various data types resulted
in sampling that provided representative cores without needless oversampling. Neutron porosity
(Track 3, blue), density porosity (red) and Litho Scanner corrected porosity (black) computed using the
true mineralogy are also presented; the lithology-corrected porosity demonstrates how Litho Scanner
data can enhance petrophysical measurements.

19. For more on conventional coring: Andersen MA,

Duncan B and McLin R: Core Truth in Formation
Evaluation, Oileld Review 25, no. 2 (Summer 2013):
1625.
20. For more on rotary sidewall coring: Agarwal A,
Laronga R and Walker L: Rotary Sidewall Coring
Size Matters, Oileld Review 25, no. 4 (Winter
2013/2014): 3039.
21. For more on the TerraTek HRA technique: SuarezRivera R, Deenadayalu C, Chertov M, Hartanto RN,

Gathogo P and Kunjir R: Improving Horizontal

Completions on Heterogeneous Tight Shales,
paper CSUG/SPE 146998, presented at the Canadian
Unconventional Resources Conference, Calgary,
November 1517, 2011.
22. For more on the casing drilling technique: Fontenot KR,
Lesso B, Strickler RD and Warren TM: Using Casing to
Drill Directional Wells, Oileld Review 17, no. 2
(Summer 2005): 4461.

45

Openhole Mineralogy

Cased Hole Mineralogy

100 0

Anhydrite
Cased Hole Gamma Ray
0

Depth,
m

100

Pyrite

Pyrite

Dolomite

Dolomite

Calcite

Calcite

Openhole Gamma Ray

Quartz+Feldspar+Mica

Quartz+Feldspar+Mica

gAPI

Clay

Clay

gAPI

150

150

Cased Hole
Litho Scanner TOC

Anhydrite
3

12

Openhole
Litho Scanner TOC
3

12

TOC

X,600

X,650

> Spectroscopy data from inside casing. While drilling an exploration well in the Eagle Plain basin in
Yukon, Canada, Northern Cross drilling engineers encountered hole problems that necessitated drilling
with casing to reach TD. The cased interval included sections previously logged in open hole and
sections not logged before setting casing. Geologists decided to acquire data inside casing with the
Litho Scanner tool and compare it with the data from openhole runs. The gamma ray logs (Track 1)
from the openhole (magenta) and cased hole (black) passes were corrected for casing and cement
effects. Lithology and mineralogy data from the Litho Scanner tool run in open hole (Track 2) and cased
hole (Track 3) have good agreement. The TOC data from openhole (Track 4, magenta) and cased hole
(black curve, gray shading) measurements differ to some degree but are within the statistical limits of the
measurement precision.

able to apply offsets and correct for the contributions from the steel and cement (above). Satised
with the comparison of data from the previously
logged openhole section and logs from the now
cased section, Northern Cross had condence
that the data faithfully represented the lithology
and TOC in the newly drilled portion.
Northern Cross plans to continue its exploration program in the Yukon and is in the process of
acquiring 3D seismic data across its lease position. Interpretation of log data indicates both oil
and natural gas potential in the basin.
Whats in a Name?
When referring to resource plays, some industry
professionals broadly apply the term shale to
unconventional reservoirs. Although many unconventional reservoirs may not necessarily meet the

46

standard geologic denition of shale, the term is

used to describe reservoir rocks that are often
rich in clay and have very low permeability.23 The
targets for exploration are generally referred to
as organic-rich shales because they have relatively high volumes of kerogen, a source of hydrocarbons. To have the potential for hydrocarbon
production, these rocks must possess the proper
mineralogy, porosity, hydrocarbon saturation,
organic content and thermal maturity.24 One
other aspect of most successful plays is the presence of large volumetric quantities of nonclay
components such as quartz, feldspar and carbonate. In contrast to clay, which tends to possess
low strength and may be highly ductile, these
nonclay minerals have high strength and contribute to a rocks ease of fracture.

Most shale developments, such as the Barnett

Shale, the Marcellus Shale and the Haynesville
Shale, focus on rocks with a large proportion of
quartz, feldspar and mica (QFM)an assemblage of silicate minerals common in sedimentary rocks. An abundance of these minerals
within the shale matrix may translate into successful unconventional wells. An exception to the
QFM-rich reservoir model is the Eagle Ford
Formationor Eagle Ford shalein south Texas,
USA. This formation, which is the source rock for
the prolic Austin Chalk formation, has produced
both liquids and gas in relatively large volumes.
The Eagle Ford Formation differs from many
other shale plays because of its high carbonate
content. As a result, the formation is amenable to
hydraulic fracture stimulation.25
The Eagle Ford Formation extends from south
Texas into northeast Mexico and is roughly 80 km
[50 mi] wide and 644 km [400 mi] long (next
page, top left). The average thickness is 76 m
[250 ft] at reservoir depth, which is approximately 1,220 to 3,660 m [4,000 to 12,000 ft] deep.
The Eagle Ford is sandwiched geologically
between the Austin Chalk and the Buda
Limestone formations. In some areas, the Maness
Shale may lie between the Eagle Ford and the
Buda Limestone.
Results from a well recently drilled by BHP
Billiton demonstrate the value of spectroscopy
data for evaluating the complex mineralogy of the
Eagle Ford Formation, especially when these
data are combined with information from the
CMR-Plus combinable magnetic resonance tool.
The CMR-Plus tool was operated in a newly developed 50-burst enhanced precision mode that
resolves small pores typically found in unconventional reservoir rocks.26 The TOC computed from
23. Shales are ne-grained rocks that form from the
compaction of silt and clay-sized particles. Because
they are formed from mud, they are also referred to as
mudstones. Shales are differentiated from other
claystones and mudstones in that they are laminated
nely layeredand ssile, which means they can be
broken or split into sheets along their laminations.
For more on shales and shale exploration: Alexander
et al, reference 12.
24. For more on characteristics for targeting organic shale:
Glaser KS, Miller CK, Johnson GM, Toelle B,
Kleinberg RL, Miller P and Pennington WD: Seeking
the Sweet Spot: Reservoir and Completion Quality in
Organic Shales, Oileld Review 25, no. 4 (Winter
2013/2014): 1629.
25. For more on oil-prone source rocks and their evaluation:
Passey et al, reference 13.
26. For more on the 50-burst enhanced precision mode:
Hook P, Fairhurst D, Rylander E, Badry R, Bachman N,
Crary S, Chatawanich K and Taylor T: Improved
Precision Magnetic Resonance Acquisition: Application
to Shale Evaluation, paper SPE 146883, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Denver, October 30November 2, 2011.

Oileld Review

Water
Oil
TOC
Pyrite
Dolomite

Eagle
Ford
Formation

UNITED STATES

0
0

km

300

miles

300

Depth,
ft

Formation Name

T e x a s

Calcite
Pyrite
Quartz+Feldspar+Mica 0
Dolomite
Bound Water
Calcite
Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
Quartz+Feldspar+Mica
Clay
Illite

Total CMR-Plus
Porosity
%

25

Bound Water
Free Water
Oil
Kerogen

X,450

> The Eagle Ford Formation. The Eagle Ford Formation is the oil and gas
source rock for the prolic Austin Chalk formation. In Mexico, it lies along
the Mexican border with the US (red) and then extends north through central
South Texas (green). Several E&P companies are evaluating the Eagle Ford
for both oil and gas production.

Austin Chalk

X,475

the Litho Scanner tools carbon measurements

consists of all forms of organic carbon, including
kerogen, bitumen, coal and oil. Magnetic
resonance measurements are sensitive only to
liquids. The integration of uid property measurements from the CMR-Plus tool with TOC data
from the Litho Scanner tool allows geologists to
distinguish between solid and liquid hydrocarbons and quantify oil potential for the reservoir.

Spring 2014

X,525

X,550

X,575

X,600

Maness Shale

. Optimizing liquids production from the Eagle Ford Formation. Operators

developing the Eagle Ford (blue shaded interval) have found that oil can be
produced economically. Based on the SpectroLith mineralogy data (Track 1),
the Eagle Ford Formation is rich in calcite (light blue), unlike the clay-rich
(tan shading) Maness Shale that lies below it; the Austin Chalk that lies
above it is almost pure calcite. The calcite in the Eagle Ford facilitates
hydraulic stimulation treatments. As seen in the ELANPlus mineralogy data
(Track 2), the Eagle Ford has signicant TOC content (Track 2, maroon
shading)the source of its oil; the TOC is composed of both oil and
kerogenthe nonproductive solid hydrocarbon portion. Petrophysicists
used the results from a combination of tools to determine the optimal
interval for landing the lateral, locating the well in the better rock type for
stimulation while also taking advantage of the liquids-rich section. For
example, the clay component of the Eagle Ford is composed of varying
amounts of montmorillonite, kaolinite and illite (Track 2); illite may be less
ductile than other clay types and thus a target for fracture stimulation.
Engineers also landed the lateral in the intervals with stiffer rocks such as
the calcite-rich sections. To determine oil-bearing intervals, the density
porosity was rst corrected for matrix density from Litho Scanner
mineralogy. This porosity (Track 3) is the sum of the volumes of all liquids
and the solid hydrocarbons (kerogen). The CMR-Plus total porosity (Track 3,
thick black curve) is the sum of all liquid volumesclay-bound water
(light blue), free water (blue) and oil (green). The difference between the
CMR-Plus total porosity and the mineralogy-corrected density porosity is
the unproductive kerogen portion of the TOC volume (Track 3, maroon
shading). The remaining TOC volume, not associated with kerogen, must be
the liquid oil volume.

Eagle Ford

X,500

X,625

Operators can use this information to plan the

placement of lateral sections and make completion decisions.
For the formation evaluation program, BHP
conventionally cored the Eagle Ford section; sample plugs were taken at 1- to 5-ft [0.3- to 1.5-m]
intervals and analyzed for TOC weight % using a
LECO carbon analyzer. The wireline logging
program included a traditional Platform Express

triple combo suite along with the CMR-Plus and

Litho Scanner tools.
Litho Scanner mineralogy data clearly differentiate the compositions of the Maness Shale and
the Eagle Ford Formation (above). Compared with
that of the Eagle Ford, the Maness section has a
large volume of illite and smectite, which are
ductile clays not suitable for hydraulic fracture
stimulation. However, the most telling difference

47

between the two formations is the high TOC

volume in the Eagle Ford, which is absent in the
Maness. High organic carbon volume in the Eagle
Ford Formation makes it a target for exploration.
In the Eagle Ford Formation, TOC weight %
from core analysis and from the Litho Scanner processed data ranges from 2 to 7 weight %. Organic
carbon may be associated with both kerogen and
oil in the formation; therefore, without more information about the composition of the TOC, fully
evaluating the resource potential of this reservoir would be difcult. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data from the CMR-Plus tool
helped resolve this uncertainty.
NMR tools respond to liquids in formation
rocks. If the pore space is lled with oil or water,
the NMR porosity should replicate the porosity
determined from the Litho-Density tool. Because
gas has a low density and kerogen is a solid, the
NMR porosity measured in rocks containing
these substances will be lower than that computed from density tools.

Pores in unconventional reservoirs such as

the Eagle Ford Formation are small, and therefore most NMR tools are incapable of properly
measuring the total liquid volume. The CMR-Plus
tool has the shortest echo spacing in the industry,
which translates into the ability to resolve small
pores and compute a more accurate liquid volume than other tools can in similar environments, especially when the tool is operating in
the enhanced precision mode. The NMR porosity
measurement includes waterboth free and
boundand oil. In clay-rich rocks, most of the
water measured by the CMR-Plus tool is bound
water associated with the clays.
For liquids-rich unconventional resource
plays such as the Eagle Ford, petrophysicists can
compare uid volumes computed from CMR-Plus
data with the Litho Scanner TOC volume and derive
a volumetric oil component. Reservoir engineers
can then use this information to determine the

Nafud Basin Stratigraphic Column

Chronostratigraphy
Lithostratigraphy
Epoch
Wenlockian

Stage
Homerian

Silurian

Sheinwoodian
Telychian
Llandoverian

Aeronian

Qalibah Formation

Period

Rhuddanian

Zarqa facies

Sandbian

Llandeilian
Darriwilian
Llanvirnian

Quwarah
member
Qasim Formation

Ordovician

Katian

Raan
member
Kahfah
member
Hanadir
member

Dapingian
Floian

Tremadocian

Hot
shale

Sarah Formation

Himantian

Arenigian

Qusaiba
member
Hot shale

Ashgillian

Caradocian

Sharawra
member

Saq Formation

Tremadocian

> Nafud basin stratigraphic column. Geologists consider the organicrich Qusaiba Shale member of the Silurian-period Qalibah Formation the
hydrocarbon source rock for many Middle East oil and gas elds. Because
the gamma ray logs from the Qusaiba Shale have very high counts, the shale
is considered a hot shale. High gamma ray counts indicate organic-rich
shales, and geologists target these formations for exploration. (Adapted
from Al-Salim et al, reference 27.)

48

volume of oil in place, estimate the oil production

potential and make better informed decisions on
where to land the lateral.
Saudi Arabia Unconventional Reservoir
Saudi Aramco utilized the Litho Scanner tool to
evaluate formations in the Nafud basin and determine their potential as unconventional resource
plays.27 The basin is characterized by a thick
sequence of Paleozoic rocks from the Cambrian
through Devonian periods. The Silurian-aged
Qusaiba Shalethe target for these wellsis a
member of the Qalibah Formation (below left). The
organic-rich Qusaiba Shale is a prolic source of
hydrocarbons, generating an estimated 90% of
the Paleozoic light oil and gas found in the Middle
East, and it is the source rock for many major oil
and gas elds.
The Qusaiba Shale is characterized by high
gamma ray readings, which result from precipitated uranium in the reducing environment
where the shale was deposited. The deepest
shale intervals are Rhuddanian stage and typically have 8 to 9 weight % TOC on average.
Younger Aeronian- and Telychian-aged intervals
have lower TOC values.
To evaluate the Litho Scanner tools ability
to characterize the mineralogy of the formation
and quantify TOC, Saudi Aramco ran the tool
in two wells, one drilled with 10-lbm/galUS
[1,200-kg/m3] OBM and another with 9.2-lbm/galUS
[1,100-kg/m3] WBM. Saudi Aramco did not cut a
conventional core in the rst well drilled with
OBM because LECO TOC core data were available from a well located about a mile away.
These data compared favorably with TOC from
the Litho Scanner tool run in the new OBM well.
For a more direct comparison between log
data and core measurements, the operator ran
the Litho Scanner tool in a second well and cut
core over the kerogen-rich zone of interest. The
target formation in this case was the Rhuddanian
hot shale. The operator conducted a special study
on core samples. To minimize the effects of rock
heterogeneity on core measurements and obtain
measurements more representative of the volume probed by the spectroscopy tool, technicians
took 1 ft [0.3 m] long trim core slabs. These samples were then crushed into a homogenized powder for analysis.
Technicians used XRF to analyze a portion of
the powder for elemental concentrations and a
LECO total carbon analyzer to determine TOC.28
Schmoker TOC was computed from the formation

Oileld Review

TOC from Core

Mineralogy

Pyrite
Dolomite

Depth,
ft

Calcite
Quartz+Feldspar+Mica
Clay

Caliper
6

in. 16 0

Al from Core

Si from Core

Fe from Core

S from Core

20 0

50 0

20 0

10 0

Ca from Core

Mg from Core

Na from Core

20 0

10 0

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight Al

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight Si

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight Fe

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight S

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight Ca

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight Mg

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight Na

20 0

50 0

20 0

10 0

20 0

10 0

K from Core
5 0

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight K
5 0

20

Litho Scanner
TOC

5
0

20

Schmoker TOC
5 0

20

X,600

X,650

X,700

X,750

> Dry weight yields and TOC from a Middle East well. To conrm the quality of downhole spectroscopy data, Saudi Aramco petrophysicists compared
core-derived elemental yields from XRF measurements (Tracks 2 to 9, black dots) with Litho Scanner dry weight yields (red curves). The elemental
concentrations show good agreement, except around X,600 ft, where there are high concentrations of pyrite (Track 1, orange) and TOC (Track 10).
The recovered core from that zone was fractured and fragmented, possibly causing some depth mismatch when the core was analyzed. TOC computed
from the Litho Scanner data (Track 10, red) was compared with core TOC (black dots) and TOC computed from the Schmoker technique (blue);
Litho Scanner TOC matched core results better than did the Schmoker technique. (Adapted from Al-Salim et al, reference 27.)

density log as a third source for comparison.29 The

results of the core laboratory measurements
compared favorably with the Litho Scanner elemental dry weights and TOC data (above).
Petrophysicists combined the Litho Scanner dry
weight data with other logging data and computed the reservoir mineralogy; these data were
then compared with dual range Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy measurements from the core (next page). The mineralogy
analysis is a model-dependent computation, and
application of the appropriate model is crucial
for correct results.
Engineers with Saudi Aramco and
Schlumberger made several ndings from the
analysis of data from the Litho Scanner tool. The
Litho Scanner TOC data closely matched core
TOC data without empirical calibration. Using
core-derived TOC values as the baseline for comparison, they determined that the Schmoker

Spring 2014

technique TOC was not as accurate as the TOC

computed from the Litho Scanner carbon output.
Because the Schmoker technique was developed
specically for Appalachian Devonian shales and
the Bakken Formation, whose characterizations
differ from those of the Nafud basin, the results
are not surprising. Further renement or calibration is necessary to apply this technique in formations other than the ones for which it was
developed.
The Litho Scanner tool provides reliable
information for developing or rening petrophysical models in formations with complex lithologies. The improved accuracy in measuring certain
elements allows petrophysicists to include more
minerals in formation evaluation models to
describe the reservoir rocks and better understand depositional environments. Correctly characterized mineralogy translates into more
accurate matrix properties and, consequently,

more accurate porosity and water saturation

computations. These benets may be achieved in
a fraction of the time and at a fraction of the cost
of cutting and analyzing whole core. This information is especially important during exploration and early development stages when core
data may be scarce or cover a limited area of a
new prospect.
27. Al-Salim A, Meridji Y, Mushar N, Al-Waheed H,
Saldungaray P, Herron S and Polyakov M: Using a New
Spectroscopy Tool to Quantify Elemental Concentrations
and TOC in an Unconventional Shale Gas Reservoir:
Case Studies from Saudi Arabia, paper SPE-SAS-312,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Symposium and
Exhibition, Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, April 2124, 2014.
28. X-ray uorescence is a measurement technique that
bombards materials with X-rays to ionize the atoms.
Ionization results in the emission of characteristic
uorescent radiation in a manner similar to the
element-specic gamma ray emissions from neutron
capture. Individual elements in complex mixtures
can be accurately measured in the laboratory using
this technique.
29. Schmoker, reference 13.

49

Depth,
ft

XRD-Derived
Mineralogy

Litho Scanner
Mineralogy

Biotite
Ca-Feldspar
Orthoclase
Siderite
Pyrite
Muscovite
Dolomite
Calcite
Ankerite
Na-Feldspar
Quartz
Smectite
Kaolinite
Illite
Chlorite

Siderite
Pyrite
Muscovite
Dolomite
Calcite
Ankerite
Na-Feldspar
Quartz
Smectite
Kaolinite
Illite
Chlorite

Illite
from Core
0

Kaolinite
from Core
100 0

Litho Scanner
Dry Weight Illite
0

100 0

Na-Feldspar
from Core
100 0

Muscovite
from Core
50 0

Siderite
from Core
50 0

Pyrite
from Core
20 0

Dolomite
from Core
25 0

50

Litho Scanner
Litho Scanner
Litho Scanner
Litho Scanner
Litho Scanner
Litho Scanner
Litho Scanner
Dry Weight Kaolinite Dry Weight Quartz Dry Weight Feldspar Dry Weight Muscovite Dry Weight Siderite Dry Weight Pyrite Dry Weight Dolomite

100 0

Illite

Quartz
from Core

Kaolinite

100 0

Quartz

100 0

Na-Feldspar

50 0

50 0

Muscovite

Siderite

20 0

Pyrite

25 0

50

Dolomite

X,000

X,100

X,200

> Mineralogy comparison. Scientists at the Schlumberger-Doll Research Center performed FTIR spectroscopy analysis on cores from a well drilled with
WBM and compared the XRD-derived core mineralogy (Track 1) with the mineralogy computed from Litho Scanner data and other log inputs (Track 2).
Accurate mineralogy data are crucial for computing many petrophysical properties such as porosity and uid saturations. In this well, mineralogy data
helped petrophysicists make proper analyses; for instance, high K levels in sands can be attributed to orthoclase (K-feldspar) or muscovite (K-mica)
(Track 7). The matrix density values of these minerals are 2.57 g/cm3 and 2.76 g/cm3, respectively. In this case, geologists have local knowledge of the
rock types, and all the K was attributed to muscovite. The correct mineralogy results in a more accurate matrix density and, consequently, more accurate
density porosity and water saturation computations. In addition, a better quality Na measurement from the Litho Scanner tool can be used to quantify
concentrations of Na-bearing minerals such as albiteNa-plagioclase feldspar (Track 6)with less uncertainty. (Adapted from Al-Salim et al, reference 27.)

Ultimate Answers
Downhole spectroscopy is just one method petrophysicists use to determine the complex nature
of reservoir rocks. Spectroscopy tools provide
bulk measurements but are not able to determine rock fabric. For instance, the Litho Scanner
tool can identify zones with pyrite but cannot
determine how the mineral is dispersed.
Similarly, the percentage of clay in one zone may
be identical to that in another, but the tool cannot determine spatial distribution of the clay

50

particles, specically whether they are structural, laminated or pore lling. Certain questions
about mineral composition can be answered only
from core analysis. Many mineralogic and lithologic conditions affect log responses, especially
those of resistivity and nuclear tools. In this age
of unconventional reservoir development, petrophysicists must rely on the integration of multiple data sources to understand the rock
composition and fabric.

In earlier times, simple models sufced to

identify hydrocarbon productive zones and quantify production potential. Wells in which simple
conditions prevail are becoming more uncommon. To characterize hydrocarbons in complex
rocks and reservoirs, petrophysicists now have
more and better tools and techniques at their disposal. Geologists and petrophysicists are using
these new tools and techniques to help operators
nd and produce more oil and gas from increasingly complex plays.
TS

Oileld Review