1

Scale-up of Deployment of Anaerobic Digester Technology at Public

and Commercial Institutions: Challenges and Opportunities in India

FINAL PROJECT REPORT

Submitted By
Nikita Elizabeth Joseph

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

Degree of Master of Arts in
Sustainable Development Practice
May 2015

DECLARATION
This is to certify that the work that forms the basis of this project Scale-up of
deployment of anaerobic digester technology at public and commercial
institutions: Challenges and Opportunities in India is an original work carried out
by me and has not been submitted anywhere else for the award of any degree. I
certify that all sources of information and data are fully acknowledged in the project
report.

..

.......

Nikita Elizabeth Joseph

Place and Date

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms Nikita Joseph has carried out her major project in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in Sustainable
Development Practice on the topic Scale-up of deployment of anaerobic digester
technology at public and commercial institutions: Challenges and Opportunities in
India during January 2015 to May 2015. The project was carried out at the office of
Green Brick Eco Solutions Pvt Ltd. The report embodies the original work of the
candidate to the best of our knowledge.
May 29th 2015
.

...

External Supervisor

Internal Supervisor

Sandeep Garg

Martand Shardul

Founder, Green Brick Eco Solutions Pvt Ltd

Research Associate, TERI

..
Dr Shaleen Singhal
Head of the Department
Department of Policy Studies
TERI University
New Delhi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my professors, Dr. Papiya Guha Mazumdar and Dr. Smriti Das
for their consistent guidance throughout the past two years. I am indebted to my
Internal Supervisor, Martand Shardul, for his persistence, encouragement and
constructive supervision, without which I would not have been motivated to move
forward in the completion of this work.

I would also like to thank Sandeep Garg, my External Supervisor, who by giving me
a chance to work at Green Brick Eco Solutions, exposed me to the field of Anaerobic
digestion Technology and its vast market potential in urban areas. I would also like
to thank my family and peers at TERI University, whose constant support I would
always rely on during the period of these four months.

Table of Contents
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS .........................................................7
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................9
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 1 ...............................................................................................................11
Introduction .............................................................................................................11
Background and Rationale of the project ...............................................................14
Limitations of the study ..........................................................................................16
CHAPTER 2 ...............................................................................................................17
Statement of the problem ........................................................................................17
Methodology ...........................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 3 ...............................................................................................................18
Anaerobic Digestion Technology ...........................................................................18
Biochemical Process ...........................................................................................18
Feedstock.............................................................................................................20
Biogas utilization ....................................................................................................20
Storage ................................................................................................................20
Bottling ................................................................................................................21
Distribution .........................................................................................................21
Utilization ............................................................................................................21
Biogas as an energy source .....................................................................................22
Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion.............................................................................24
Limitations of AD ...................................................................................................26
AD technology around the world............................................................................28
CHAPTER 4 ...............................................................................................................33
Status of AD technology in India ...........................................................................33
Implementation strategies for biomethanation in India ..........................................35
Accelerated Programme on Energy Recovery from Urban Wastes ....................36
Financial assistance ............................................................................................37
Policy making and planning ...................................................................................39
Electricity act ......................................................................................................39
The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 ............39

SCOPE OF BIOMETHANATION IN INDIA .......................................................40

Key drivers for Waste to Energy Projects ..............................................................42
Case studies.............................................................................................................43
CHAPTER 5 ...............................................................................................................49
Phase of development .............................................................................................50
Interview procedure ................................................................................................51
Results .................................................................................................................52
Discussion ...............................................................................................................56
CHAPTER 6 ...............................................................................................................58
Recommendations ...................................................................................................60
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................63
ANNEXURE A ..........................................................................................................66
ANNEXURE B: QUESTIONNARE .........................................................................66

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

AD

Anaerobic Digestion

ADB

Asian Development Bank

BOLT

Build Own Lease Transfer

BOO

Build Own Operate

BOOT

Build Own Operate Transfer

BTDC

Biogas Training and Development Center

CAGR

Compound Annual Growth Rate

CHP

Combined Heat and Power Plants

CO2

Carbon Dioxide

DGM

Deputy General Manager

EU

European Union

GHG

Greenhouse Gas

GW

Giga watt

IFC

International Finance Corporation

IRCTC

Indian Railway Catering and Tourism corporation

IREDA

Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency

kW

Kilo Watt

KCal

Kilo Calorie

MJ

Mega Joules

MNRE

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

MoEF

Ministry of Environment and Forests

MSW

Municipal Solid Wastes

MT

Mega Tonne

Mtoe

Million tonnes of oil equivalent

MW

Mega Watt

NHRE

Non-Hydro Renewable Energy

POP

Particulate Organic Matter

RET

Renewable Energy Technologies

SWM

Solid Waste Management

TERI

The Energy and Resources Institute

TPD

Tonnes Per Day

TPY

Tonnes Per Year

UK

United Kingdom

UN

United Nations

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Functional interdependencies at development phase of TIS .......................56

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Stages in Anaerobic digestion process .........................................................19

Table 2: Composition and energy value of biogas (Khoiyangbam et al, 2011). ........22
Table 3:Equivalency of biogas to other fuels (Khoiyangbam et al, 2011). ................23
Table 4: Cost comparison to other sources of power (Ravindranath and Balachandra,
2009) ...........................................................................................................................24
Table 5: Cost comparison to kerosene stove (Ravindranath and Balachandra, 2009)
....................................................................................................................................24
Table 6: Installed capacity of waste to energy and biogas based power systems ......34
Table 7: Statewide Installed capacity of power from waste to energy .......................34
Table 8: Financial Assistance for grid power generation from biogas .......................37
Table 9: Financial Assistance for energy recovery from urban wastes ......................38
Table 10: Financial Assistance for Biogas Fertilizer Plants (BGFP) for Generation,
Purification/Enrichment, Bottling and Piped Distribution of Biogas .........................38
Table 11: Population growth and impact on overall waste generation ......................41
Table 12: The potential of energy generation from MSW .........................................41
Table 13: Gas Production and quality ........................................................................44
Table 14: Costs of plant operation..............................................................................45
Table 15: Development phases of a TIS system ........................................................50
Table 16: Interviewee Sample ....................................................................................51

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ABSTRACT

Renewable Energy technologies have been identified as an important means of

meeting energy demands in times of depleting fossil fuel reserves and environmental
problems caused by use of conventional energy sources. Among others, biogas
energy from Anaerobic Digestion or biomethanation of organic waste generated in
urban areas is a promising technology that has great potential of serving as a clean
energy source and as a decentralized waste management solution. Urban entities
that generate significant quantities of organic waste such as large kitchens, housing
societies, public and private office complexes and other institutions, market areas etc
are ideal candidates for AD systems through set up of medium and large scale
anaerobic digesters.

In this paper, an attempt has been made to analyze biogas as a source of energy: its
potential applications, case studies of existing projects, its advantages and
drawbacks. The status of biomethanation technology for organic wastes in India, its
scope and drivers for expansion have been explored.

The existing regulatory

framework and policy support and incentives offered by the government have also
been reviewed. There are many bottlenecks in the way of their ample diffusion of new
and emerging technologies such as AD. Besides understanding these barriers, this
study has adopted a framework for analyzing the hindrances to expansion in
deployment of this technology, namely the Technology Innovations Systems (TIS)
framework. This is carried out by conducting interviews with a sample of key
informants who are experts in the field and based on the analysis of its outcomes,
several policy recommendations have been drawn for bettering the prospects of scale
up of this technology.

KEYWORDS: Anaerobic Digestion, Anaerobic Digesters, Biomethanation, MSW,

Organic waste

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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
India, with its population of over 1.2 billion is growing annually at the rate of
1.2%.Among other issues; energy insecurity is one issue that needs to be addressed
as India will face increasing energy shortages due to depleting fossil fuel reserves
and lack of affordable energy sources.

Globally, India is the fourth largest consumer of energy, preceded only by countries
such as United States, China and Russia. Rapid population growth and economic
development in the past decade have meant an inevitable increase in energy demand
and consumption, which is only likely to grow further. It is projected to reach 1,464
Mtoe in 2035, increasing by a CAGR of 3.1% from 2009 to 2035, which is more
than double the worlds energy demand at a CAGR of 1.3% for the same period
(IEA 2012). This demand growth would come from all sectors such as industry,
transport, construction and agriculture and is expected to be met largely by coal and
other hydrocarbons.

An excessive reliance on such non renewable energy sources come with its inherent
risks such as their depletion, import dependence and climatic changes due to carbon
emissions. An approximate energy deficit of 11,436 MW which is equivalent to
12.6% of peak demand in 2006 is being experienced as energy demand from various
sectors is increasing substantially (Rao et al 2010).This energy generation gap can be
met from RETs .The need for affordable, clean and renewable energy to enhance
sustainable development has been reiterated recently by the world energy council
and the UN commission on sustainable development.

Renewable energy, excluding large hydro projects already account for 9% of the
total installed energy capacity, equivalent to 12,610MWof energy while along with
large hydro, the capacity is more than 34%, i.e., 48,643 MW. The country has an

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estimated renewable energy potential of around 85,000MW from commercially

exploitable sources, i.e. wind, 45,000 MW; small hydro, 15,000MW and biomass/bio
energy, 25,000 MW (Kumar et al 2010)
Among all the renewable sources of energy, bio energy does not figure in most
energy analyses as it is regarded chiefly as non-commercial energy (TERI). But
yet, biomass reportedly satisfies around 90 and 40% of rural and urban households
energy needs. It has been traditional fuel source for direct combustion but this
process produces pollutants such as dust, nitrogen and sulphur oxides.

Biomass usage as a source of energy is of interest because it is renewable,

sustainable and a relatively environment friendly source of energy. Basically, energy
is obtained from biomass by capturing of the solar energy and carbon from the
ambient CO2 in growing biomass, which is then converted to bio energy or is used
directly as a source of heat and power. Biomass energy generation is regarded as one
of the most cost effective as compared to other sources such as wind, hydro and solar
energy as it involves the least per unit production cost and capital investment.(Rao et
al)

The bio energy potential from MSW, crop residue and agricultural waste, wastewater
sludge, animal manure, industrial waste which includes distilleries, dairy plants, pulp
and paper, poultry, slaughter houses, sugar industries is estimated to be around
40,734 Mm3/year (Rao et al, 2010). Biomass can be converted into a variety of
energy forms such as heat, steam, electricity, hydrogen, methane, ethanol and
methanol. The efficiency rate of the various options differs in terms of energy net
yield, water pollution, conversion efficiency; capital investment.

Among the different biomass to energy conversion techniques, anaerobic digestion

(AD) of municipal organic waste is an increasingly popular method for treatment of
municipal organic waste to produce biogas for energy needs. Anaerobic biogas
digesters are airtight reactors in which organic waste is decomposed and transformed
into biogas. The remaining sludge contains many nutrients and can be used in
agriculture. It is also regarded as a sustainable solution for treating municipal solid

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waste especially in developing nations where management of urban waste is a huge

problem.

The organic/food component of MSW is normally dumped along with all other kinds
of waste into landfills. This disposal method involves various drawbacks such as
methane emission into the atmosphere, land scarcity for landfill sites in urban areas,
high costs of waste transportation and burial and groundwater contamination.

The biogas produced from the AD process is considered as a renewable energy

source because under controlled conditions the biogas produced (consisting mainly
of methane and carbon dioxide) can be used for energy production, contributing to
replace fossil fuels. It can be burnt directly to produce heat for heating and other
purposes.

The gas can also be used in CHP plants where heat can be supplied to public
buildings, horticultural glasshouses, and small-scale industry.
Another increasingly popular method is to upgrade biogas to produce pure methane
that can be injected into gas grids for low-pressure provision of gas supply to the
community or can be used as a vehicle fuel. Although this is undertaken at a large
scale level, if this can be extended to the community or small scale enterprise level it
would greatly enhance its renewable energy potential.

Biomass is gradually being considered as a competitive energy resource in policy

circles as well. Market based incentives like tax benefits and institutional support
like capacity building has encouraged development of newer technologies such
large-scale adoption of gasification and combustion technologies for electricity
generation using a variety of biomass. The bio energy sector in India is currently
primarily driven by Government of Indias initiatives. Key government ministries
such as the MNRE and the MoEF have had a significant role in promoting bio
energy.

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Anaerobic digestion has the potential to deliver uses in so many different ways and
its application at a community and private enterprise level is still an area to be
explored, hence this paper will attempt to gauge its potential as a renewable energy
technology among commercial and institutional entities in urban areas of India.
Since large private and public commercial institutions in the country are sources of
large amounts of organic waste they are the most suited for adoption of AD
technology.

Background and Rationale of the project

Compared to most renewable energy technologies, biogas energy has higher climate
change mitigation potential as its generation from organic wastes replaces methane
that would otherwise be dissipated from them into the atmosphere. Yet, biogas is
also a renewable energy source that has high untapped potential, especially in a
country like India and this is not addressed by current climate change policy.
(Schmidt and Dabur , 2012)
Indias national program on household biogas plants has been in inception since
1982 and since then four million family size biogas digesters have been installed.
(Tripathi, 2010). However, the potential other uses of biogas through the use of
large-size plants (>100 m3 digester size) is something that has India has been late in
exploring. Family size biogas plants allow for its use only as a fuel source for
heating or cooking at the household level whereas medium and large size plants (100
m3 capacity) can be a potential replacement for natural gas applications by using it in
gas engines for electricity generation and also as a vehicle fuel. Although the
government had undertaken several WTE projects, it has met with limited success or
near failure. This is in contrast to several other countries such especially of Europe
that have met with high success in diffusion of large scale biogas energy projects.
(Poeschl et al, 2010).

Renewable energy from biomass is one of the most efficient and effective options
among the various other alternative sources of energy currently available as it

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requires less capital investment and involves less per unit production costs as
compared to other sources such as solar, wind and hydro power. (Rao et al, 2010)

Yvonne Vogeli, Chris Zurbrugg (2008) state that AD of organic solid waste is a
promising technology in developing countries with tropical climate and that biogas
plants in urban areas have a great potential. Nguyen et al (2014) studied how
Anaerobic digestion (AD) was introduced in Vietnam at a small scale and termed it a
promising method to treat MSW in cities by analyzing the energy potential of food
waste from urban areas

Zurbrugg (2008) conducted an evaluation study of various biogas plants operating in

market areas of South India to unveil the potential and challenges of dissemination of
this potential energy source and treatment option for organic fraction of MSW. Heeb
(2009) emphasized on the importance of providing dependable data on the real scale
application of this technology in terms of technical, economic and operational
feasibility.

Mueller (2007) points to how information on the status quo of low tech anaerobic
digesters is lacking due to the fact that biomethantion of organic solid waste is an
issue that has come up only in the recent past. Gebreegziabher et al (2014) have
studied the potential applications of biogas plants among the urban populations of
South Africa and have identified critical conditions for its success. Pfeiffer and
Mulder (2013) have analyzed the factors that accelerate the diffusion of NHRE
technologies and found incentivizing economic and regulatory instruments, a
favorable policy environment are contributing factors to this.

The large scale adoption and diffusion of RETs are hindered by several barriers that
need to be overcome. In order to analyze these, several frameworks have been
devised and one of these is the Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) framework
by Hekkert et al, that extends insights into how their diffusion can be augmented via
policy measures. Using this framework, I propose to conduct a study on the barriers
to expansion of biogas energy, specifically in relation to the application of

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biomethanation technology through deployment of anaerobic digesters in the urban

institutions such as housing societies, large kitchens, hotels, hostels, office
complexes and market areas. Through this I intend to determine the prospects and
challenges of deploying medium and large scale anaerobic digesters and scope for its
expansion.

Limitations of the study

Deployment of anaerobic digesters in urban areas for treatment of organic waste and
as a viable energy source is a very new concept and that is still picking up and
awareness levels regarding this are low. Government records for the total installed
capacity of energy through biomethanation, both grid and off-grid is also very
limited.

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CHAPTER 2
Statement of the problem
The study deals with scope and challenges of deployment of anaerobic digesters in
urban areas. The specific sub objectives are:

Examine the policy environment for promotion of biogas energy in India.

Identify barriers to adoption of medium and large scale anaerobic digesters in

urban areas.

To suggest strategies for overcoming the identified barriers.

Methodology
Literature survey on major anaerobic digestion technologies in India and
their successes and failures.

Peruse policy documents on government incentives and schemes for bio

energy- specifically in the context of biomethanation for organic wastes in
urban areas.

Sector Reports and research papers on biomethanation, its applicability and

case studies of biomethanation projects set up in India and abroad.

In-depth interviews with pre identified stakeholders that are responsible for
spread of the technology, i.e. Entrepreneurs, Government officials, Technical
experts, Industry Associations, and Potential Investors. Hence at the end of
the interview process, the most significant barriers; to the scale up of this
technology will be arrived at.

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CHAPTER 3
Anaerobic Digestion Technology
Biochemical Process
A biogas plant is a set-up device that converts fermentable organic matter into a
combustible gas and matured organic manure. It works on the process of anaerobic
decomposition/digestion whereby in the absence of air, the organic waste/ feed stock
is subjected to microbial decomposition yielding methane, carbon dioxide and water.
Although this process was known to occur naturally in the environment, it has been
developed further by science in the past hundred years as a sustainable source of
energy and of plant nutrients. Thus, modern day anaerobic digestion in a anaerobic
digester/biogas plant may be defined as the engineered methanogenic anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter (Khoiyangbam et al, 2011). Thus, it is the
consequence of successive metabolic interactions between various groups of
microorganisms which can be categorized into three stages:

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Stage

Process Description

Hydrolysis/liquefaction

First

group

bacteria

Conversions/Principal products
fermentive Lipids Fatty Acids

of

secretes

enzymes, Polysaccharides Monosaccharides

which converts the organic Protein Amino Acid

matter into a simpler form
such as cellulose into sugars
and amino acids.
Acidogenesis

Product of first stage utilized Acetic acid (CH3COOH),

by acetogenic bacteria into Propionic acid (CH3CH2COOH),
organic acids, higher volatile Butyric acid (CH3CH2CH2COOH),
fatty acids and hydrogen.

Methanogenesis

The

third

group

Ethanol (C2H5OH).
of CH3COOH CH4 + CO2

methanogenic bacteria finally (acetic acid)

converts

H2,

CO2,

(methane)

and (carbon dioxide)

acetate, to methane (CH4).

2C2H5OH

CO2

CH+2CH3COOH
(ethanol)
CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O
(hydrogen) (water)

Table 1: Stages in Anaerobic digestion process

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Feedstock
A biogas system works with many types of feedstock that is of organic material
including sewage, manure, forestry waste, agricultural waste. This study will be
concentrating on the organic fraction of waste from residential, commercial and
industrial sources in urban areas as a feedstock for AD. Examples of this include:
food wastes from homes, businesses, market areas and food processing companies
that are dumped in landfills and horticultural waste such as grass, leaves and grass
clippings which are generally composted or sent to landfills
Biogas utilization
Storage
The variance of the production and consumption hours and also the point of
production and consumption make for the need of different gas storage mechanisms
for the use of biogas. The different options are:

High pressure tanks (200-300 bar): These require high technological input
and investment and common uses are as a tractor fuel.

Medium pressure gas tanks (10-20 bar): Special safety measures need to be
taken in this range and their benefits include its relatively small magnitude.

Low Pressure holders wet or dry type (up to 50 mbar): Most gas used for
storage in biogas systems are of the low pressure type such as those of
community based biogas plants. The main types are: water sealed
membranous, gas cushions.

Since gas holders are relatively expensive, simpler methods used for storage such as
the gas balloon-a self sealing plastic bag- and a gas tight plastic bell. Gas stored in
bags need to be maintained at a constant pressure and safety measures to guard
against flaming.

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Bottling
The limiting factors in bottling biogas include its high cost that is similar to LPG.
(Khoiyangbam et al, 2011). Also biogas has a high critical pressure and temperature
i.e. maximum pressure/temperature at which a compound can exist as a liquid (46
atmospheres and -82.5 degree C respectively). This factor can significantly increase
the cost of a pipeline.

Distribution
The layout of the distribution system will depend on the distance between the
digester and different points of consumption. In community biogas plants, the
delivery pressure decreases with distance. When it exceeds 2 km, it often needs
booster pumps to support a stable flame. Pipes are generally made of GI, Polyvinyl
Chloride (PVC) or high density polyethylene (HDP) plastic.
Utilization
Biogas can be used as a fuel in the kitchen, for lighting or for operating internal
combustion engines. If available in sufficient quantities, it can also be used as a fuel
source by small scale industries.
Cooking
It can serve as a clean and efficient fuel source for cooking through biogas burners.
Gas consumption for cooking and lighting is 0.34-0.41 m3/capita/day and 0.15
m3/h/100 candle power respectively. Thus a family of six members uses
approximately 2.9 m3/day of biogas. (Khoiyangbam et al, 2011).
Lighting
It is also a clean source of home lighting. Biogas lamps are similar to burners with
the addition of a mantle. Low gas pressure means a lower light intensity but high
pressure can cause lower life of the mantle. Electric lighting can also be provided
through biogas generated power and it consumes less gas but biogas lamps and is
also brighter and more reliable. But gas lamps are much cheaper in terms of cost per
delivered candle power. Roughly 0.13 m3/h is needed to light a gas lamp and a little
lesser for electric lighting.

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Working of Engine

Both stationary and mobile engines can be run by that can supply motive power and
pump water, drive machinery or generate electricity. It can be used as a fuel for both
spark ignition engines (petrol) and compressed ignition engines (diesel).It can also
run on all types of stationary diesel engines as a dual-fuel system with 80% biogas
usage. While petrol engines can be run on 100% biogas. Advantages of using biogas
in fuel engines include clean combustion (as it is a clean fuel) and lesser engine oil
contamination. 245 liters of gas is required per horsepower per hour for an average
engine. For a 5 HP engine, 18 m3 of the gas is required per day. Larger engines have
greater conversion efficiencies. (Khoiyangbam et al, 2011).

Vehicle

Biogas offers a first-rate starting for vehicles in comparison to petrol which needs
vaporization first. Less air pollution is also created. But one of the biggest problems
is the limited amount of biogas that can be carried in cylinders of biogas driven
vehicles. Biogas for vehicular use also needs to be freed from carbon dioxide and
compressed into high pressure engines.
Biogas as an energy source
Biogas produced through anaerobic digestion has the following composition:
Table 2: Composition and energy value of biogas (Khoiyangbam et al, 2011).
Property

Methane

by 54-80%

Carbon

Hydrogen

H2

Biogas

Dioxide

Sulphide

20-45%

1/10

0.0-10

100

2.9

5.4

Volume
Energy
Value
(kcal/l)

9.0

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The energy equivalent of 1 m3 of biogas with 60% methane is equal to 4713 kcal or
0.714 l petrol or0.620 l kerosene or 4.698kwh electricity. However, when we
convert biogas to electricity, in a biogas powered electric generator, we get about 2
kWh of useable electricity, the rest turns into heat which can also be used for heating
applications.
Higher the methane content in biogas, higher is its energy equivalent as the calorific
value of methane is diluted by the presence of carbon dioxide and other trace gases.
An equivalency comparison of biogas with 1 liter of other cooking fuels is shown
below:
Table 3:Equivalency of biogas to other fuels (Khoiyangbam et al, 2011).
1 litre petrol

1.70 m3

1litre diesel oil

1.56 m3

1 litre kerosene

2.50 m3

1 KWh electricity

0.56 m3

Economic comparisons
Studies have proven that modern BETs have outperformed conventional fossil fuel
based technologies. The Life Cycle Costs (LCCs) of installation and O &M of
different types of BETs for cooking and power requirements have been compared
with conventional fuels in a study by Balachandra et al. A comparison of their unit
costs of energy and annualized levelized costs have been made. The cost of BET
based power generation varies from Rs 2.15 to Rs 6.09kW/h as compared to a coalbased grid system that costs Rs 3.25 kWh-1 or diesel at Rs 14.44 kWh-1.
For cooking applications, efficient cook stove based on biogas are compared with
traditional fuel wood and kerosene stoves. These results also compare favorably for
biogas based systems.

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Table 4: Cost comparison to other sources of power (Ravindranath and Balachandra,

2009)

Total Life Cycle Cost (Rs/ Unit cost of energy (Rs/

kWh)

kWh)

Biogas + diesel

183170 (4482)

5.15 (0.126)

Diesel

523140 (12800)

14.44 (0.353)

Grid

electricity

(coal 174310 (4265)

3.25 (0.80)

based)

Table 5: Cost comparison to kerosene stove (Ravindranath and Balachandra, 2009)

Total Life Cycle Cost (Rs/ Unit cost of energy (Rs/GJ

GJ of heat output)

of heat output)

Biogas plant stoves

2469.7 (60.43)

272.07(6.66)

Kerosene stove

1743.1(42.65)

459.82 (11.25)

Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion

The prime benefits of anaerobic digestion of MSW are to divert waste away from
landfills and mitigation of climate change while energy production is an added,
secondary benefit that enhances the attractiveness of this technology. These are as
elaborated below:
MSW Management
The total MSW generated in urban India currently is estimated to be 68.8 million
tons per year (TPY), which is a 50% increase in MSW generated since 2001. This is
projected to increase to 160.5 million TPY by 2041 at the current rate of economic
expansion. Of this MSW generated, 51% is composed of organics, 17.5% recyclables
(paper, plastic, metal, glass) and 31% of inert material. Its calorific value is 7.3
MJ/kg (1745 kcal/kg) (Annepu, 2012). Most of the waste collected is disposed on
open lands or unsanitary landfills. Many municipalities have not yet identified

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landfill sites in accordance with MSW rules 2000 or have exhausted the space in
existing landfills and do not have more space to acquire additional land. Such a strain
on land and lack of space distorts MSW collection efficiency. Unsanitary land
filling pollutes surface and ground water and causes greenhouse gas emissions. Pests
and other vectors feeding on this waste are a cause for disease. Inhalation of bio
aerosols and of smoke and fumes produced by open burning of waste are also a cause
of public health problems. By diverting the organic wastes to separate facilities,
considerable and scarce land area is saved while also reducing the problem of odor
and air, water and soil pollution.
Climate Change Mitigation
Lack of oxygen or near anoxic conditions in landfills produce methane through
anaerobic digestion of the organic waste. Due to these anaerobic reactions, landfills
emit methane while they are in use and even several years after their closure.
Methane has 21 times more global warming potential from CO2 and causes global
warming if released into the atmosphere. Solid waste management is the third largest
emitter of anthropogenic methane in the world (3% of global GHG emissions).In
India it is the second largest and the largest among those activities that do not have
any economic value addition (6% of 2.4 Giga tons of CO2 equivalents generated by
India) (Annepu, 2012). An insignificant portion of methane emissions from landfills
is presently captured and the rest is discharged into the atmosphere; thus the potential
of capturing this from these sites for control of GHG and averting climate change is
huge. In other words, by implementing AD technology at the full scale waste-toenergy capacity, emissions from landfill waste can be mitigated in a major way.

Decentralized Vs Centralized waste Treatment

The centralized arrangements of managing waste include using landfill sites,

developing future sites, waste-to-energy plants and centralized large waste-tocompost facilities. All these options have some significant drawbacks:

They do not differentiate between the waste compositions arising out of

various

localities

within

city.

26

They often capital and land intensive. It is projected that the land
requirements for disposing MSW will rise to 1400 sq km by 2047 (Annepu,
2012). Diverting such an amount of space in land scarce urban areas will
represent

high

opportunity

costs.

Centralized arrangements do not leave scope for community involvement

(through segregation, recycling etc) and its resulting innovations. Informal
waste pickers and recyclers may be denied access to recyclables in the waste
stream in centralized systems (such as incineration) and hence it represents a
threat

to

their

livelihoods.

(G

Asher

and

Gandhi,

2008)

These arrangements may be viewed as just shifting the problem from waste
source to the disposal sites. It also means high transportation costs for
moving wastes to the disposal sites.

Decentralized community-based waste management arrangements such as anaerobic

digestion technology do not have these drawbacks as they treat waste close to the
place of origin and they also encourage civic responsibility, community involvement
and innovations.

Limitations of AD
Environmental Sensitivities
The anaerobic digestion process can be said to be inefficient as the bacteria in
anaerobic digestion are not as good as their aerobic counterparts in extracting energy.
The anaerobic bacteria are able to access only 5-10% of the energy contained in the
methane for use to grow as opposed to 50% for the corresponding aerobic process
(Stuart,n.d). Due to this, they are slower to grow and more vulnerable to changing
conditions. It is thus very essential to maintain a suitable environment in the digester.
Some of the parameters that need to be carefully controlled for optimum
performance of the process are:

PH: The ph of the digester should be kept neutral.

27

Temperature: Strict temperature ranges (mesophilic/thermophilic) have to be

maintained or it affects the plant working and production of biogas.

Salts: A little amount of salts are provided for optimum growth of bacteria,
but if they accumulate beyond the specific amount the digestion can be
stopped.

Alkalinity: Acids produced in the digestion process have to be regulated

with sufficient amount of alkalinity.

Heavy metals, ammonia and antibiotics are some other materials that can
prove toxic to the anaerobes and hence should not be allowed to enter into the
plant.

Thus, Anerobic digestion requires to be very tightly controlled as compared to

aerobic digestion process.

Load Fluctuation
As there are different sub groups of bacteria responsible for each stage of the
digestion process, a subtle balance has to be maintained between them and an
equilibrium condition can take months to achieve. If there is a sudden increase in the
organic load, the resulting acid production will adversely affect the slow growing
methanogenic bacteria.
This in turn will affect the working of the acidogenic and the acetogenic bacteria. In
extreme cases the entire process may break down.

Capital Costs
Most often the high initial costs of setting up an anaerobic digester, especially of the
medium and large scale level, are the biggest inhibiting factor to its set up. Even
from a large industrial project to a family size plant, the capital expenditure can be
unaffordable.

Skilled manpower
As the whole process of engineered anaerobic digestion has to be highly regulated,
only skilled persons with a proper understanding of all the steps in the process can

28

effectively handle a plant. This expertise may be found to be lacking in developing

countries and training or employing qualified people may form a large part of the
initial capital costs.

Hydrogen Sulphide Production

Sulphur present in organic wastes causes the production of hydrogen sulphide in the
digestion process which can then become a part of the biogas. Hydrogen sulphide is
a highly corrosive substance that can adversely affect the plant components such as
the walls of the digester.

Heavy Metals
The feedstock may very often contain certain heavy metals or POPs. Thus it has to
be ensured that the waste fed into the digester has undergone proper segregation as
these heavy metals cannot be broken down in the digestion process.

Economic Viability
Anaerobic digestion as a commercial level technology is still in a phase of
development and may not yet be viable purely as a source of renewable energy.
Other benefits derived from the process such as proceeds from sale of organic
fertilizer, savings on chemical fertilizer, optimum inorganic nutrient recycle etc must
be made use of for financial viability of setting up and running the plant.

AD technology around the world

3.6.1 Europe
Europe has been a world leader in adoption of Anaerobic Digestion of municipal
solid waste since the introduction of the technology in the 1990s. Almost 200
biomethanation plants for MSW were in operation up to 2010, spread over 17
countries with a total waste treatment capacity of 6 million TPY. Germany is the
world leader in this sphere with more than 1.7 million TPY of installed capacity
followed by Spain (1.5 million TPY) and France (80,000 TPY). Spain, Belgium,

29

Holland, Switzerland, and Germany are among the larger European countries having
the highest per capita anaerobic digestion capacities. About 10% of organic waste in
Spain is treated in Anaerobic Digesters. In 2009, the biogas production of EU
countries (25) was equivalent to 16.692 billion m3 biogas, of them 35.96% from
landfill, 12% from municipal and industrial sludge anaerobic digestion and 52%
from scattered farm, municipal solid waste and centralized co-fermentation biogas
projects.
During 2006-2009EU biogas production has increased by 70.37%mainly
benefited from the increased agricultural biogas projects and municipal solid waste
biogas projects. The drivers underlying this growth include: Firstly a series of
landmark directives such as The Landfill Directive 1999 that set targets for
progressively reducing the waste going to landfills. The Renewable Energy Directive
2001 also sets targets for EU member states for the amount of electricity to be
generated from renewable. Secondly this technique became popular in comparison to
others such as incineration, pyrolisis, gasification due to poor public acceptance,
high development costs. Also, source separation and segregation of the organic
fraction of solid waste is a practice actively practiced and encouraged in these
countries.

UK
Biogas recovery is mainly through landfill wastes here. The UK Green Certification
System (Renewable Obligation Certification System) requiring increased renewable
energy power generation from all power suppliers greatly pushed forward investment
in biogas power. The biomass power generation was 6,143 GW/h as of 2009
accounting for 24.7% of renewable power generation, second only to wind power.
The government also provides support for R&D, demonstration projects for grid
power generation from biogas. Strict landfill taxes and standards have also been
imposed, increasing the cost of waste disposal.

Germany
Germany has the largest installed capacity with over 4,000 biogas plants 1.5 GW of
biogas based electricity. The average electrical capacity of each plant is 400-800 kW.

30

Most of the plants are of large scale capacity for treatment of farm waste, MSW, or
organic industrial waste. Biogas thus is a important source of generating electricity
or for space heating. The driving forces are mainly preferential policies and
incentives. The promulgation of Grid Integration of Power in 1990, and the
Renewable Energy Act in 2000 and support programmes for biogas power
generation created a conducive environment for all types of biogas projects from
small farm based digesters to large scale industrial projects while also increasing
income potential from grid based power generation.

China
Biomethanation has been receiving support here ever since the Great Leap Forward
movement in the 1950s.Tthe energy crisis of the 70s also gave a renewed push with
a phenomenal increase from less than a million to 7 million plants in a decade. China
today has the maximum number of individual biogas plants and worlds largest
biogas programme. Main feedstock is animal waste followed by crop residues and
vegetable wastes. While gas from the smaller sized plants are used for lighting and
cooking, the larger ones are used for electricity, powering agricultural machinery and
pumping irrigation water. In urban areas it is run by distilleries, waste disposal and
night soil treatment units.
More than 25 million Chinese households have biogas plants installed. 2492
medium and large scale digesters were installed in poultry and livestock farms. The
substantial subsidy offered by the government explains the widespread use of this
technology. Their renewable energy support programme has five basic componentsmarket development and protection, technical support, price support and cost
sharing, financial support and resource utilization. This programme encompasses
support to biogas energy also. Various measures have been taken to promote
manufacturing of biogas plants on an industrial level. Several private companies are
coming up with innovative designs to bring down costs, simplify construction and
minimize technical defects.

Mianzhu city treats 98% of municipal sewage through digesters with a total capacity
of 10,000 m 3 . This treated water even reaches national discharge standards. One of

31

the largest alcohol factories, Hongzhi Alcohol Corporation has commercialized a

service to treat industrial wastewater and sewage through AD and it is demanded for
by industry and households alike. It has also set up a large biogas plant capable of
producing 7 million kilowatts of electricity an hour.

Australia

Here too, the landfill reduction policies of the government and Sydney city planners
lead to the construction of a 170,000 MT/y (187,000 tons/y) AD facility in 2003 with
2.2 MW of electrical generating capacity. A 35,000 MT/y (38,500 tons/y) wet
digestion facility built also began digesting commercial waste and wastewater
treatment sludge in Sydney in 2003. Waste- to- Gas Plants are also being set up in
many parts of Western Australia such as Perth and Pilbara.

Various organizations and mechanisms exist in order to provide grants for biogas
plant construction, such as Low Carbon Australia, Clean Energy Finance
Corporation and the Australian governments Clean Technology Investment
Program. The Carbon Pricing Mechanism of the government aimed at the largest
polluters also targeted landfills that have net GHG emissions.

Nepal
They have also shown a keen interest in biomethanation following the energy crisis
of the 70s. Domestic sector is the primary consumer of energy in Nepal and
according to estimates there are 27.7 million tones of cattle waste generated per year
that can be used to meet the fuel needs of over 4,00,000 households. It is also viewed
here as a solution to the increasing deforestation problem and as a source of
fertilizer. Feedstock for the plants is mainly cattle dung and under the aegis of the
Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Co-operatives and the private sector,
thousands of biogas plants have been installed in all districts, and this is the outcome
of planned support programmes and incentives. Operational scale of these plants are
also good, with 85-90% of them functional.

32

Bangladesh
The biogas programme has been quite successful here with the involvement of the
Department of Energy, Rural Development, government agricultural and technical
universities. Here too, the feed material is mostly cattle dung and also crop residues,
water hyacinth, algae etc and the plants are of household scale. There is huge biogas
potential from organic wastes as well as Water Hyacinth. High capital costs and lack
of sufficient organic wastes are factors hindering the large scale popularization of
this technology here. The drivers for the huge success of biogas programme in China
include efficient organization of workforce for production, set up and operation of
plants in rural areas and also reliability of the digester construction technology.

33

CHAPTER 4

Status of AD technology in India

The process of anaerobic digestion has been practiced for decades in developing
countries. The first anaerobic digestion plant in Asia for generating methane from
organic waste was installed at Matinga Leper Asylum in Mumbai in1897. Like most
developing countries, Indias biogas support programmes were focused on family
sized digesters for rural families with cattle where animal manure and human faeces
could be used as feedstock in order to provide people with biogas for cooking,
reduce firewood consumption and deforestation and indoor air pollution and improve
soil fertility. The process of penetration of family sized digesters began with the
implementation of the National Project on Biogas Development in 1981 now
renamed as the National Biogas and Manure Management Programme.
After more than 25 years of putting into practice and technical improvements, biogas
technology is still being explored as a reliable renewable energy source and a
replacement to fossil fuels.Today, India has approximately 4 million installed AD
systems, most of them of family size.

While centralized high-technology plants for anaerobic digestion of organic waste is

well established in developed nations, appropriate low-technology options are still
lacking in developing nations (Vogelli et al 2014) .Thus, anaerobic digestion as a
waste treatment alternative for urban settings, primarily processing kitchen or market
waste, still plays a minor role and thus there is little available data on the spread of
this technology, technical, operational and financial feasibility.

Biomethanation of organic municipal wastes as a centralized treatment option began

to be implemented in many cities in India from the 1990s along with other waste to
energy technologies. The current installed capacity of biogas based power systems in
India are as shown:

34

Table 6: Installed capacity of waste to energy and biogas based power systems
SECTOR

FINANCIAL YEAR 2014-15

CUMULATIVE
ACHEIVEMENT

GRID

TARGET

ACHEIVEMENT (As on 31.03.2015)

20.00

8.50

115.08

10.00

21.78

154.47

0.30

0.47

INTERACTIVE

POWER (IN MW)

Waste to Power
OFF-GRID POWER (IN
MW)
Waste to Energy
Biogas

Based

Energy 0.00

System

Table 7: Statewide Installed capacity of power from waste to energy

States/UTs

Waste

to

Energy

(As

on Waste to Energy (As on

31.03.2010) in MW

31.03.2011) in MW

Andhra Pradesh

4.95

6.55

Gujarat

8.4

10.79

Karnataka

Madhya

0.1

0.11

Maharashtra

5.11

6.81

Orrisa

0.02

0.02

Punjab

1.58

1.81

Tamil Nadu

4.73

6.14

Uttar Pradesh

17.31

24.91

Uttarakhand

1.52

3.07

Total

46.72

70.54

Pradesh

35

Implementation strategies for biomethanation in India

Institutional arrangement
Clean energy development is a priority area of the Indian Government. The Ministry
of Renewable Energy is the primary agency involved in developing alternative
energy based technologies. The Ministrys programs are implemented through the
respective state renewable energy agencies and state nodal departments.
An advisory committee on R&D assesses proposals from industry, researchers and
entrepreneurs. It also provides funding to various research institutions with the aim
of reducing costs and improving efficiency and reliability of the systems.
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) is the financial wing of
the MNRE which provides subsidized financing for projects in the sector so as to
promote its accelerated use and market development through commercialization. It
also attracts funds from various multilateral agencies..

Programme formulation and implementation

Dissemination of medium and large size biogas plants are being taken up through
various schemes such as:
Programme on Energy Recovery from Urban and Industrial Wastes
An MNRE Programme set up in 1995 with the following objectives:

To promote set up of projects for recovery of energy from wastes in the

Urban and Industrial sectors.

Creation of conducive environment for development and dissemination of

energy recovery from waste through appropriate fiscal and financial regimes.

Development and demonstration of new technologies for energy recovery

from wastes through R&D projects and set up of pilot plants.

This scheme is implemented through state nodal agencies and is applicable to private
and public entrepreneurs and organizations and non-governmental organizations for

36

setting up of waste to energy projects on the basis of BOO,BOOT, BOT and BOLT
models.
Achievements:

Projects for energy recovery from Municipal Solid Wastes with an

aggregate capacity of 17.6 MW at Hyderabad, Vijayawada and
Lucknow.

1 MW project based on cattle manure at Haebowal, Ludhiana;

0.5 MW project for generation of power from biogas at sewage

treatment plant at Surat.

150 kW plant for vegetable market and slaughterhouse wastes at

Vijayawada.

65 projects for biomethanation of industrial wastes with a total

capacity of 86 MW

Accelerated Programme on Energy Recovery from Urban Wastes

An MNRE project set up in 2005 (still in force) with the following objectives:

Acceleration of promotion of projects set up in the waste to energy sphere

Creation of conducive environment for development and dissemination of

energy recovery from waste through appropriate fiscal and financial regimes.

Harnessing the available potential of MSW- to- energy by the Year 2017.

Project Development Assistance of Rs 10 lakh per project can be provided for this
activity involving the following:

Analysis of MSW and assessment of quantity

Identification of project site

Preparation of MSW collection and transportation plan

Finalization of tie-up with the ULBs for land lease and supply of waste

Finalisation of power purchase agreement

Development of a bankable project with Feasibility Report and the DPR

Preparation of the bid document for inviting bids for viability gap funding;

37

Firming up of means of project finance

Assistance in entire process of bidding

Obtaining all statutory clearances for the projects

Providing assistance and supervision during execution and commissioning

Demonstration of Integrated Technology Package on Biogas Fertilizer Plants

(BGFP)

for

Generation,

Purification/Enrichment,

Bottling

and

Piped

Distribution of Biogas.

It is a ministry initiative that aims to demonstrate an Integrated Technologypackage for entrepreneurs who set up biogas-fertilizer plants (BGFP) of
medium size. The biogas generated may be purified/enriched, bottled or
distributed through pipes. Such plants may be used to meet requirements for
stationary and motive power, cooling, refrigeration and electricity needs in
addition to cooking and heating requirements.Central financial assistance will
be provided for projects in an entrepreneurial made established under a
BOOT basis.

Financial assistance
Biogas based distributed /Grid power generation programme: Central financial
assistance
Table 8: Financial Assistance for grid power generation from biogas
Power Generating Capacity

CFA limited to the ceiling or

40% of the cost of the system

3-20KW

40,000 per kW

>20 kW to 100 kW

35,000 per kW

>100 W to 250 kW

30,000 per kW

38

Energy recovery from Urban Wastes

Table 9: Financial Assistance for energy recovery from urban wastes

Project category

Financial Assistance

Bio-methanation
cattle

dung,

Technology

vegetable

from

market

& For Power generation: 30 million*/

slaughterhouse wastes generated in MW

urban areas:

For thermal applications:10million*/

MWeq

Projects based on Bio- methanation

Technology from a mix of cattle dung, For Power generation: 20 million*/
vegetable market & slaughterhouse MW
wastes and agricultural wastes

Projects based on Biogas generated at

Sewage Treatment Plants

For Power generation: 20 million*/

MW

Demonstration of Integrated Technology Package on Biogas Fertilizer Plants

(BGFP)

for

Generation,

Purification/Enrichment,

Bottling

and

Piped

Distribution of Biogas.

Table 10: Financial Assistance for Biogas Fertilizer Plants (BGFP) for Generation,
Purification/Enrichment, Bottling and Piped Distribution of Biogas
Biogas generation capacity (m3)

CFA as a % of the project cost

200-1000

50%

39

1,100-5000

40%

5,100-10,000

35%

10,100-20,000 and above

30%

Policy making and planning

Electricity act
Biomass based power systems come under the purview of the Electricity Act.
National Electricity Policy (2005) and the Integrated Energy Policy (2005) provided
the required enabling environment for the promotion of electrification to the entire
country.
Some of the provisions contained in this act for promotion of renewable energy
projects including biogas based projects are given below:

Open access to grid

Preferential tariffs by State Electricity Regulatory Commissions

Targets for Renewable Energy power

Captive generation decontrolled

The National Electricity Policy and the Integrated Energy Policy support
decentralized distributed generation facilities (either conventional or nonconventional methods of electricity generation, whichever is more suitable and
economical) together with a local distribution network, wherever grid-based
electrification is not feasible.
The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000
The Ministry has issued the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling)
Rules, 2000, which provides for collection, storage, segregation, transportation,
processing and disposal of solid wastes. The Rules state that all urban local bodies
are responsible for the municipal solid waste in its respective municipality whereas,
the Department of Urban Development in the State has overall responsibility for
enforcement of these rules in metropolitan cities.

40

It mandates that land filling should be restricted to non-biodegradable and inert

waste which is neither suitable for recycling nor for biological processing. Land
filling shall be carried out for residues of waste processing facilities as well as preprocessing rejects from waste processing facilities. Landfilling of mixed waste shall
be avoided unless the same is found unsuitable for waste processing. These Rules
further stipulate that all biodegradable waste such as waste from slaughter houses,
meat, fish and vegetables, shall not be land filled but be treated appropriately and
used. These Rules however do not specify the end use of the treated bio waste nor
the technology to be used.

The MSW rules (2000) define municipal solid waste as commercial and residential
waste generated in municipal or notified areas in either solid or semi-solid form
excluding industrial hazardous waste; e-waste and including treated bio-medical
waste.

SCOPE OF BIOMETHANATION IN INDIA

62 million tonnes of waste are estimated to be generated annually by the current
number of 377 million people residing in urban areas. Of this, the municipal
authorities dump more than 80% at dump yards in unhygienic conditions leading to
health and environmental problems. CPCB estimates suggest that only 68% of the
waste generated in the country is collected of which 28% is treated. This means that
a mere 19% of waste generated in the country is treated. Besides other methods of
generating energy from this waste, there is an untapped potential of generating 1.3
million cubic meter of biogas per day which translates into 72 MW of electricity.
The existing policies, programmes and management structure do not adequately
address the imminent challenge of managing this waste which is projected to be 165
million tonnes by 2031 and 436 million tonnes by 2050 (Planning commission
2014). MSW management is a challenge from the organizational, technological and
economic point of view. Urban waste management must address the concerns of
public health and environmental safety before anything else. Also proposed solutions

41

to MSW management have to meet the criteria of financial viability and community
and institutional acceptance.

A major fraction of urban MSW in India is organic matter (51%). Recyclables are
17.5 % of the MSW and the rest 31% is inert waste. The average calorific value of
urban MSW is 7.3 MJ/kg (1,751 Kcal/kg) and the average moisture content is 47%
(Annepu, 2012) .The large fraction of organic matter in the waste makes it suitable
for aerobic and anaerobic digestion. Significant recyclables percentage after informal
recycling suggests that efficiency of existing systems should be increased. Recycling
and composting efficiency are greatly reduced due to the general absence of source
separation. Absence of source separation also strikes centralized aerobic or anaerobic
digestion processes off the list.

Table 11: Population growth and impact on overall waste generation

Year

Population

Per Capita waste generation Total

(Millions)

(gms)

waste

generation
Thousand tons/year

2001

197,3

439

3163

2011

260,1

498

473

2021

342,8

569

7115

2031

451,8

649

10701

2036

518,6

693

13124

2041

595,4

741

16096

Other than anaerobic digestion, there are various techniques for converting the
organic component of waste into energy, such as WTE combustion and RDF.
Table 12: The potential of energy generation from MSW
Period

MSW
(TPD)

Generated Power
Generation
Potential (MW)

2002

97.174

1.638

42

2007

130.927

2.266

2012

189.986

3.276

2017

265.834

4.566

Key drivers for Waste to Energy Projects

Globally, there is a rising interest in waste to energy projects (of which bio
methanation is one of the preferred technologies) due to advancement in technology
and growing environmental regulations.

Though waste to energy applications is relatively nascent in India, it has enormous

potential as an energy source, business opportunity and a sustainable waste
management option. The enabling policy environment as well as the benefits of the
project forms some of the drivers of waste to energy

Increasing Quantity of Waste material

The rise in quantity of waste generated ,projected to increase to 160.5 million TPY
by 2041, fuelled by rise in economic growth, gross domestic product, and consumer
spending has necessitated the need for better management of waste, in the form of
alternative methods of waste treatment such as biomethanation.
Declining space for landfills
Land space is increasingly scarce in metropolitan areas and

finding space for

landfill sites will become a problem. Also, due to political and community demands
or expiry of the lifetime of current landfills, existing landfill sites are under pressure
to be closed down
Energy Availability: Demand and Supply Gap

Projects is one option that can help decrease this gap and reduce dependence on
fossil fuel based energy sources or grid based supply.The price volatility being
observed in the prices of natural gas or fossil fuel has forced countries to focus on
renewable energy options.
Policy Environment

43

In order to control urban pollution the government has introduces regulations and
norms for industrial pollution control as well as for management of municipal solid
waste and these are to be implemented by the central and state pollution control
boards. Also, Indias participation in international conventions such as the UNFCC
has brought attention towards the rise in carbon emissions at present and projected
for India.
Financial Support
Due to the capital intensive nature of Waste to Energy projects, they can be
designed,

set

up

and/or

operated

by

private

entrepreneurs/firms,

industry/institution, municipal corporation, urban local body or by a waste

management service provider either on commission basis or on BOOT basis.
The range of incentives include subsidies on interest rates and capital costs for
demonstration projects, 100% accelerated depreciation and sales and excise taxes
exemption .Many government as well as private agencies provide financial
assistance for these: Ministries like MNRE and MoEF, financial institutions like
IREDA, NABARD, state financial corporations and commercial banks. International
agencies such as the World Bank, UNDP, IFC, and ADB also sponsor waste-toenergy projects.
Participation of private companies
Currently, private sector firms are the only players in the waste to energy market.
Given the right subsidies, incentives and support by government, municipalities and
civil society; they have the potential to fuel the market growth in this sphere.
Other Economic Benefits
Industrial Waste to Energy conversion have the opportunity to be developed in the
CDM space that would yield incentives such as higher return on investment and
lower payback period.

Case studies
In this section an attempt has been made to study and analyze some of the live
examples of solid waste management through anaerobic digestion using small to
medium size biogas plants

44

Solid Waste Management of Market Waste Using Anaerobic Digestion in

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala (Heeb, 2009)
To comply with the Municipal Solid Waste (Handling and Management) Rules 2000
many urban local bodies decided to treat their organic waste in bio gas plants and use
the biogas produced for various socially useful purposes.
The Sreekaryam Grama Municipality in Thiruvananthapuram, the capital of Kerala is
one such local body which decided to treat the organic waste generated in the
municipality in a bio gas plant. The Sreekaryam biogas plant has been constructed to
primarily treat the bio waste generated by the local fish market which is one of the
biggest fish markets of Thiruvananthapuram. Therefore, the feedstock basically
consists of fish waste, although occasionally some small quantities of vegetable and
fruit waste are also added.

Gas Production
While the digester feeding capacity of the Sreekaryam bio gas plant is 250 kg/day,
the actual average load is 85.5 kg/day.
Table 13: Gas Production and quality
Parameter

Average Value

Daily gas production(cu.m/d)

4.97

Average CH4 content (%)

66.8

Average CO2 content (%)

27.4

Utilization of Biogas
The biogas that is produced in the Sreekaryam fish market plant is first scrubbed to
get rid of the Hydrogen Sulphide by dissolving it water and oxidizing it. After
scrubbing the gas it is used in a custom-made 5kW bio gas generator to produce
electricity to light up the fish market and the surrounding areas. However, since the
average daily gas production is higher than the requirement for electricity
production, the excess gas is sometimes flared.

Quality of Effluents

45

The effluent of the Sreekaryam fish market biogas plant is a dark and homogenous
liquid. The total nitrogen, ammonium, total phosphorous and ortho-phosphate values
of the effluent are high. Furthermore, the ammonia smell could negatively affect
general acceptance of the biogas plant.
One of the drawbacks of the Sreekaryam fish market biogas plant is that the effluent
of its digester is not used as fertilizer. It is pumped into the storage tank and is used
to flush the feedstock into the digester. The excess slurry is discharged from the
effluent tank into the municipal drain.

Socio-economic Aspects
The cost of construction, operation and maintenance of a biogas plant of this size for
disposal of bio waste by a municipality is tabulated below:Table 14: Costs of plant operation
Investment

Cost in Rs.

Material

600 000

Labor

900 000

Total

1500000

Operational & Maintenance Costs

Annual Operational Expenses

112 500

Annual Maintenance Contract

75000-112500

It may be seen from the figures above that the initial investment required for such a
plant is quite substantial. More importantly, the annual costs for operation and
maintenance add up to 15% of the investment costs.

Discussion
While this type of biogas plant may be ideal for processing of bio waste of a market
like the Sreekaryam fish market, there are some technical challenges like the high
proportion of nitrogen in fish waste which need to be addressed. Some of the counter
measures that can be adopted are:

Adding fresh water to the feedstock/slurry.

Adding more high carbon waste such as vegetable and fruit waste

46

Another major disadvantage of such bio gas plants which are to be financed by cashstrapped local bodies is that the initial investment and recurring expenditure like
operating and maintenance costs are high. There is no financial incentive for local
bodies to undertake such ventures unless forced by legislative measures. Therefore
the ultimate challenge is to make these projects financially viable and economically
attractive.
Biogas Plants in Prisons A Case Study of Nepalese Prisons (Vgeli et al., 2014)
Background
Prisons in most developing countries are over-crowded, poorly managed with
inadequate basic facilities like sanitation. The prisons in Nepal are no different and
the problems there got further aggravated in the nineties due to the increased number
of prisoners as result of the armed conflict between the Maoist insurgents and
government forces. The water, sanitation and environment conditions in Nepalese
prisons had deteriorated so much that in 2004, the International Committee of the
Red Cross (ICRC) offered to help the prison authorities to improve the water supply
and sanitation arrangements in the prisons. This in turn led to the signing of an
agreement between the ICRC, the prison authorities and a local expert partner. This
agreement, known as the Biogas Sector Partnership Nepal (BSP-N) was signed in
2007 and it envisaged setting up of five biogas sanitation systems in Nepalese
prisons. This project was completed by mid-2008.
Technical Details

The design of the biogas plant adopted was the fixed dome digester with varying
capacities as per the prisoner population of each jail. In this case the biogas plant
including the digester and the effluent pits are located outside the prison perimeter
whereas the source of the feedstock, i.e., the toilet of the prisoners and the prison
kitchen are located inside. The biogas that was produced was used in the prison
kitchen.
Feedstock

47

The feedstock that is being used in these prison biogas pants is human faeces and
limited quantities of kitchen waste. It has been estimated that the average daily
output of human waste per adult person in Nepal is approximately 0.4 kg and 1.5 L
of urine (Karki et al., 2005). The average use of water for cleaning, flushing and
washing of toilets is about 2 to 4L per person per day. It was estimated that the total
feedstock, excluding kitchen waste, produced in a prison with about 100 prisoners is
approximately 520L and the active slurry volume, in the digester with a capacity of
10 cubic meters, is about 7500L.

Quality and Quantity of Gas

While the gas production in digester varied according to the quality and quantity of
the feedstock, it was observed that the average gas production in a digester using
only human waste as feedstock was approximately 30L per person per day. When the
quality of the feedstock was improved by adding kitchen waste, the gas production
increased substantially to approximately 60L per person per day. The methane (CH4)
content of the gas varied from 57% to 78% and the Carbon Dioxide (CO2) content
varied from 17% to 34%.

Utilization of Gas

The biogas that was produced in the prison plants was utilized for regulated
community cooking and unregulated individual cooking. The use of biogas for
cooking effected substantial savings on the purchase of conventional fuel for
cooking.

Effluents
Analysis of the effluents revealed that it had acceptable concentration of E. Coli and
little or no presence of helminth eggs. Therefore the effluents are fit for restricted
irrigation as per WHO guidelines. However the effluents are not bing used as
fertilizer due to local circumstances and psychological barriers.

48

Socio-economic Aspects
As the economic benefit of using biogas is directly related to the volume and
quality of biogas produced, it was determined that in prisons where kitchen waste
was added to the feedstock, the saving effected on the expenditure on conventional
cooking fuels was 41%. In other jails, where only human waste was used as
feedstock, the saving effected was between 17% and 22%. Thus, depending on the
quality of feedstock, the number of prisoners and the number of biogas plants in a
prison, the plants can pay back the cost of installation in 2 to 5 years time.
With regard to the social aspects, it was seen that a overwhelming majority of the
prisoners supported the installation of biogas plants in prisons as it improved the
living conditions by reducing the smoke in the kitchen and by improving the
hygienic conditions. However, there was some skepticism regarding use of human
waste to make cooking fuel. It was feared that the taste of food cooked with biogas
may be poor and that some diseases may be transmitted through food cooked using
biogas. These apprehensions, however, were short lived and soon there was wideranging acceptance of biogas food among inmates of Nepalese prisons.

Discussion
The experiment of installing biogas plants in Nepalese prisons to utilize human and
kitchen waste to produce cooking fuel has been undoubtedly a success story that can
be replicated in institutional facilities in other developing countries.

49

CHAPTER 5
The Innovation Systems approach is a theoretical school whose core principle is that
the flow of technology and information among various actors in a system: People,
Actors and Institutions is the turnkey for carrying out any innovative process. There
needs to be sufficient interaction between various actors so that any idea is
successfully translated into a process, product or service in the market.
The technological innovations System was developed within the Innovation Systems
field to analyze the character and rate of any technological change. It can be defined
as a dynamic network of agents interacting in a specific economic/industrial area
under a particular institutional infrastructure and involved in the generation,
diffusion, and utilization of technology.
Structures and processes in the innovation system are analyzed to arrive at the flaws
in the system that hampers the development and diffusion of innovations.
Three categories of system components can be analyzed in a Technological
Innovation System and these are referred to as the structures:

Actors: Institutions playing a role in the technology in any way, either in

developing or adopting them or indirectly in regulating or financing them.
Through their roles that they fulfill or fail to fulfill, they are responsible for the
acceptance, diffusion and utilization of the technology. The interrelations and
interactions between these actors lead to the development of the technology. E.g.
Government financial support is needed in order for entrepreneurs to come
forward and invest in a new technology. The different actor categories identified
have been: knowledge institutes, educational organizations, industry, market
actors, government bodies and supportive organizations.

Institutions: These consist of both formal and informal institutions, where the
formal institutions are the rules framed and enacted by some authority, and
informal institutions are those shaped by the interaction between the actors.
Informal institutions can be normative or cognitive. Examples of formal
institutions are government laws and policy decisions. An example of a

50

normative rule is the responsibility felt by a company to prevent or clean up

waste. Examples of cognitive rules are problem-solving routines, dominant
visions and expectations held by the actors.

Technological factors: Technological structures include the products or services

developed by a technology innovation and the technological infrastructures in
which they are incorporated. Their techno-economic parameters, including costs,
safety, and reliability are also important considerations in this and are correlated
to institutional factors. E.g. if government support schemes for R&D result in
improvement of the techno economic parameters of a product, it will lead the
path for their successful commercialization.
The relationships formed among the structural factors are called networks;for
e.g. industry associations, research communities, policy networks, user-supplier
relations .

Thus an evaluation of the structures would lead insights into interdependencies and
flaws in the system and these would then make up the drivers or barriers that
influence the development of a technological innovation at a given point in time.
Phase of development
The phase of development of an innovation system determines the structure and
functioning of an innovation system. The performance of the system components and
its various functions are evaluated on the basis of this phase. The phase of
development is in turn determined by the extent to which the technology has
diffused. The different categories of phases are:
Table 15: Development phases of a TIS system
PHASE

CHARACTERISTICS

Pre-development phase

Working prototype produced

Development phase

Commercial Application

Take-off phase

Diffusion to a larger extent and market growth

Acceleration Phase

Saturation and stabilization of diffusion

51

Based on the above criteria, biomethanation technology for organic solid wastes
based on medium and large scale anaerobic digesters can be said to be at a take-off
phase of development.
Interview procedure

Sample
Expert interviewees were selected for a balanced sample of various actors in the TIS
system and these insights were used for an overview of the status of medium and
large scale biomethanation of MSW in India.

Table 16: Interviewee Sample

Interviewee Type

Details

Number of interviews

Entrepreneur

Manager of a large waste 1

to energy company.

Government Official

Official at IREDA

Academician

Professors at Research 2
Institutions

who

are

experts in the field of bio energy.

Independent Consultant

Honorary Chairman of an 1
Industrial association for
Biogas

Potential Investor

DGM, Catering at IRCTC

Data collection
A semi structured data questionnaire format was chosen, which contained various
key pointers to be enquired from all categories of actors/interviewees.The
questionnaire was designed such that questions relevant to each function category in

52

the TIS literature would be answered. All interviews were conducted personally ,
through face-to-face communication, phone or via e-mail.
Data analysis
The interview notes were transcribed and key takeaways from each are detailed in
the next section in accordance with the TIS function categories, according to their
relevance.
Results
F1 Entrepreneurial Activities: Entrepreneurial activities are relevant because their
activities aim to prove the usefulness of any innovation or technology, its
commercial and technical viability, i.e through new models, demonstration projects
or through business ventures.

Key Takeaways: All the interviewees admitted that entrepreneurial activity in the bio
methanation sector is still very limited. For industrial wastes such as those generated
in sugar and distillery industries and for wastewater, deployment of anaerobic
digesters anaerobic digesters is an established practice. But bio methanation for
SWM is still a new and emerging concept (Independent Consultant). There is also a
need for more industry academia co-ordination in this regard (Academician).
Overall, The potential of medium and large scale biogas plants particular in urban
and industrial areas is by far underdeveloped despite the fact that biogas holds
particular importance for the rapid economical growth of India, as summed up by
the entrepreneur.

F2 Knowledge Development: These relate to activities aimed at learning and

development. It not only includes R&D in the basic science (learning-by-searching)
but also activities in a practical context among the markets, networks and users
(learning-by-doing).

Key takeaways: Many institutions engaged in the field of research in the area of
biomethanation such as the IITs, IISC Bangalore, BARC Bombay, IARI etc. They

53

take up lab scale/pilot work and have also come up with various digester models for
various substrates such as wastewater, cattle dung, agro waste etc. But in the field of
waste-to-energy (WTE) in the field of MSW, there is a lack of technical expertise.
Also, even though there are enough technologies present , there is still a need felt for
indigenously developed engineering equipment such as large sized engines for
converting biogas to electricity (Independent Consultant). Foreign technologies and
equipment are also imported for medium and large scale digesters but their flipside is
that they are expensive and need to be adapted a lot to suit Indian conditions (All
interviewees).

F3 Networks and knowledge diffusion: The core of the organization structure in a

TIS system lies in networks, where actors of different backgrounds interact.
Knowledge diffusion can occur with industry-academia collaboration, meetings like
workshops and conferences, promotional activities by industrial associations etc.
There are no associations existing exclusively for the promotion of bio methanation
of MSW in India. There are only two professional associations existing in the
country, namely the Indian Biogas Association (IBA) and the Biogas Forum of India
(BFI) to promote and support the activities of operators, manufacturers, planners of
biogas plants and of scientists and researchers. They undertake conferences and
workshops, publish newsletters, promote collaborations with international know how
and also perform policy advocacy roles. The MNRE also publishes two bimonthly
magazines on renewable energy and in which biogas projects are also featured. For
submitting project proposals and applying for financial assistance, there exists
IREDA and the respective State Renewable Energy Development Agencies. Also, as
the number of ESCOs in this field is limited, there is not an adequate transmission of
information regarding the need and benefits of bio methanation projects, not just in
terms of environmental benefits but also in terms of financial viability and
profitability.

F4 Guidance of the search: This includes the vision, expectations and requirements
of various actors in the TIS. These should be aligned across all the players or actors
in a technological field as resources are limited. For e.g. there should be a clear

54

vision on how a technology should develop in the short and long term and these
should be aligned among private players, government and others so that appropriate
policies, support mechanisms and technological designs can be developed.

Key takeaways: There are two levels of subsidies at the level of the centre and the
states, mostly in terms of capital subsidy for set up and demonstration of projects or
support for research activities. But rather than this, there is a need for a performance
based subsidy such as on the amount of biogas generated so that individual
plant/project efficiencies can be incentivized. This in turn brings in the need for a
monitoring agency to look into the performance rate of projects set up (Independent
consultant). It has been observed that many large scale biogas projects have not been
successful or have not been able to sustain due to several glitches and this factor has
impacted further allocation of funds to this sector (government official).
In general, the biogas industry is fragmentized and characterized by small
engineering companies. Some of them still working with old design concepts and
require time to catch up with latest technologies. In addition, the suppliers are rather
generalists than specialized in a particular field of biogas. However, it is foreseeable
that the industry will mature in a couple of years supplying advanced biogas
generation and up-gradation technologies (Entrepreneur). Biogas is mostly
implemented on small scale level, providing households or small communities with
gas for daily cooking requirements. Medium and large scale plants with a
commercial interest are less developed and give rise for future growth in this sector
(All interviewees).
F5 Market formation: Emerging technologies need to compete with existing ones
before they create a market for themselves. Thus these include activities contributing
to the formation of adequate demand and supply of this technology.

In terms of encouraging entrepreneurial activity in this field, there exists adequate

schemes and programmes for implementing biogas plants of various sizes (25-3000
m3). However, there exists large amount of bureaucracy in availing the exiting
support as one has to contact multiple agencies such as the pollution control board,
municipalities, MNRE etc. There is a need for a single window agency to tackle this

55

(Independent consultant). Although waste disposal rules and norms (MSW rules,
CPCB norms) in urban areas are in place their implementation and monitoring
remain lacking. Standards and certifications such as the IS standard do exist for
biogas plants.

F6. Resource mobilization: Adequate financial, material and human capital need to
be deployed in order to set the technology up and running and to make it viable.
There is a need for investment and subsidies, research facilities, physical
infrastructure etc and their lack or absence can form a barrier to expansion.
Financial support from government sector may be adequate but from private banks it
is a major problem (Independent Consultant).For developing human capital, BTDCs
have been set up by the government in various universities for training, monitoring
and evaluation of biogas projects. However, there is lack of any certificate courses in
the bio energy sector (Academician). As far as procurement of organic waste as
feedstock for the plants are concerned, procurement of fully segregated waste is the
biggest barrier to bio methanation projects (Entrepreneur).

F7. Legitimization An emerging technology often meets resistance as most often;

society will be initially opposed to change. There should be support for the
technology from the general public, civil society and others. Advocacy groups that
can positively influence policy making and garner public support for the technology
also form an important role.

There are no formal industrial associations in the WTE sector and also the failure
rate of many biomethanation plants in the MSW sector is frequent. Hence the need
for more coordination among the various players is required so that they may gain
from the exchange of ideas and experience. There are many NGOs operating in
SWM and their efforts and grassroots level knowledge need to be tapped so as to
involve more stakeholders in biomethanation projects (Entrepreneurs).

56

Discussion
For the TIS system studied, i.e. the biomethanation of medium and large scale
anaerobic digesters for solid waste in urban areas, it is evident that none of the core
functions related to the TIS system are in proper execution.

At the take-off phase of any TIS, there are various interdependencies between the
system function as specified by the literature.

Figure 1: Functional interdependencies at development phase of TIS

Entrepreneurial activities can function properly if backed by proper Guidance of the

search and Resource mobilization. Limited entrepreneurial activity in this field can
be explained by low performance of the Guidance of the Search function as there is
no overarching vision or policy regarding medium and large scale biogas plants in
India.

The Resource Mobilization function in terms of technology, manpower,

financial support performs marginally better but has a large scope for improvement
on a scale to accelerate entrepreneurial activity.

Sufficient entrepreneurial activity influences the legitimization of technology and

vice-versa. As entrepreneurial activity in the field is limited there is lack of
awareness regarding benefits of this technology and hence there is low demand for it.

57

Positive advocacy for this technology can be built up by collaboration with other
players working in the field of decentralized waste management.

Proper acceptance and legitimization of the technology in turn influences market

formation and resource mobilization. Unless decentralized waste management
through anaerobic digestion can be established as a creditable technology not just as
an environment friendly option but as a stable and cost effective source of energy
through biogas, sufficient demand will not be created for this in urban areas.
Legitimization explains the higher demand for other renewable sources of
technology such as Solar PV (Government official).

Market formation also influences the guidance of the search. On the supply side the
numbers of ESCOs in the biomethanation sector are few and limited and are not
represented by any formal association. On the demand side too there is not adequate
demand for the technology from Urban Institutions as well as municipalities. Hence
the low rate of market formation explains low representation of the technology in
government policy and lack of clear vision on its growth projections.

58

CHAPTER 6
An alternative and promising form of renewable energy can be seen in biogas.
Biogas occurs naturally and is formed by a microbiological decomposition
process of organic matter. In controlled conditions such the generation process of
biogas can be efficiently established and replicated in order to recover energy
from biological conversion of organic matter. In addressing various energy
demands biogas plants offer several advantages as compared to other forms of
renewable energy production. Depending on the methane concentration biogas is
an energy carrier with multiple options for energy use. The simplest application
is direct combustion for example for cooking or lighting, whereas advanced
technologies can promote biogas for the production of combined heat and
electricity generation. Of more relevance in advanced technologies is the upgradation of biogas to an energy rich and high quality fuel. By the removal of
carbon dioxide and other trace gases the up-graded biogas becomes a marketable
commodity product which offers a green alternative to fossil fuels. The upgraded biogas is in the position to be injected into the natural gas grid or to be
used as an auto-motor fuel. Currently, 45.45 lakh biogas plants are installed in
India. The majority of these biogas plants is small scale and serves
predominantly captive energy requirements in rural households. The potential of
medium and large scale biogas plants particular in urban and industrial areas is
by far underdeveloped.

The relevance of biogas lies in addressing several challenges in pollution control,

waste disposal and energy generation. With reference to pollution control biogas
is generated from renewable sources has a carbon neutral footprint. In addition,
biogas is a comparable clean energy carrier and emits considerable lower levels
of potentially harmful emissions. Particular the emission of nitrogen mono- and
dioxide (NOx), carbon mono- and dioxide (COx), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are
lower than any other cured oil derivative. Today, the environmental aspect
becomes increasingly important facing severe macro environmental problems
and climate change.

59

A number of organic substrates can be considered as a potential feed stock

for the anaerobic digestion process, containing primarily carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, cellulose and hemicellulose as main components. These
substrates are for example poultry and cow manures, crop residues, food
leftovers, maize silage, grass, etc. The relevant parameters in the selection of
the feed stock are the availability, collection method, biological and technical
acceptability, gas yield, and nutritional value. Modern biogas plants taking
the type of feed stock into consideration and are erected to achieve an
efficient technical and biological process condition for the digestion process.
Taking the feed stock into consideration three types of biogas plants can be
distinguished, namely municipal, industrial and agricultural biogas plants.
Biogas plants on municipal organic waste are of particular relevance in times
of fast urbanization. The increasing pace of urbanization and rise in per capita
incomes mean an inevitable rise in quantity of wastes generated in cities. On
average the organic fraction of municipal solid waste accounts for 30 to 40%,
which is considerable part of the waste disposal problem. In addition, organic
waste causing severe environmental problems through methane emission in
landfill applications and is a prime source of disease and contamination of air
and water. With an increasing part of the population living in urban
agglomeration biogas plants are an alternative to deal with the organic
fraction of the municipal waste. In this view the biogas plants are to be seen
as a zero-discharge solution for severe problems in waste management as
biogas plants have a comparable advantage to landfill, composting or other
ways of treatment.

A considerable amount of solid or liquid organic waste is also discharged by

industries.

Industries with high organic loaded waste are for example

vegetable and fruit processing, bakeries, distilleries, etc. Biogas plants

operating on industrial waste have several advantages. Main aspect for setting
up an anaerobic biogas plant on industrial waste is the concentrated and
centralized amount of organic mass available. In addition, the waste tends to

60

be homogeneous in nature and in a continuously flow throughout the year.

For the industries the biogas plants can be an opportunity to treat the
discharged waste, to recover energy, to improve environmental footprint, and
to comply with various pollution control norms.

Biogas is in the position to contribute to energy and environmental targets,

create local job opportunities and can be a method of waste reduction. Herein
the biogas is providing more benefits and values to the society than fissile
energy based biogas price can express. The European, particular the German
biogas sector comprises of one of the most advanced and competitive
industries. The significant increase in numbers of installed biogas plants has
created an entire industry with specialized suppliers, materials and processes.
In contrast to this, in developing countries around the world, the uses and
applications are perceived differently. Biogas is mostly implemented on
small scale level, providing households or small communities gas for daily
cooking requirements. Medium and large scale plants with a commercial
interest are less developed and give rise for future growth in this sector.
Unlike the wind and solar, the biogas industry in India is less developed and
requires more competiveness. In general, the biogas industry for medium and
large sized anaerobic digesters is fragmentized and has great scope for
expansion.

Recommendations
As the ultimate goal of all energy planning is the provision of sufficient energy at
affordable rates to all so as to cater to the rising demand in ways that minimize risk
to the environment, public health and reduce import dependence, BETs can play an
important role in this regard. Though India has comprehensive programmes on bio
energy, the success rate in terms of number of installations, power capacity
generated and creation of self-sustaining technological models for anaerobic
digesters of medium and large scale level are marginal. In the context of this, a
number of recommendations can be drawn.

61

National Policy Development

An institutional mechanism at the national level needs to be created to look into the
issues of BET development. Bringing together of relevant stakeholders, selection and
monitoring of technology, facilitation of financial support and appropriate financial
models for private and public sector projects, designing of legal framework, policy
advocacy and other such issues that need to be looked into by such a mechanism.
Technology Development
Technologies for medium and large scale anaerobic digestion still have a lot of scope
for improvement as most technologies and engineering infrastructure in this field are
imported. These are expensive and difficult to adapt to Indian conditions. Thus a lot
more research needs to be carried out in this field in order to develop and innovate
sustainable technologies for various types of organic waste

For this a ,a technical cell that can keep track and monitor various
technologies for their productivity, coordinate the work of research
institutions,

facilitate

industry

academia

coordination

and

support

demonstration projects can be set up.

Improved Solid waste management

The present solid waste management system, with its low rates of collection
and treatment of wastes needs a complete overhaul. Segregation of waste at
source with adequate storage capacity in the area of waste generation need to
be taken up. This can be achieved with involvement of all relevant
stakeholders such as the waste generating entities or communities, informal
waste pickers and recyclers, local municipality officials, private agencies etc.

As the performance of anaerobic digestion plant is majorly influenced by the

appropriateness feed material and its homogeneity appropriate segregation
and pre treatment should be carried out.

Laws and norms regarding SWM are already in place but what is lacking is
their implementation. Appropriate monitoring mechanisms such as the

62

service level benchmarking scheme of the MoUD for solid waste handling in
cities need to be strengthened in order to ensure that there is 100% service
coverage in the city.

Market formation

A steady market for biogas and manure obtained from AD needs to be

ensured so that projects are economically feasible. The biogas can be
consumed by the institutions that set up anaerobic digestion plants in their
areas such as housing societies, commercial areas, large hotels, office
complexes etc. Appropriate incentives and rewards should be put forward by
the municipal authorities for setting up decentralized anaerobic digestion
units for organic waste treatment. For projects on a larger scale generating
higher quantities of biogas and manure, arrangements for procuring this
output, by state oil and gas companies as well as fertilizer companies should
be set up.

Entrepreneurial activity in the biomethanation sector is limited due to want

of initial funding and capital assistance. Although the schemes are in place,
access to finance is still a major issue for BETs as compared to other RETs.
The reasons for these may be many such as low success rate of projects,
greater attractiveness of other RETs like solar and wind,

low priority

accorded in renewable energy generation targets etc. All these need to be

looked into so that there may be an acceleration of entrepreneurial activity in
this field.
Awareness Generation
Awareness levels regarding AD technology as a sustainable option for
decentralized waste management and energy generation in urban areas is low and
other practices such as composting for organic waste treatment are more relevant. If
greater importance is accorded to this technology by the municipalities, NGOs and
others operating in the field of SWM, awareness levels among the general public can
also be increased. Programs for spreading understanding regarding the applications
of biogas and benefits of AD technology should be formulated.

63

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Science and Technology.

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ANNEXURE A

INTERVIEWEE NAME

DETAILS

Mr. Gaurav Kedia

Chairman, Indian Biogas

Association

Prof V.K Vijay

Prof, Center for Rural

Development

and

Technology, IIT Delhi

3

Mr. D.C Pant

Fellow,

Energy

Environment

and

Technology

Division,

TERI New Delhi

4

Dr. Nicolaus zu Sayn-Wittgenstein

Director, Green Elephant

Private Ltd, Pune

Mr. Philip

Head-Hydro,
Energy

Waste
and

Technology

to
New

division,

IREDA
6

Mr Sapan Thapar

Fellow,

Department

of

Energy and Environment,

TERI University

ANNEXURE B: QUESTIONNARE

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I ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITIES
1. Which are the industrial associations related to biomethanation of waste in India?
2. What is the scale of implementation of biomethanation projects in India in
industries and urban areas in your opinion? Is it on a rising trend and what are the
drivers for this growth?
3. Is there enough co-ordination between research institutes and industries in the
biomethanation field? How have they been translated into concrete projects?
II KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT
1 What are the major Indian biomethanation technologies and what are their current
applications? What have been their successes and failures?
2. What is the current level of research in biomethanation in India and what are the
latest innovations in the field?
3. What is the scale of foreign technology import? What are its pros and cons and
what is its edge over Indian technologies?
III KNOWLEDGE DIFFUSION
1. What activities are being undertaken by industrial associations, government and
non -government bodies for promotion of biomethanation in India?
IV GUIDANCE OF THE SEARCH
1. What are the financial incentives/subsidies offered by the government for
establishment of biomethanation projects to:
a) Service providers b) Service users
2. What are the government support schemes for biomethanation projects at medium
and large scale level?
V MARKET FORMATION
1 How many registered bio energy service providers do you know of?
2. What are the barriers to importing foreign technologies?
3. What are standards and certifications for biomethanation technologies and
equipment in India and who awards these?
4. What has been the success rate of biomethanation projects implemented at the
institutional and commercial level? What have been the reasons for its failure?
5. What are the barriers that impede its further expansion?
VI RESOURCE MOBILIZATION

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1. How difficult is the procurement of funding for biomethanation projects? What are
the government and private level agencies/banks that support bio energy companies?
2. Are there enough technical know-how and manpower that can adequately
undertake/handle biomethanation projects? Are there training programs and institutes
that have been set up by the government /private sector in this field?
VII TECHNOLOGY LEGITIMISATION
1. Other than the government, is there adequate support for such projects from other
sections of civil society such as NGOs, think tanks, research organizations,
international bodies?
2. What are the multilateral level mechanisms /agreements at the international level
that are conducive for the diffusion of biomethanation technology?
VIII INTERNATIONAL LEVEL MECHANISMS
1. How can international funding/technology/expertise be used to enhance the level
of biomethanation technology adoption in India?