Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

(TCP/IP)
Definition - What does Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) mean?
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the language a computer uses to access the
Internet. It consists of a suite of protocols designed to establish a network of networks to provide a host with
access to the Internet.
TCP/IP is responsible for full-fledged data connectivity and transmitting the data end-to-end by providing
other functions, including addressing, mapping and acknowledgment. TCP/IP contains four layers, which
differ slightly from the OSI model.

Nearly all computers today support TCP/IP. TCP/IP is not a single networking protocol - it is a suite of
protocols named after the two most important protocols or layers within it - TCP and IP.
As with any form of communication, two things are needed: a message to transmit and the means to reliably
transmit the message. The TCP layer handles the message part. The message is broken down into smaller
units, called packets, which are then transmitted over the network. The packets are received by the
corresponding TCP layer in the receiver and reassembled into the original message.
The IP layer is primarily concerned with the transmission portion. This is done by means of a unique IP
address assigned to each and every active recipient on the network.
TCP/IP is considered a stateless protocol suite because each client connection is newly made without
regard to whether a previous connection had been established.

TCP/IP Model
Like the OSI model, the TCP/IP model is layered and is used in the same fashion as the OSI model but with fewer
layers. As the modern Internet and most communications use the Internet Protocol (IP), the TCP/IP model is technically
more in line with modern network implementations. As stated before, the layers within the TCP/IP model are considered
less rigid then that of the OSI model, which basically means that many protocols implemented can be considered in
grey areas between one area and another. The TCP/IP protocol suite (often referred to as the TCP/IP protocol) contains
the same protocols referenced in the earlier OSI model sections. Figure 2 below shows a representation of the TCP/IP
model:

Figure 2 TCP/IP Model

The Link Layer

The link layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model; it is also referred to in some texts as the network interface layer.
The link layer combines the physical and data link layer functions into a single layer. This includes frame physical
network functions like modulation, line coding and bit synchronization, frame synchronization and error detection, and
LLC and MAC sublayer functions. Common protocols include the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Neighbor
Discovery Protocol (NDP), IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.11.

The Internet Layer

The Internet layer is the next layer up from the link layer and is associated with the network layer of the OSI model.
Functions include traffic routing, traffic control, fragmentation, and logical addressing. Common protocols include IP,
ICMP and IGMP.

The Transport Layer

The Transport layer is the next layer and is typically related directly with the same named layer in the OSI model.
Functions include message segmentation, acknowledgement, traffic control, session multiplexing, error detection and
correction (resends), and message reordering. Common protocols include the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) and
User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

The Application Layer

The Application layer is the highest layer in the TCP/IP model and is related to the session, presentation and application
layers of the OSI model. The application layer of the TCP/IP model is used to handle all process-to-process
communication functions; these functions were carried out by multiple different layers when referencing the OSI model.
There are a number of different functions which are carried out by this layer, including session establishment,
maintenance and termination, character code translations, data conversion, compression and encryption, remote
access, network management and electronic messaging to name a few. Common protocols include Named Pipes,
NetBIOS, MIME, TLS, SSL, FTP, DNS, HTTP, SMTP and many others.

Summary
The confusion that exists between these two different models is common for new network engineers, as many have at
least some familiarity with TCP/IP but have never heard of OSI. It should be clear that these are strictly models and
should be considered separate entities from each other when being taught. Hopefully this article is able to make clear
the functions that are considered applicable to each layer within each model.

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

Network Interface Layer
The Network Interface layer (also called the Network Access layer) is responsible for placing TCP/IP
packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the network medium. TCP/IP was
designed to be independent of the network access method, frame format, and medium. In this way,
TCP/IP can be used to connect differing network types. These include LAN technologies such as
Ethernet and Token Ring and WAN technologies such as X.25 and Frame Relay. Independence from any
specific network technology gives TCP/IP the ability to be adapted to new technologies such as
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

Internet Layer
The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing functions. The core protocols of
the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing, routing, and the
fragmentation and reassembly of packets.

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the resolution of the Internet layer
address to the Network Interface layer address such as a hardware address.

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is responsible for providing diagnostic functions
and reporting errors due to the unsuccessful delivery of IP packets.

The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is responsible for the management of IP
multicast groups.

Transport Layer
The Transport layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport layer) is responsible for providing the
Application layer with session and datagram communication services. The core protocols of the
Transport layer are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable communications service. TCP is

responsible for the establishment of a TCP connection, the sequencing and acknowledgment of
packets sent, and the recovery of packets lost during transmission.

UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliable communications service.

UDP is used when the amount of data to be transferred is small (such as the data that would fit
into a single packet), when the overhead of establishing a TCP connection is not desired or when
the applications or upper layer protocols provide reliable delivery.

Application Layer
The Application layer provides applications the ability to access the services of the other layers and
defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data. There are many Application layer protocols
and new protocols are always being developed.
The most widely-known Application layer protocols are those used for the exchange of user information:

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer files that make up the Web pages of
the World Wide Web.

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for interactive file transfer.

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for the transfer of mail messages and
attachments.

Telnet, a terminal emulation protocol, is used for logging on remotely to network hosts.

Additionally, the following Application layer protocols help facilitate the use and management of
TCP/IP networks:

The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to resolve a host name to an IP address.

The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a routing protocol that routers use to exchange
routing information on an IP internetwork.

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used between a network management
console and network devices (routers, bridges, intelligent hubs) to collect and exchange network
management information.

Examples of Application layer interfaces for TCP/IP applications are Windows Sockets and

An email is sent from one email server to another using packet switching.
(a) State two items that are contained in an email packet apart from the data.
senders IP address
receivers IP address
packet sequence number

checksum
Explain the role of routers in sending an email from one email server to another.
email has been split up into packets
packet has destination address
packets pass through many different routers in journey
packets dont take same route
routers use IP addresses
packets reassembled at destination to rebuild email
Sending an email message is an appropriate use of packet switching.
Explain why this is the case.
email message is only read when all of it is received
time delays due to lost / delayed packets not significant
so sending different packets by different routes is not issue / is efficient
packets arriving out of order not an issue
no requirement for a continuous circuit (circuit switching)
d. Packet switching is not always an appropriate solution.
Name an alternative communication method of transferring data in a digital network.
Circuit switching
Name an application for which the method identified in part (d) is an appropriate solution.
Justify your choice.
e.g. real-time video / video conferencing [1]
Any point 1 mark
circuit made available is dedicated to this communication stream
full bandwidth available / no sharing
no lost packets
guaranteed quality of service
Explain what is meant by circuit switching.
dedicated circuit/channel/physical path [1]
which lasts for duration of connection
There are many applications in which digital data are transferred across a network. Video
conferencing is one of these.
For this application, circuit switching is preferable to the use of packet switching.
Explain why this is so.
e.g.
cs: gives dedicated circuit [1]
ps: split into packets/chunks [1]
ps: sends packets on individual routes [1]
cs: whole bandwidth available // ps: shares bandwidth [1]
cs: faster data transfer [1]
cs: packets arrive in order they are sent [1]
cs: packets cannot get lost [1]
cs: better for a real-time application [1]

ps: packets may arrive out of order so delay until packet order restored [1]
ps: packets may get lost so retransmission causes delays
A web page is transferred from a web server to a home computer using the Internet.
Explain how the web page is transferred using packet switching.
web page divided into packets/chunks [1]
each packet has destination address [1]
router looks at IP address [1]
and decides where to send packet next for most efficient path [1]
packets can take different routes [1]
home computer reassembles packets to rebuild web page

Why Are Network Protocols Needed?

The growth of the Internet and networking in general has facilitated
improved communications within and between companies, and
individuals too. Network equipment vendors are numerous, providing
varied levels of scalability and security in their offerings, and a given
business is likely to use equipment from more than one vendor. Network
protocols facilitate communication between these heterogeneous pieces
of hardware.
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Networking History
In the 1960s and 1970s, the creators of early networks such as ARPAnet
had a goal of creating a network that could involve different hardware
and software and still communicate. In order to make this internetworking
a reality, they developed a framework of protocols that defined what a
data packet on the network was to look like. The result of their work
became what we know today as the Internet.

Protocols
Protocols are simply rules for communication. As applied to humans,
protocols typically refer to rules of communication between people of
different cultures or people in specific situations. A violation of a protocol

can lead to a breakdown in communication. Something as simple as

placing a business card in your pocket may offend your Asian business
partner because it violates etiquette, a type of protocol. Protocols are
critical for communications of all types.

Networks
Computer networks provide a communications path within and between
businesses of various types in different locations around the world.
Computer networks employ various types of equipment, including
routers, switches, hubs and network interface cards. These pieces of
equipment come from different vendors, but they must all work together
or the network does not operate correctly.

Network Protocols
Network protocols define the rules that govern network communication.
These rules determine things like packet format, type and size. They also
determine what happens when an error occurs, and which part of the
network is supposed to handle the error and how. Network protocols work
in layers, the highest being what the user sees, and the lowest being the
wire that the information travels across. These layers communicate with
each other according to the rules, allowing human communication to
occur accurately and efficiently.

Why Are Network Protocols Needed?

Network protocols made the modernization of the Internet possible. Such protocols allow computers to
communicate with other computers without users having to know what is happening in the background.

Definition

Network protocols are sets of rules for exchanging information. This

exchange usually occurs much like a dialog between two computers. The exchange
often begins with the client sending a signal to the server, providing key
information about what kind of data is being requested.

Significance
Without a set of rules, computers would not have the capability of "talking"

to each other across the Internet. Certain protocols help computers identify
themselves on the Internet.

How Exchange Begins

The data exchange between computers on the Internet begins when the

client introduces itself to the remote server it wants data from.

After the Handshake

Some exchanges between computers are in short bursts (such as HTTP)

while others can stream for long periods of time (as in instant messaging). The
server may send a bundle of data and then close the connection, or it may
continue to interact with the client computer until the client decides to end the
conversation.

When Rules Aren't Followed

Network protocols were created to allow computers to communicate in an

organized manner without any room for misinterpretation. Clients that do not
follow the rules oftentimes are disconnected by the server, or vice versa,
depending on what the protocol specifications state.

3.1.7 Why are Protocols Necessary?

Edit 0 3
What are Protocols?
Network protocols are sets of rules for exchanging information. The exchange often begins with
the client sending a signal to the server, providing key information about what kind of data he is
requesting.
Why are they necessary?
If computers did not have this set of rules, they would not have the capability of communicating
over networks. Certain protocols help computers identify themselves across networks and most
importantly the internet.
Network protocols were created to allow computers to communicate in an organized manner
without any room for misinterpretation. Clients that do not follow the rules oftentimes are
disconnected by the server, or vice versa, depending on what the protocol specifications state.
Some protocols also support data compression designed for high-performance network
communication. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been developed, and

each one of these has been designed for a different purpose or environment. You need
protocols in computer networks because computer networks consist of devices and software
made by many different companies. The only way to ensure compatibility among them all is to
have common protocols that describe the mechanics and formats of all the data exchanged
over the network

Why Do We Need Protocol In Computer Networks?

Network Protocol A Network Protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between
network devices. Protocols for computer networking all generally use packet switching techniques to
send and receive messages in the form of packets.

Need of Protocols in Computer Networks

Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as
well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received. Some
protocols also support message acknowledgement and data compression designed for reliable and/or
high-performance network communication. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have
been developed each designed for specific purposes and environments. You need protocols in
computer networks because computer networks consist of devices and software made by many
different vendors. The only way to ensure compatibility among them all is to have common documents
(i.e. The protocol specifications) that describe the mechanics and formats of all the data exchanged
over the network.

A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between

network devices. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections
with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and
received.

TCP/IP Key Applications and Application Protocols

For centuries, philosophers have struggled with this question: what's it all about?
Needless to say, the meaning of life is a bit beyond the scope of this
Guide. However, we can examine this quandary within the scope of networking
itself. What is networking for? Why do we bother creating networks anyway? What's
it all about?
The simplified answer is that all of the hardware devices, software modules and
layered protocols examined in this Guide are means to one real end: enabling
people to use networking applications. The true power of layering is that it allows
applications to be created that automatically make use of lower-level technologies to
communicate without having to worry about the details of how the communication is
accomplished. This frees application programmers to create a wide variety of
applications that find many different ways to facilitate the exchange information.
The TCP/IP protocol suite is the foundation of modern internetworking, and for this
reason, has been used as the primary platform for the development and
implementation of networking applications. Over the last few decade, as the global

TCP/IP Internet has grown, hundreds of new applications have been created. These
programs enable a myriad of different tasks and functions to be accomplished,
ranging from implementing essential business tasks to pure entertainment, by users
who may be in the same room or on different continents.
It would be impossible to try to describe every possible TCP/IP application, and
pointless to even try. However, of all the TCP/IP applications, there are a small
number that are widely considered to be key applications of TCP/IP. Most have
been around for a very long timein some cases, longer than even the modern
Internet Protocol itself. They are generally implemented as TCP/IP application
protocols and are defined using the same RFC process and standards as other
TCP/IP protocol suite components.
This section describes some of these definitive TCP/IP applications and application
layer protocols. Before getting into the applications themselves, I explain the
universal system set up for TCP/IP applications to use for addressing Internet
resources: uniform resource identifiers (URIs), which can be either uniform resource
locators (URLs) or uniform resource names (URNs). These are best known for their
use on the World Wide Web, but can in fact be used by a variety of applications.
I then provide several subsections that discuss the application groups themselves.
The first describes file and message transfer applications; this group is the largest,
as it contains many of the applications we consider central to TCP/IP networking,
such as electronic mail, file transfer and the World Wide Web. The second describes
interactive and remote application protocols, which are used traditionally to allow a
user of one computer to access another, or to permit the real-time exchange of
information. The third discusses TCP/IP administration and troubleshooting utilities,
which can be employed by both administrators and end users alike.