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Compartmentalization and Clustering of Words for Woman and the Role of S in the
Portrayal of Women in Sanskrit Court Poetry

Author(s): Kenneth Langer
Source: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 101, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1981), pp.
177-193
Published by: American Oriental Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/601758
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COMPARTMENTALIZATION AND CLUSTERING OF WORDS

FOR WOMAN AND THE ROLE OF SA IN THE PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN
IN SANSKRIT COURT POETRY
KENNETH LANGER
This paper attempts to illustrate various effects achieved through a careful choice of words for
woman. The following topics are considered: 1) compartmentalization of words for woman, i.e.,
the use of a distinct set of words for the heroine and another for all other females, 2) the
suggestive value of words for woman, 3) the dynamics of long clusters of epithets, especially as
these words demarcate various stages in the life of a heroine, and 4) the employment of s6 to
further the mood of wonder and reverence in the idealized portrayal of women. Works discussed
are: MeghadCita, Kurnirasamnbhava, Taghuvamnsa, GTtagovtnda, and selected poems from

various traditional anthologies.
1. DESPITE- THE WEALTH OF SANSKRIT WORDS and epi-
while unmarked numbers indicate instances of words
thets for woman which may be considered synonymous,
which designate women other than the wife of Kubera's
it is possible to show that Sanskrit poets carefully com-
banished servant. The entire referential scope3 of each
partmentalized these words in order to help distinguish

the heroine from less important women. In assigning
word is summarized in the far right-hand column.

Thus each word may fall into one of the following five
certain words to the central female and others to all
categories: 1) words which denote the yaksi alone (all
women of less significance, classical poets empha-
words followed only by asterisked numbers), 2) words
sized the unique status of their heroines. Such com-
which refer to the 'aksJ in one or more verses and, in
partmentalization assured that the connotations which
one or more other verses, to groups of women, including the vaksl (represented by asterisked numbers and
numbers enclosed in parentheses), 3) words which on/v
accrue to words through their application to one group

of women, i.e., all women peripheral to the central
female, did not become associated with another
indicate women in general, including the vaksT (words

followed only by numbers set off by parentheses),
4) words denoting both women, including the vaksT,
"group," i.e. the heroine(s).

Let us first consider the Meghaduita. In order to
discover how Kaliddsa emphasized the unique and
and, women excluding the yaksT (words followed by
separate status of the wife of the banished ivaksa, it is

word for woman (listed below) encountered in this
numbers in parentheses and unmarked numbers), and

5) words which consistently refer to women other than
the XaksT (all words followed on/v by unmarked
lyric poem.' To the right of each word appear numbers
numbers).
necessary to examine the referential scope of each
corresponding to the verses in which the particular

word is found. The enumeration of verses in the edition
word
instances
scope
used2 ends with verse 66 and then begins again,

dividing the poem into two halves; numbers after "P"
ahgana P: (9), 14, 28/ U: (27) ........... 4
belong to the puirvaniegha, those following "U" to the
abala P:2*/U:33*, (39), 41* ........... 2
uttaramegha. Asterisked numbers refer to instances in
avidhava U:39* ...................... 1
which the i'aksT is designated, numbers enclosed in
asitanayana U:52* ...................... 1
parentheses represent instances of words having as
kanya
their referent women in general, including the yaksT,
P:53
kalatra P:41 ....................... 5

3 By "referential scope" I shall refer throughout this paper to
' I have not included hahuv'rThi compounds which are purely
the heroine, women in general (including the heroine), and all
adjectival and possess no referential value.
women other than the heroine. I am not distinguishing
2 Kdliddsa, Meghadlfta, ed. with the commentary of Mal-
women peripheral to the heroine in any way other than in
linatha bv M.R. Kale (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1969).
relation to the heroine.
177
178 Journal of the American Oriental Society 101.2 (1981)
kalyani U:49* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Although certain designations (5 or 18%') shift their
krnta P:I*/U:15*, 19* ............ . 1
denotation between two referential "sets," there is
kamini P:66/ U: I 1. .............. 5
always an overlapping element. Thus, the words of
gehini U:17* ................ 1
category 2, constituting 7% of the total, designate the
gunavatli U:47 ....................... I
vaksT in certain instances and women in general,
catulanayand
including the 'aksT, in others. Both of these referential
candT U :44* ...................... I
sets, i.e., "Y" and "(Y + W)," include "Y." Category 4
U:48*
..
represents words ( 1% of the total) which either denote
tanvi U :22* ...................... 1
women in general, including the yaksT, "(W + Y)," or
dayita
women other than the heroine, "W." Again we may
note the common element "W," women in general. The
jayd
P:(8),9*
P:4*.1.
(eka)patni
P:9*.
....
........
.........
priya P:7*, 23*/U:24*. .......... 1

bala
U:23*.1.
.........
m anini U :38* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
mrgaksT
U:35*.1.
......
yuvati P:36,641 U:22.. ...... . 5
yosit
P:40,42
.........
Meghaduta is without a single instance where the same
word for woman alternatively applies to the vaksT and
women other than the wife of Kubera's banished

guardian.
Of the instances of words which shift from one

object of denotation to another during the course of
vadhii P: 16,19,50 / U:2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
this lyric poem, we may isolate those occurrences
vanita P:(8),35,61/ U: 1,U: 14 ........... . 4
where such a transformation is effected in a relatively
..............
short space, let us say within five verses. Kaliddsa's
simantini U:(40). ............. . 3
poem was intended for an audience far less critical than
sati
U:28*..
stri P:(29),32 U:5,9 ............... 4
today's, at least in respect to the type of analysis to

which I am subjecting this work. No reader, much less
If we group together all those words of category 1
listener, would be expected to remember that a certain
(words which always refer to the vaksT), category 3
word for woman was employed in reference to the
(words which consistently denote women in general,
vaksT in one verse and to women in general twenty
including the _vaksT), and words of category 5 (words
verses later. In this sense, we may dismiss the second
which regularly apply to women other than the beloved
shift of denotation in the word ahgand which occurs
wife), the sum is 23 or 82% of the 28 word total. ln
after sixty-four verses. Similarly, we need not be
other words, more than four-fifths of the words for
disturbed by the change in the denotation of vaniti
woman employed by Kalidasa in his Meghaduita do not
which leaps twenty-seven verses. It must be granted
alter their referential scope.
that the impact of these shifts is imperceptible to even
Of the mere five words remaining, only abald and
jd'd alternatively designate the vaksT, on the one hand,
the most astute audience.

Nevertheless, a change of certain other words' scope
and women including this figure, on the other. A
of reference indeed occurs within a short space. We
parallel situation is represented by anigand, vanita, and
may consider these shifts operative, since they need not
strT, all of which shift their denotation between women
defy the memory of the reader or listener. Such
inclusive of the v'aksi and women distinct from the
instances deserve an explanation, lest we conclude that
central female figure. The aforementioned data may be
these transformations of a word's denotative scope
represented as follows. Let "Y" stand for the vaksT and
within a noticeably short space are deviants within an
"W" for all other women.
otherwise well-structured system of compartmentaliza-
category + referential .... . total % hased % of words
shall see that Kalidasa is not merely permitting himself
tion. In pausing to consider these few instances, we

scope ...... on all words which do not
a margin of arbitrary usage; rather, the skilled poet can
alter denota-
achieve suggestion through the use of a word in one
tion
context shortly after that same word has been em-
ployed in another. The denotative power of the word in

1.
...............
56%
the former instance may be transformed to a connota-
2. Y or (Y + W) . . ....... ..... 07%

3.
(W+
Y)..
....
04%
4. (W + Y) or W .... . 11%
5.W
.....
28%
tive level in the latter, thus enhancing the word's

82%
meaning.
In verse 33 of the uttaramegha, Kaliddsa employs the

word abald in reference to the laks7; she is so weak and
LANGER: Compartmentalization and Clustering of Words for Women 179
distressed from separation that even the cloudmessenger will shed tears in the form of raindrops:
tative scope from women in general (pCirva. 9) to the
mugdhasiddhdtganis of vs. 14 is more easily explained. In the latter compound ahgan& is serving its
sd samnyastdhharanam abala pe~alam dhdrayant
well-known function as a "female-marker." As such
sayyotsafige nihitam asakrd duhkhaduhkhena gatram/
afigand need hardly be considered a proper designation
tvam apy asram navajalamayam mocayisyaty avagyam
for woman.
prayah sarvo bhavati karundvrttir ardrantaratmad/
Thus the connotative power which naturally ac-
cumulates in a word through usage may be operative in

The use of the same word in the generalization of verse
a subsequent use of the same word.4 This process helps
39 (padas c and d) to denote all women of such a weary
explain the repeated use of the same word in reference
emotional state serves to link the vaksT with the larger
to different people. Nevertheless, the majority of words
class of disjointed females. This is especially important,
indeed reflects rigid compartmentalization which, un-
since it is said that the apostrophized cloud is wont to
fortunately, cannot be proven to have been consciously

intended by Kalidasa. We shall witness the same
urge travellers back home, thus indirectly relieving the
suffering of women in general. Verse 39:
tendency of words in the other works to be discussed in
this paper. As I have shown elsewhere,5 every word for

viddhi maim ambuvaham...;
yo vrndani tvarayati pathi Wramyatam prositanam
mandrasnigdhair dhvanibhir abalavenimoksotsukani//
woman indeed falls within a more or less defined scope
in regard to the semantic weight it bears and the

referents it designates. That a skilled poet, aware of
these subtle nuances, should employ certain words for
The association of the iaksT with this class of women,
the beloved wife of the central figure and other desig-
effected by the use of the same word applied to both
nations for the remaining women in the poem (women
referents within a short space, suggests that the poor
usually characterized by different moods and situa-
woman of Alaka deserves the same relief. Kalidasa
tions than the vaksT) seems only natural. For example,
leaves no doubt as to his intention when he again shifts
certain words lend themselves to the designation of
the denotative scope of ahald back to the vaksT- in
women in separation, others to the erotic; certain
epithets are more readily employed in reference to
verse 4 1.
In verse 9 ( parvamegha), the i'aksa, in addressing the
individual women, others to women in general. I
cloud, refers to his wife as bhrdtr/jdyd. This is spoken to
believe that it is relatively unimportant to know exactly
impress upon the cloud its kin relationship to the
the extent to which a poet like Kalidasa arranged the
suffering woman, thus evoking its sympathy. In vs. 8,
words for woman, or any other set of words, with a
the preceding verse, the 'aksa generalizes that no man,
conscious effort to achieve the kind of symmetry that
excepting one in his constrained position, would refuse
we have noted. In a sense, it is only a matter of
to answer the call of the monsoon and return to his
perspective whether we see the locus of this distinction
wife, jrdv. Of course, nobody, man or cloud, could

deny the truth of this statement. Again, the vaksa is
in the words themselves or in the poet's manipulation

of these words. Suffice it to say that the words for
playing on the cloud's sense of compassion toward
woman lend themselves to the type of rompartnientali-
women in general, only to direct this feeling of obliga-
zation we have been discussing; by means of repeated

use within a confined scope of reference (which includes a margin of variation), words for woman accrue
tion to his own wife one verse later.
The remaining words in our poem which alter their

scope of denotation within five verses and which thus
connotative power which enhances them, thereby en-
demand explanation are strT and anigana. The former
riching the poetry itself.
word is applied to all women in a generalization in
Before turning to the Kumdrasambhava, it is worth
pCdrva. 29 and then, three verses later, to a specific
noting that all of the less frequently appearing words
community of ladies to be encountered by the cloud.
for woman which occur in the Meghadata are clustered
Both contexts are erotic, the former describing the
general coquettish gestures of the fairer sex (stri), the

latter portraying the beautiful women along the gipra
river, weary from love-making. It is not unlikely that
Kalidasa purposefully employed the same word in the

latter instance in order to evoke the coquettish connotations of the former verse. Anigand's shift of deno-
4 For another possible explanation motivating the repeated
use of a single word, see Schubring, "Jinasena. Mallindtha.

Kalidasa," ZDLMG 105 (1955).
For a detailed study of Sanskrit words for woman, see
Langer, "Women and Love in Sanskrit Court Poetry: A

Semantic Approach," Diss., Harvard University, 1978.
180 Journal of the American Oriental Societv 101.2 (1981)
between the closing verses of uttaramegha 39-55. The
word
instances
scope
of
denotation
use of such words, especially in the vocative, helps
produce the climactic effect which ends the work. We
abhisarika ......... . VI.43.. . ; 3
shall encounter the same stylistic phenomenon in other
anigana ........... . 1.14, 111.33. 3
poems to be considered.
anindita
..........
1.37*
.1
animittakopana . . . . . . VIII.51 * . . . . . . . . . 1
II. The Kuntrasambhava invites the same type of

analysis. Let us first list all words for woman which
utpaldksi ......... . 1.40*, V.35* 1

kanya ........... . . 1.18, 1.21*, 1.50*, 11.17*,
appear in this work, isolate the individual instances in
111.53*, V.56, VI.31*,
which each word is found, and determine the entire
Vl.63*, (VI.79), (VI.85),
scope of denotation for each word. We shall discover
VII.94*, VIII.73 . . . 1,2,3
that the distinction between ParvatT and all other
kalydnT ........... . VII.87* .1
women is emphasized by compartmentalization of
kdmini
words; furthermore, the dynamic clustering of epithets
kumdri
...........
...........
and of the pronoun sa appears to demarcate distinct
krsodari
stages within the life of the heroine.
candi
Words for woman in the Kumdrasambhava6 are listed
..........
............
IV.20.
VII.74*
3
.1
V.42*
.1
VII1.71*
.1
jaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.37, VII.88* . . . . . 1,3
below. The numbers which follow each word refer to
tanvi
the individual verses in which the given word appears.
dayita
............
...........
VII.13*
.1
IV.28.
Asterisked numbers represent instances where the
dara ............. . (VI. 13), Vl.63 2,3
word in question denotes the heroine, ParvatT. Num-
narn ............ . . 1.37, VII.9, 13,
bers enclosed in parentheses indicate instances of
64,
65.
words which apply to women in general, including the
nitambini . . . . . . . . . . (111.7) . . . . . . . . . . . 2
heroine. Unmarked numbers correspond to instances
pativrata . . . . . . . . . . . VI.86, VII.12 . . . . . . 3
in which words designate women distinctly other than
patni ........... . . 1.19,21*, 111.7, IV.40
Parvati.
(V11.12) .1,2,3
The column of numbers to the far right summarizes

each particular word's entire scope of denotation. To
category 1 are alloted instances which refer to Parvati
parigraha . . . . . . . . . . VI.34 . . . . . . . . . . . 3
pramad
.IV.
alone. The group designated by number 2 is intended
category 1, 2, 3. or a combination thereof. For ex-
87*, 88*, 90* 1,3

bala ............ . . 1.39*, V.55*, 84*,
Occurrences denoting women other than ParvatT are

assigned to category 3. Each word may be qualified by
33.
VIII.13*, 25*, 82*, 84*,
for those instances which use a word for woman in
reference to women in general, including ParvatY.
12,
priya ........... . . 111.36, 38, IV.1,
VII.8*
.1
bharya . . . . . . . . . . . . VII.92 . . . . . . . . . . . 3
bhdvin
.V.37*
.1
ample, ahhisdrikii is a word only applied to women
manasvini .111.32, V.6*, 42* 1,3
distinct from Parvati in the Kurmdrasamhhava. There-
manini .111.53*, VIII.52* . . . 1
fore, "3" appears to the far right of this word on the list
below. Kan vd, on the other hand, alternatively denotes
Parvati, women in general, including the heroine, and
a group of women from which Parvati is excluded.

Consequently, the numbers 1, 2, and 3 all appear to the
mugdh
mrgdks
.V.57*
.1.46*,
.1
V.72*
yuvati . . . . . . . . . . . . . (VIII.17) . . . . . . . . . 2
yosit .11.64, 111.16, VI.39 3

vadho ............ . 1.20, 21, 50*, 11.41,
far right of this word. In the list to follow, I have
111.39, IVi, 46, (V.67),
isolated the more unusual epithets denoting aspects of
VI.82*, 89*, VII.73*,
traditional feminine beauty and have placed these
78*, 82*, 83*, 84*, 90*,
words after the others; such a division will enable the
VIII.8*, (12), 16*, 25 1,2,3
reader to observe quickly the way in which the less
vanita ............ . 1.10, VIII.28* .1..3.. . 1.3

vilasini .VII....... . V11.69, VIII.76* . . . . 1,3
familiar words are clustered in certain passages.
sobhana
6 Kdliddsa, Kumarasambhava, ed. with the commentary of
Mallindtha by M.R. Kale (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1967).
.IV.44*
.1
sati ............ . . 1.21*, IVA, V.1*,

V11.27 ........... 1.3
sahadharmacdrifin .... . VIII.29.. .3
sddhvi ........... . VI. 1 3

stri .............. 11.7, 111.9, (74), IV.5,
(VI.12), 45, VII.6, (22) 2,3
the female protagonist. Another three words designate

PdrvatT, women inclusive of the heroine, and other
women in the course of the poem. Let us assign III to
these words and summarize the aforementioned data
sutanu . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII.52* . . . . . . . . . I
in a table. Let "P" stand for ParvatT and "W" for
sundari ........... . 1.7, 111.5, 26, VII.56 . 3
women other than PdrvatL.
subhru ........... . V.43* . . I

less standard words
I. Total % of words denoting the following referents

(words which do not alter their scope of reference)
avanataigi ........ . V.86* .
avastunirbandhapard . . . V.66* . .1
avikalpasundari ..... . VIII.68* . .1
ayataks! . . . . . . . . . . . 1.46* . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
udaradaran . .V.36* . .. . .1
kutilakegi ........ VIII.45* . .1

candrabimbanihitdksT . VIII.74* . . . . . . . . . 1
cdrumukhl ........ VIII.73* . .1

tapodhand . .V.40* . .. ..1
dlrghanayan .VIII.55* . . . . 1
netrakaumudi . . . . . . . V.71 * . . . . . . . . . . . I
pfvororu .... VIII.36* . .1
83%
II. % of words denoting referents having the common element "W"
(W + P) and W ...........3%
I1l. % of words denoting various referents

P and W ..4
P and (P + W) and W } 14%
pundarikamukhi . . . . . . VIII.58* . . . . . . . . . . 1
mitakatha . . . . . . . . . . VIII.34*. .1
Group III indicates a set of words which, during the
samnatagatr . ... . . V.39* . .1

samnatafig . . . . . . . . . 1.34*. .1
sarasangayast! . . . . . . . V.85* . .1
suke..6* ..1. . ... . .
course of the poem, refer to wholly different referents.
sudati
........
V.53*
sumadhyama . . . . . . . . V.20* . .1
suvibhaktagatri . . . . . . VII. 18* . . . . . . . . ..
sucismita
........
V.20*
We recall that this phenomenon was not encountered
in the same author's Meghadata. The 14% of all words

in this grouping show such radical polarization in their
denotative scope as to merit our attention. They are:
kanyd, jdyd, patnT, priyd, manasvinr, vadhui, vanitd,

vildsin7, and satT. It is indeed noteworthy that this list
contains three words for "wife," a word for "maiden"
excluding Parvatli-add all words followed by the
or "daughter," one word for "proud woman" or

"woman of strong will," and one designation which
translates "good woman." In short, six of the mere nine
words employed by Kalidasa to designate wholly different referents are technical terms denoting a specific
marital status or personality trait. (Vildsin7, a word
arabic numbers 1, 2, or 3-the total is fifty-four words
which fairly consistently denotes coquettish women,
or 83% of the sixty-five word list. That is to say, 83% of

all words for woman employed by Kalidasa in his
Kumdrasambhava do not alter their scope of denota-
might well be included.) It is not surprising that the

more clearly defined words for woman are those which
overstep the boundaries of the type of compartmentalization under discussion. A word's primary function is,
of course, denotative. Words which have the capacity
to denote a specific family relationship such as wife or
stimitayataksT ..... . VII.22* . .
If we add the total number of words which consis-
tently denote the same referent, i.e., either Parvati,

women in general (including the heroine), or women
tion. For the purpose of the following discussion, let us
assign roman numeral I to this set of words.
Another two words, dara and strT (3% of all designations), divide their scope of reference between women
in general, encompassing ParvatT, and women other
daughter, or a defined quality such as obstinacy, will

do so when the context demands this information.
than Parvatt. We may group these words together
Vanitd and vildsin7 are the only two "proper" words for
under the heading II.
woman. In the case of the former designation, the shift
Nine other words, totalling 14%, shift their denota-
from denoting women other than Parvatli to Parvati
tion between distinct objects. Of these, six words
herself occurs after seven cantos, nearly the entire
alternatively apply to Parvati and women other than
poem. The same change of referents occurs from VI I.69
to VIII.76 in the case of vilisini. Again, the space inter-
10. sa/ asyah 18. sa 25. tam
vening between these variant uses of the word is large;
1 1. taya 19. ya/ taya 26. sa (krpavatT)

12. ya/ sa 20. gucismita 27. sa
no reader or listener could be expected to remember the
transformation of denotation. In this sense it is not

operative.
sumadhyama
13. taya 21. tadlyam 28. taya priyam-
I do not want to suggest, however, that it was

Kalidasa's intention to create a system of compartmen-
talization that resisted such referential shifting at all

costs. As was the case with certain words examined in
the Meghaduita, here too the desire to achieve suggestive import could very well have motivated a change of
denotation. It is necessary to cite only one example for
clarification. In VII.94, Kalidasa employs kanyd to
vadam/ tam
Aparna
14. sa 22. tasyah 29. sa
The use of the personal pronoun sa, together with its
oblique, stem, and correlative forms, is outstanding

in this passage which poignantly marks a transition of
Parvati's personal character as well as of the whole
denote Siva's new bride. In fact, this word is so
poem. We should also note the large number of verses
regularly applied to Parvatt that the reader undoubt-
in which there is absolutely no word which designates

this woman being portrayed in her harsh ascetic behav-
edly associates kanyd with the mountain-daughter.

When we encounter this word in VIII.73, its referent is
less specific.
esa carumukhi yogataraya yujyate taralabimbaya gaiT/

sadhvasad upagataprakampaya kanyayeva navadTksya
varah/ /
ior. PdrvatT is never named-I exclude verse 28 where

the heroine's name Aparna is explained etiologicallyand only occasionally alluded to by epithets.
The use of sucismitd and sumadhyama can be
understood for their suggestive value. Consider the
verse in which these two words appear, V. 20:
Siva's comparison of the moon and star to a bride-
iucau caturnam jvalatam havirbhujam iucismita
groom and bride not only brings poetic light to a
madhyagata sumadhyama/
traditionally auspicious lunar conjunction; by employing the word kanya, repeatedly used to denote Parvati,
Kalidasa strengthens the association of the macro-
savitaram aiksata/ /
cosmic phenomenon above with the microcosmic event
of Siva's union with his bride below.

The compartmentalization of words for woman is
not the only factor distinguishing Kalidasa's method of
naming women. A close examination of the long

passage in canto V depicting ParvatT as a forest ascetic
is illustrative of another device, i.e., the replacement of
all words for woman, from the most common designations to the most highly original epithets, in favor of
the personal pronoun sa. In verse 6 of the fifth canto,
the last verse before ParvatT repairs to the woods, this
obstinate woman is called manasvinT. After receiving
parental permission (vs. 7), Parvati, designated Gauri,
leaves her family in order to pursue her ascetic goals.
Beginning with vs. 8 we witness the beautiful mountaindaughter cloaked in a garment of bark practicing
severe austerities. This verse through verse 50 marks
vijitya netrapratighatinTmr prabham ananyadrstih
The alliteration of iucismitd with iucau and sumadhyamd with madhyagatd emphasizes the identity of
Parvati with the summer heat and the fire of asceticism, thus suggesting that this woman is not holding
back in her austere pursuits. At the same time, however, the semantic contrast of a "woman of beautiful
smiles" practicing such severe self-mortification re-
minds the reader of the incongruity of her behavior,

thus dramatizing the portrayal. The alliteration of
k!rpdvatT with cakravakayoh in vs. 26 may be interpreted similarly:

ninaya satyantahimotkiranilah sahasyaratrar udavasatatpara/
parasparakrandini cakravakayoh puro viyukte
mithune krpavati//
one of the most poetic passages of the Kumdrasam-
Here k!-pavatT functions more to describe PdrvatT's
bhava, if not of all Sanskrit poetry. Consider the

designations used to denote the central figure PdrvatT,
behavior than to designate her. Like gucismita and
beginning with verse 8.
8. sa 15. tasyam 23. sa

9. tad- 16. tam 24. tasyah
sumadhyamd, the word k!rpdvatr emphasizes GaurT's

association with her environment. The alliteration of
the "k," "r/r," and "v" sounds, as well as the assonance
of long "a," strengthens the bond between the heroine
"k!rpavatf" and the lonely "cakravdka" birds. The
sound correspondences between these two words sug-
tions uttered by Diva in the passage under considera-
gest an intimate relationship between Parvati and these
tion are generally complimentary, reminding ParvatT
birds, leaving no doubt that the yoginT's pity is sincere.
of her delicate frame. Thus the "brahman" emphasizes
It is not unlikely that the bond between these living
the incongruity of such a person practicing asceticism
beings, strengthened by alliteration, foreshadows fu-
and strengthens his argument against these pursuits.
ture events; Parvati, like the lonely birds, will soon be
The assemblage of epithets in V. 35 ff. serves another
united with her beloved. Thus the occasional use of
purpose; it contrasts the passage in question with the
epithets to denote ParvatT suggests important bonds;
former one. With the intrusion of another person,
these words are not merely referential.
The clear majority of epithets designating the
Diva, the mood changes. Parvatd, who became "name-
less" during her solitary experience in the forest, is
mountain-daughter in the passage from Kum. V. 8-29
renamed and, if you will, reborn. The cluster of
are forms of the personal pronoun sa. This sharply
vocatives beginning with V. 35 reestablishes the hero-
contrasts with the next section which is characterized
ine's identity through designations which were not
by the presence of Siva. The disguised trident-bearing
employed to denote her in the first half of the poem.
god appears in vs. 30. Immediately in vs. 31, when
ParvatT's test of asceticism is over; the arrival of Siva
Parvati goes forward to greet her future husband, the
marks the completion of transformation from woman
former mood is broken and the mountain-daughter is
to goddess. This journey and testing of a hero in the
designated by her proper name, ParvatT. The next
"other world" has parallels in mythology of every land.

It is the rite de passage of the newly born hero. I
verse, 32, refers to the female ascetic as Uma. The

naming of Parvati in these two verses bridges the
suggest that the extreme lack of words for woman
former passage, portraying the yoginT's solitary as-
between verses 8 and 29 reflects stylistically the undoing of the matrix of Parvat-'s personality. Through
severe penance, the mountain-daughter has succeeded
in effecting a temporary loss of character, at least in
regard to traditional feminine roles. Her lack of ego is
well-mirrored by the dominant use of pronominal
forms which, unlike the majority of Sanskrit words for
woman, carry no semantic weight. Parvati has ceased
to be a member of her sex, in so far as tradition's
definition is concerned. It would be incongruous to call
the forest dwelling PdrvatT a nitambinT or abald. She
has, in fact, withdrawn from the stereotyped behavioral patterns associated with these words. Seen from a
different perspective, the use of the pronoun sd may be
considered the ultimate referential; it is she and she
ceticism, with the next, describing the conversation

between Parvati and Siva. In the discussion which ensues, the mountain-daughter is addressed with fourteen
epithets (and twice named). The designations, if not

newly invented, are particularly uncommon words for
woman.
VS.
35. utpalaksi
36. Parvati udaradargana
38. bhavinT
39. samnatagatri
40. tapodhana
42. manasvini, kriodari

43. subhrO
50. Gauri
(break-Parvati's confidante reveals
the motives of the YoginT)

66. avastunirbandhapard
71. netrakaumudi
72. balamrgaksi
(break-Parvati's personal defense
against Siva's accusations)

86. avanatahgi
The piling of epithets is common to Sanskrit court
poetry. There is hardly a poem in which a man, having
discourse with his beloved, does not repeatedly interject more or less original vocative compounds. These
epithets usually flatter, but sometimes condemn, the

woman addressed in an effort to dissuade her from
suffering caused by jealous anger (mdna). The designa-
alone being portrayed (not just any nitambinT or

abald). The heroine has transcended all categories
which would unite her with other women of her
community.
Verses 31 and 32 mark the transition from the
description of Parvati alone in the forest to Parvati

defending her asceticism in the face of Siva. The
heroine is designated by the name ParvatT and Uma. In
addition to stylistically framing the preceding passage

and changing the mood in preparation for the next
scene, the use of these names may reflect the beginning
of Parvati's reincorporation into society. Similarly, the

heroine is addressed by the name Gauri in verse 50,
culminating the first passage in which the tridentbearer is questioning ParvatT's motives for practicing
asceticism. The initial stage of testing is over; the
vocative may thus reflect a second step in the journey
184 Journal of the American Oriental Societv 101.2 (1981)
back to society into the new role of giva's honored
generally designated by the word vadhl. This word
wife. The naming of PdrvatT foreshadows and perhaps
establishes Parvatl's new status as wife. Nevertheless, it
even prepares the mountain-daughter for a married
is not until the honeymoon of this divine couple that
life, rooted in family law and lore; it establishes her
the mountain-daughter's personality is allowed to
in the world of given names, the world of tradition
flourish in her new role. The cluster of epithets which
and continuity. That proper designations are employed
are attached to ParvatT, a confirmed vadha, function in
immediately before PdrvatT's exit from society (when
a manner not unlike the vocatives which followed the
she leaves her parents' house in verse 7) and at the end
portrayal of the ascetic designated by sa. The concen-
of giva's first series of interrogations, helps to frame
tration of ornate epithets is a reflex of a rite of
the important passage of canto five and demarcate
renaming. It also contributes to the climactic tenor of
Parvatd's exit and gradual reentry into the societal
the final canto in much the same way we witnessed in
realm. (Note that the names Parvati and Uma in vss. 31
the Meghadita. Finally, the clustering of these voca-
and 32 fall in the middle of the forest drama, further
tives, together with the many original epithets of canto
accentuating the liminal stages and poetic symmetry.)
I and V, succeeds in nicely framing the Kumdra-
Thus Parvati's changing relationship to society in this
sambhava.
chapter of the Kumarasambhava is mirrored by the
Turning to the first canto, let us examine the words
designations applied to this heroine. The most striking
employed in reference to young Pdrvatt. We may
shift is that from the forms of the personal pronoun sa,
isolate the designations beginning with verse 22, which
denoting the voginT, to the highly ornamental epithets,
describes the birth of the heroine, and ending with
reflecting the phases of reincorporation. The actual
verse 49, where it is said that the beautiful young
transitions of these turning points are, then, marked by
ParvatT is God's most perfect accomplishment, em-
the use of the proper names Parvati, Uma, and Gauri.
bodying all the various excellences of the created
During the marriage of Parvatd to giva, the new

bride is invested with the modest but significant designation vadhii. It is not until the honeymoon, however,
that we encounter the next and last cluster of vocatives
addressed to the goddess. Consider Kum. VIII. 34 ff.

34. mitakathe 58. pundarlikamukhi
36. pivoru 68. avikalpasundari

45. kutilakegi 71. candi
48. valguvadini 73. cdrumukhi

51. animittakopane 74. candrabimbanihitaksi
52. sutanu, manini 76. vilasini

55. dirghanayane
world.
22. sa . . . bhavya 36. tad23. tat- 37. aninditayah
24. taya duhitra 38. tasyah/ tan25. sa 39. sa . . . bala

26. tam "Parvati 40. utpalaksyah
.. "Uma"
27. tasminn apatye 41. tadTyau
28. taya 42. tasyah

29.
sa
43.
Urma
30. tam 44. tasyah

31. sa 45. tasyam
32. tasyah 46. ayataksi/ tayd/

tatah
The majority of these epithets alliterate with words
used by Diva in his vivid portrayal of the beautiful

sunset. Through these word-plays, the identification of
Parvatd and the twilight is suggested. In this way, Diva
33. tat- 47. tasyah
34. sa. . . samna- 48. parvatarajaputryah

tahgi
35. tadiye 49. sa
minimizes the insult as he turns away from his new
bride and devotes himself to his samdhyd rituals. The

alliterative function of words in this passage has been
discussed elsewhere.7
In addition to the alliterative value of many of these
The passage which depicts Pdrvati's birth and growth

to young womanhood, important in underlining her
divine beauty, is dominated by mere pronominal forms

of sa.8 Only on rare occasions is Parvati named or even
words, their clustering may serve to reflect Parvati's
reincorporation into society following the rite of mar-
riage. During the nuptial ceremony, the new bride is

8 1.22: sa bhodharanam adhipena tasyam samadhimatyam
udapadi bhavya/
7 Langer, "Some Suggestive Uses of Alliteration in Sanskrit

Court Poetry," JAOS 98.4 (1978), 442.
samyakprayogad apariksatayam nitavivotsahagunena sampat! /
designated by a substantive.9 With access to more than

two dozen words for woman, it is indeed curious that
Before turning to the Raghuvamsra, it is important to

distinguish between the semantic effect of the repeated
Kalidasa almost entirely resorts to the aforementioned
use of sa and any conscious or semi-conscious intent of
pronominal forms in this central passage. The words
the poet. There is little proof that Kaliddsa attempted
kanyd (vs. 50) and sutd (vs. 52) are introduced only
to enhance the thematics of his poetry through a
after the formal description ends and the narrative
planned use of pronominal clusters.
resumes.
In the sections discussed, the concentration of sd
Regardless of Kalidasa's motivations, the heavy use

of pronominal forms again seems to reflect the liminal
forms is stylistically logical and need not have further
period where personality is not yet defined. The female
implications. Rites of passage of a heroine usually treat

of that woman alone. In the event occurring in Kum. V.
heroine is undergoing a rite of passage, in fact several.
8-29, PdrvatT is the only female, in fact, the only person
She is not yet a nitambinT or pramadd, for example.
under discussion. The use of pronominal forms is
But ParvatT is indeed a kanyd. Both physical and
reasonable since there can be no confusion to whom
mental personality growth are assumed in a kany vi.
such words refer. Nevertheless, this explanation is
Kalidasa's reluctance to use this and other words which
troublesome; although it offers a justification for the
would not have been incongruous may have been
pronominal forms, it does not help us understand why
motivated by a desire to prevent the reader from
a skilled poet does not denote the heroine with more
superimposing the qualities of more ordinary kanyds-
picturesque epithets in the descriptive passage.
characteristics evoked by the very word-onto the
The clusters of feminine pronouns can be explained
extraordinary young ParvatL.'0
as a stylistic method intended to promote the conti-
It should be observed that Kdliddsa refrains from the use of a
technique was not unobserved by the alamkdras'dstra

writers. As an example, we may cite Bhojadeva who, in
nuity between verses in a well-defined passage. Such a

particular word for baby or girl in the verse which proclaims
the mountain-daughter's birth. In this event, of no small
the third chapter of his ?rhgdraprakdKsa enunciates
significance, Pdrvati is denoted by the pronoun sd which
two methods by which the continuity of one or more
appears in the beginning of the first plida and agrees with
bhav'rJ which ends pada b; by standing far apart from
sentences might be preserved: union (or linking)

through case endings (vibhaktivojitam) and union
hhaij l, which ultimately binds pJdas a and b, vs alone is
through pronouns (sarvandmayojitam).1l W. Schrub-
permitted to echo in the reader's ear. Mallindtha glosses

name. In fact, the naming of PdrvatT does not occur until
ring's study of the Meghadita also testifies to the

ability of Sanskrit poets to interlace verses and promote poetic continuity through the repeated use of
verse 26. In verse 29 the mountain-daughter first appears as a
words. 12
hhah'vi with the substantive kal'dnT; this is not vet her proper
playful child. Here, too, Kalidasa employs the designation sa-
Turning from the purely stylistic realm, there are
in the emphatic first position of the verse. Verse 25 portrays
certain reasons which may have influenced Kalidasa to
the splendid growth of this girl by comparison to the newly
shy away from the use of "standard" words for woman
waxing moon. Of course, the use of sain this verse also serves
in a passage such as Kum. V. 8-29. Words like pramadd
to associate Parvat! with cdndrainasf /ekha- grammatically
would have been more or less inappropriate in refer-
feminine.
ence to a yogini of serious intent. The connotations of

nitambinT or bdld, for example, would give a wrong
9 These instances are logically explained. In vs. 37. aninditais employed to distinguish PdrvatT from the other women
(ndr!). BdId of vs. 39 promotes the alliterative effect of pdda b:
"valitrayam caru babhara bala"; Parvati is thus identified with
verse of the section, vs. 24, is the heroine called Umd.
her "vali-bearing" function. The epithets of vss. 40 and 46, the
Similarly, from VIII. 2-15, describing the amorous interplay
name Umd in vs. 43, and the designation ParvatardjaputrT of
between the newlyweds, Pdrvati is predominantly designated
vs. 48 all serve to strengthen the comparisons which are set

forth in these respective verses.
by forms of sj.
'' Additional passages in the Kumdrasambhava which exhibit concentrations of pronominal forms need not be discussed. See VII. 5 ff. which treats the wedding preparations.
Within this passage, covering 23 verses, PdrvatF is referred to
by forms of the feminine pronoun 24 times and once designated by a word for woman, bal/ (vs. 8). Only in the closing
" Bhojadeva, SrnhgraprakaXa, Rev. and ed. by G.R.

Josyer (Mysore, 1955), p. 119 ff. It is noteworthy that Bhoja
cites passages from the Kumn. in order to illustrate his two
categories. I am indebted to my colleague Gary Tubb for

bringing my attention to this reference.
12 Schubring, "Jinasena, Mallinatha, Kdlidasa," ZDMG 105

(1955).
impression, serving to associate our heroine with the
beyond their face value, reflecting and augmenting
class of women in general; thus, the individuality of
various liminal stages in the life of the heroine.'4 That
PdrvatT may have been threatened. Similarly, it is she
this view was shared by later Sanskrit poets is evi-
and she alone being denoted. The use of sd serves as
denced by their very special use of sa in individual
a referential par excellence.
verses extolling women as distant and unreachable
Furthermore, it is clear that the majority of words
beings, God's most perfect creation. We shall look at
for woman had become well associated with the poetic
some of these poems following a discussion of the
passages of epic and lyric style by the time of Kdliddsa.
Raghuvamsra and GItagovinda."5
Words for woman were well standardized and inseparable from the ornamental kdvya style as early as the
beginning of classical poetry. It required a wholly
14 1 do not want to suggest that every liminal period in the
different designative system to mark passages which
life of a heroine or, for that matter, hero, in the works of
deserved special attention, owing to their portrayals of
Kdliddsa or other poets, exhibits a dominance of pronominal
distinct turning points in the psychological or social
forms. In fact, it is not without hesitation that I distinguish
drama. By discarding all standard words for woman
certain stages in the lives of heroines as rites of passage, since
and "reverting" to the well-known sd, Kalidasa (un-
the proper subjects of a karma are, according to alatakdrasds-
knowingly?) uplifted his poetry from the flowery lyric
trakdras like Dandin, practically one rite of passage after
style and mood, endowing it with a quality of poi-
another: birth, marriage, war, victory, etc. Perhaps it is more
gnancy and transcendence. Kalidasa's avoidance of
precise to speak of major and minor rites of passage, at least
words such as pramadd to denote Parvati the ascetic
in regard to our heroine. The transformation of PFrvati in the
helped create a passage which not only marks the
penance-forest surely qualifies as a major turning point in the
turning point of the poem, but which, like Parvati
life of the mountain-daughter as well as in the poem itself. If
herself, transcends all worldly style. Of course
one is to insist that Sanskrit poetry is merely a string of rites
Kumrrasawhhava V. 8ff. is poetry, and poetry at its
of passage, all of equal weight, then it is still valid to remark
best. Nevertheless, by temporarily abandoning a desig-
that the use of pronominal forms may reflect the mood of
native system integral to kdvva, i.e., all of the more
certain of these transitions.
common words for woman, for another designative
15 Anandavardhana was the first to recognize the suggestive
"system," i.e., the pronominal forms of si, Kumdra-
value of individual letters, words, etc., including pronouns.
saublhax'a V. 8ff. acquires a refreshing quality, a
Following kdrika 3.4. he quotes the following verse, intended
distinct tone which may otherwise have been difficult
to exemplify the situation of a word bearing suggestive
to attain.
import: "utkampini bhayapariskhalitdrs~nukanta te locane
One need hardly search beyond the stylistic realm in
pratidi~am vidhure ksipantT krurena ddrunatayd sahasaiva
order to justify the concentration of pronominal forms.
dagdhd dhrmrndhitena dahanena na vTksitdsi Without
But, of course, no literature stops with the conscious or
elaborating, Anandavardhana says that the word we ("those"
even unconscious motivations of its author. Sanskrit
eyes) is clearly suggestive to the sensitive reader. Abhinava-
poetry is no exception. Regardless of the reasons lying
gupta elaborates in the opening of his commnentary on this
behind KUlidasa's decision to designate ParvatT in the
verse: "te locane iti tacchabdas tallocanagatasvasamvedyav-
passages discussed by forms of si, it can hardly be
yapadesyanai-ntagunasmaranak~-iradvotako rasasva asqdhhra-
doubted that the effect of these simple words reaches
nanimittatam prdptah. (The word 'those' in the phrase 'those

eyes' has become a unique cause of poetic sentiment, suggesting a form of remembrance of the indescribable and infinite
13 Is it possible that the passages discussed, treating major

rites of passage, represent the oldest sections of the stories of
[Pdrvati, IndumatT, et. al. They are perhaps the most authori-
qualities of those eves which are known only to the speaker)."

Mammata (KP 7, p. 307 of BORI ed.) was undoubtedly
influenced by these passages. Without speaking of their
tative sections inherited by Kalidasa and therefore resistant to
suggestive value, he admits that the pronoun tot may be
change. This explanation is troublesome, since Sanskrit poets
employed without the correlative Volfi under 3 conditions:
of the early oral tradition, as evidenced by the language of the
I) when the thing referred to has already been mentioned and
epics, were inclined to employ the vast majority of words for
is under discussion (prakranta), 2) when the thing referred to is
woman that are encountered by the reader of kave a. It
well-known (prasidldha), and 3) when the thing referred to is
remains to be shown that the epic poets, too, employed the
remembered (Wnuhhlata). Mahinmabhatta enters into a similar
pronoun sa more frequently in the type of passage we are
discussion in V'i akti'i eka 2, p. 199 (Revaprasad Dvivedi's ed.
discussing.
with Hindi comm.).
LANGER: Compartmentalization and Clustering of Words for Wotnen 187
III. Since the Raghuvapmsa"6 offers not one but several

important female heroines, it is best to limit our
legs, Sunanda suggests that the tree-lined gardens of
this king's estate would make a suitable home for the
discussion to distinct passages which exhibit significant
heroine. Thus, through a deliberate choice of voca-
clusters of words for woman.
tives, the attendant shows great skill of salesmanship.
In VI. 25ff. we witness the first series of epithets
Another word in the list above may be mentioned in its
designating a central woman. The passage describes

the svayamvara of Indumati. Among the words used to
dvartamanoqjiandbhi, is compared to a river which
capacity to enhance a simile. In vs. 52, IndumatT, the
denote the young bride are: rambhorui (vs. 35),
naturally avoids a mountain in its desire to reach the
ivartamanofflandbhi (vs. 52), cakoraksT (vs. 59),
ocean.
ardlakes'T (vs. 81), and karabhopamora (vs. 83). Certain
The tragic incident of Indumati's bizarre death
of these epithets"7 are of particular interest; they do not
occurs in canto VIII. Aja, shocked and at first utterly
simply reincorporate Indumati into her new role in
speechless, falls to the ground where his beloved
society-the svayamvara surely marks the first stage of
IndumatT lies. In referring to this woman, Kalidasa
a rite of passage but rather serve to integrate the
twice employs the nominative sa, once the instrumental
heroine into specific environments should she marry
of the same pronoun, tayd, and, on another occasion,
one or another of her suitors. Sunanda, Indumati's
the word arigand. This last choice was obviously moti-
attendant, is guiding the bride through the row of kings
vated by a desire to create a word-play on ahga,
desiring her hand in marriage. It is Sunandd's job to
the lap of her husband on which she is lain. The
praise each king for his virtues and wealth. In reality,
repeated use of the pronoun sj is a necessary element
the attendant does more. In extolling the beauty of the
in view of the fact that this woman can no longer be
tree-lined gardens of the king of Avanti, for example,
aptly labelled a nitambinT, etc. The employment of the
Sunanda interjects the vocative rambhoru, woman
noncommittal sa may reflect Indumati's liminal state
of (smooth and tapering) legs like the (trunk of) the

plantain tree. In reminding Indumati of her tree-like
as she crosses into the other world, defying all traditional terms of categorization. Beginning with verse 49,
however, we witness a long series of rare and original
vocatives (non-vocatives are noted).
Thus, Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta may be said to

recognize the suggestive value of pronominal forms referring
to something remembered. Neither critic exemplifies the
suggestive use of a pronoun which refers to a thing previously
established (prakranta) or well-known (prasiddha). Although
the use of sd in the muktakds or independent verses, to be
49. gucismitd 63. sugdtri

50. dayitd 64. kinnarakanth1
(non-voc.)
53. karabhorii 67. grhinT

54. priyd (non-voc.)
57. vamori 68. madiraksT
discussed later, belongs to Mammata's third category, i.e., the

use of the pronoun in reference to something remembered, the
As in previous clusters, these colorful epithets bear
pronouns which denote Parvati in the passages of the
suggestive weight. Through alliteration, the vocative
Kumdrasatnhhava analyzed above belong to Mammata's first
sucismite emphasizes the everlasting bond between
grouping. ParvatT is named and the pronomial forms which
Indumati and Aja, who speaks of himself with the
follow refer back to this character about whom a discussion is
words asmi iathah. The epithet karabhora alliterat-
undertaken (prakranta). I see no reason why the discussion of
ing with words which describe the gentle breezes,
Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta cannot extend to in-
suggests that the deceased woman is still a part of the
clude this use of the pronoun, i.e., reference to something
dynamic, living environment.'8 Priye, alliterating with

pratibhodena, implies the ease with which IndumatT
previously established (prakranta). In fact, the long cluster of

pronominal forms allows the effect of the original mention of
is expected to revive herself. The vocative vamoru
Parvati to recede and produces the feeling of continual
reminds Indumati of her delicate body, suggesting the
remembrance. Furthermore, there is no reason why the
inappropriateness of the funeral pyre. It is hardly
pronoun tat in reference to well-known things (prasiddhartha)
necessary to elaborate. The majority of voca-
cannot also bear suggestion.
tives serve to reassociate or reintegrate Indumati into
16 Kalidasa, Raghuvamsa, ed. with the commentary of Mal-
the world where she belongs. These epithets, as a
linatha by Gopal Raghunath Nandargikar (Poona: Arya-
18 Raghu. V111.53: "kusumotkhacitan vallmataR calayan
Bhusana Press, 1897).
17 Raghu. VI. 25ff. also denotes Indumati with words which
do not bear suggestive import, e.g., kanjd and kunn-rT.
bhrhgarucas tavalakan/ karabhoru karoti marutas tvadupdvartana~anki me manahI{"
whole, contrast sharply with the pronominal forms
65. priya 90. Sita
which begin the passage. The sudden shift from mere
66. priya/ tat- 97. priyd
personal pronouns to the colorful words which follow
reinforces the mood of excitement and sudden change.

The piling of epithets is typical in climactic passages of
highly emotional content.
kurpanakha, Ravana's sister, attempts to seduce

both Rama and his brother Laksmana in XII. 32-38.
This otherworldly woman is introduced in verse 32

with the designation Ravanavaraja, Ravana's sister.
Two verses later, the hero calls the raksasT "bdld,"

clearly emphasizing her naivete. Only in verse 38 is the
"monstress" designated by her name, Surpanakha. This
is appropriate since it is then that the seductress,

frustrated in her attempts, assumes her natural form as
surpanakha, woman with nails like a winnowing

basket! In another four of the verses between XII. 32-
38, Ravana's sister is denoted by forms of the pronoun
sa. I call the reader's attention to Siirpanakha's designations since they contrast vividly with those denoting
the heroine STta. Rama's wife is never alluded to by
pronominal forms and thrice called by the name Sita
or the epithet MaithiIt. (In verse 34 Rama informs
Siirpanakha of his marital status with the words

kalatravin aham.) The battle between the Iksvdku
heroes and the raksasas rages from verse 38-52. The
poem again focuses its attention on Slta, beginning
with verse 53, in which the heroine is abducted and
carried away to Ravana's kingdom in Sri Lafika.

Kalidasa continues to denote Sita by her new name,
patronymics, and designations deriving from her
homeland and its capital. Unlike Sirpanakha, Sita is a

highborn, rooted member of society. The designations
which refer to this heroine help establish this fact.
53. SRta 61. Janaki
54. Sita 62. (tasyai/ tad-)
55. Maithili 63. Sita
59. VaidehT 64. VaidehT

60. (tasyah)
It is only after Rama has learned of his beloved's

whereabouts that she is denoted by another word,
priyd. The tone of the canto changes as soon as Rama

gains this information in battle and there is little doubt
that Slta will be restored to her proper place. It is no
longer so important to preserve Sita's identity in the

other world through designations which remind us of
her lineage. Rather, the verses which now speak of Sita
anticipate the reunion of the heroic couple. The mood
is that of loving feeling, reflected in the repeated use of
priya.
74. STta 104. priya

75. (sn)
Kalidasa smooths the transition between canto XII

and XIII with the vocative vaidehi (vs. 2). With this
name and the word jayd (vs. 1), the stage is set for the
journey of the reunited couple back home. During the
period when Rama and Sita cross the vast ocean, the
hero refrains from the use of vocatives. We have
already noted that the use of epithets often emphasizes
the reincorporation of a heroine into society. The
crossing of the ocean is only the first stage of Sitd's
journey home. The couple has not yet reached the
Indian sub-continent and it would be premature to
begin this subtle process of reincorporation. There is
perhaps another reason why Rama withholds vocatives
with which he will soon address Sita. In portraying the
ocean, Rama primarily describes its cosmic (otherworldy!) aspect. For example, the sea is compared to
Visnu in measure and said to be the place where the
mountains took shelter from Indra. It would have been
inappropriate for Rama to have compared Sita to such
a body of water, even through the "suggestive" device
of alliteration. Nevertheless, as soon as the first traces
of land become noticeable, Rama seizes the opportunity to reassociate his beloved with India through the
utterance of well-chosen vocative epithets. In verse 18,
Rama points back to the ocean which recedes into the
distance behind them. PMdas a and b read: "kurusva
tavat karabhoru pascan marge mrgapreksini drstipatam." Thus, Rama addresses Sita as "she whose legs
are (lovely like the smooth and tapering) trunk of an
elephant" as the couple approaches the forest, abode of
elephants. In so doing, the hero leaves little doubt that
his wife has entered her proper homeland. The alliteration of karabhoru and the verb kurusva intensifies the
comparison. The second epithet of this verse,
mrgapreksini, alliterating with mdrge, serves the same
purpose. Verse 20, without the use of a vocative,
portrays the breeze, here cool from contact with the
Ganges. Not only does the word trimargagd alliterate
with mrgapreksini of verse 18, but Kalidasa has

succeeded in having Sita enjoy the benefits of the holy
celestial Ganges and, by implication, the terrestrial

Ganges of northern India. In verse 24 Rama directs
Slta's attention to the vines which silently pointed the
way to Rama through lowered leaves. The vocative

bhTru, interjected by Rama, can easily suggest the same
quiet timidity formerly exhibited by other members of
Sita's society, i.e., the vines and, in the next verse, the
deer which were also instrumental in showing the hero
IV. Let us now examine the Gltagovinda, a work
the path to Lanka. The words banduragdtri and
anavadydtiigi offer striking examples of vocatives
central to Vaisnava theology. Parallels extend beyond

the realm of stylistics; the manipulation of words for
which bind the heroine to the landscape. They have
woman is here, as before, instrumental in isolating and
been discussed elsewhere. Thus the shift from those
extolling the heroine. We may note that the use of
names, patronymics, and epithets such as MaithilT to
words for woman, especially in contrast to sd,
the colorful words which here refer to Sita is logical.
helps to demarcate progressive stages in the lives
Where Sita lay captive in the other world, it was
of earthly and divine females. Only when we perceive
necessary to preserve her identity through the former
these similarities can we fully recognize and appreciate
type of designation. These names, in recalling her
the "religious" flavor of Sanskrit verses which depict
respectable birth and home, evoked our sympathy; the
devotional love within a human context.
majority of epithets in the passage where Rama and
Below is a complete list of words for woman em-
STt5 journey home function to reincorporate the hero-
ployed by Jayadeva.'9 As with the treatment of the
ine back into society in specific and gradual stages. The
texts of Kalidasa, asterisked instances denote the fe-
contrast of these epithets with the designations of the
male heroine, Radha. Instances enclosed in paren-
former passage may demarcate a new stage in the poem
theses refer to women in general, including the female
and life of STta. These words, focusing on the heroine's
protagonist, while unmarked occurrences designate
physical beauty, might even reflect a return to the
women other than Krsna's favored gopT.
traditional woman's role as wife, a return to social and

psychological normalcy.
To the far right of each word is a number or several
numbers summarizing the entire denotative scope of
It is interesting to note that Rama, immediately after
that word. Thus, the numbers 1, 2, and 3 signify the
learning of his subjects' disapproval of STta,
following referential possibilities: Radha, women in
suspected of infidelity during her captivity, refers to his
general (including Radha), and women excluding
beloved as Vaideht. XIV. 33 reads:

kalatranindagurund kilaivam abhyahatam kirtivipar-
Rddha, respectively. For example, abhisdrikd, followed by "2," always denotes women in general,
inclusive of Rddha. On the other hand, kdmin7, marked
yayena/
by "1" and "3," shifts its denotation between Rddha
ayoghanenaya ivabhitaptam vaidehibandhor hrdayam
and women other than the heroine. Words for woman
vidadre, /
in the GTtagovinda are separated into two lists. The first
Janakdtmaj- in verse 43, Vaidehasutd in verse 47,

VaidehT in verse 72, Vaidehasutad in verse 84, and
comprises more or less regular words for woman, the

second, somewhat original epithets. This division enables the reader to note at a glance that the rarer words
are generally clustered in a few distinct passages and
similar epithets running through canto XV. 74, after
that they rather consistently apply to Radha alone.
This is followed by Vaidehasutdm in verse 39,
which follows the realization of Sita's chastity. It may

be argued that these designations also confirm the fact
that Sitd is of good family and background, thus

serving to win the audience's sympathy for the misjudged heroine. We have suggested that this same
regular words
abhisdrika .......... (XI. 12) ....... . 2

abald
(VIII.8).
kanta ......... .... V. 16* ........... I
technique is operative in XII. 53 ff. which treats of Sitd
kaminil ........ .... VII.6, 11, XII.2* ... . 1,3
in captivity. It deserves to be mentioned that Rdma's
tanvT ............. 111.7*, 13*, X.5*, 12*,
wife is fairly consistently denoted by the names STtd,
14*
.............
VaidehT, etc. For this reason, it may be meaningless to

isolate the dramatic passages of Sitd's captivity and the
narf .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 1.37 . . .. . .. .. . . . 3
period when she is accused of infidelity, arguing that
nitambinT ...... 1.... .41, (11.4), V.8* ... . 1,2,3
the reader's sympathy is here demanded. It is indeed
priya ............. I I 1. 1 *, X. 2-9*,
true that Sita is one of the rare heroines of Sanskrit
tarun! ......... .... X.12*, (XI.4) ...... 1,2
XII. 1* ....... .... I
literature who rather successfully evades the traditional
words for woman such as pramadd. Perhaps STtd's

reputation in Sanskrit literature as the ideal or "good"
'9 Jayadeva, Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jav adeva v
woman in general is largely due to (or reflected in) the
GTiagovinda, ed. and trans. by Barbara S. Miller (New York:
fact that she is so often called by name, patronymic, etc.
Columbia University Press, 1977).
mugdhd (-aksi) ...... V.17*, X.12*, XI.2-9*. 1
the GTtagovinda, like Kalidasa, generally denotes his
mrgaksT/ mrgadrg ...... . VI.10*, XI.l*, 33* 1
heroine with a different set of words than he applies to
yuvati ............. (1.27-34), 1.43, (11.5),
all other women.
11.10, IV.9*, VII.13-20,
IX.5
1,2,3
vadhfi ............. (1.38-45), 1.39, 11.18*,
Only one word, tarunT, alternatively designates

Radhd (X.12) and women in general (XI.4). It should
be noted that the instance in canto XI is suffixed by
111.3, (VIII.8) . . 1,2,3
-Jana. Sudrg is the only word which refers to both
strI . ............. (X II. 10) ... ....... 2
women including and women excluding Rddha, of
sudrg ........ ..... VII.28, (XI.II) ..... 2,3
course at different times. Thus 2 of the 40 words used
sundari ............ (1.46), 11.19, 111.1, 9* 1,2,3
by Jayadeva alternate their scope of denotation in such
a way as to always include a common element, i.e.,

ornamental words of less frequent use
Radha or women other than the heroine.
alasap-najaghana . . . . . XI.20* . . . . . . . . . . . I
KdminT is the only word which fluctuates between
karabhor-9 .......... XI.5* . . . . . . . . . . . I
the referents Radha and women excluding the central
kalahantarita ....... . IX. 1* .1......... . I
female figure. NitambinT, vadhi, yuvati and sundarT
kucakalasataralahara . . . XI. 15* .......... . I
form a sub-classification in that these 4 words desig-
kundabhadanti ...... . X. 13* .1......... . I
nate all three referential sets during the course of the
kusumasukumaradeha . . XI. 16* . . . . . . . . . . . I
poem. Thus the total number of words which alternate
kuvalayadrg ........ . (VII.40) ........ .. 2
their scope of denotation between dissimilar objects is
krtatanka ........ . . X. 1o* .......... . I
5 or 12.5%. The only word which vacillates within the
kriatanu .1........ . . IV. 11 * .......... . I
same canto is vadhi7, the common word for wife (1.39).

There is, then, a curious parallel with the Kumdrasarn-
ghanajaghanastana-
bharabhara . . . . . . . XI.3* . . . . . . . . . . . I
bhava where an overt change in the scope of denota-
candT . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI.7* . . . . . . . . . . . I
tion was primarily confined to words for wife and
da~anaruciruciragikhara XI. 19* ........ .. 1
other designations of a specific semantic scope.
pankajanayana ...... . V. 13* ........ .. 1
The majority of standard words for woman, as well
bhavini . . . . . . . . . . . . X11.6* . . . . . . . . . . . I
as the newly invented epithets denoting Radha, are
madanarasasarasabhava XI. 18*. . I
clustered in 5 distinct passages in which either Rddha's
ratirabhasahasitavadana XI. 14* .
friend or Krsna himself is addressing the heroine,
ramaniyavadand . . . . . . VII.22 . . . . . . . . . . . 3
rasavalitalalitag-ta . . . . XI. 17* . . . ..1..... . I
urging her to abandon her jealous love-anger. If we

eliminate these clusters, i.e., 111.7-13, V. 2-19, X. 1-14,
rama. ........... (1.44) ........ .. 2
XI. 1-21, and XII. 2-7, there remain only 8 words
varatanu .......... . IV.19*, VI.ll * .1... . I
denoting Radha in the poem. They are: vadha (II. 18),
vallabha . . . . . . . . . . . VI I. 30 . . . . . . . . . . . 3
yuvati (IV.9), k ratanu (IV.ll), varatanu (IV.19, VI.
WaiimukhT . . . . . . . . . . XII.7* . . . . . . . . . . . I
sudat . . . . . . . . . . . . . X. 3* . . . . . . . . . . . . I
11,) mrgaksT (VI.10), mrgadrK (XI.33), kalahdntaritd

(IX.l), and priyd (XII.l). A wealth of vocabulary
sumukhT .... . . . V. 19*, X. I*, 12* . . I
appears in the passages of appeasement alone, common to Sanskrit poetry.
(Words in XI. 14-21 are bahuvrThi compounds in
That aspect of the GTtagovinda which, more than
grammatical agreement with the vocative of Radha
any other, distinguishes it from "secular" poetic style is
which appears in the refrain to these verses.)
its refrain. And it is precisely in these repeated verses,
The data reveal that 25 of the 40 words and epithets
the strength of which derives from their incantatory
denoting woman in the GTtagovinda apply solely to
nature, that we witness a designative system which is
Radha. Another 5 designations refer merely to women

in general, including the favored cowherdess. Three
most unlike that of the ornamental flourish characteristic of kavya. Here is the list of words which denote
other words always denote women other than Radha.
Radha in refrain passages.20
Thus, the combined number of words which consistently apply to the same referent, i.e., words categorized in group 1, 2, or 3, is 33 or 82.5% of all
designations. It is already apparent that the author of
20 I have omitted forms of the first personal pronoun by

which Rqdhq occasionally refers to herself.
1. 27-34 sakhi
reads: "nijagdda sa yadunandane kridati hrdayanandane." In verse 20, which formally concludes the
111. 3-10 sa
IV. 2-9 sa
narrative of the poem, we are presented with Radha's
IV. 11-18 Rqdhika
final commands to Krsna. Despite her authoritative
V. 2-6 sakhi
imperatives demanding various erotic pleasures, Radha
VI. 2-9 Radhq
is not designated by her name, a word for woman, or a
IX. 2-9 mdnini
pronoun. The verse ends with the impersonal "iti
X. 2-9 priyd
nigaditah pritah pitambaro 'pi tathakarot." Again, we
XI. 2-9 mugdhd

Radhika
may note a skillful poet's juxtaposition of simple and

complex designations. It is, of course, Krsna who
XI. 14-21 Rqdhd
must, in the end, be extolled with a climactic cluster of
XI. 24-31 sa
epithets. Thus we encounter the following words de-
XIII. 2-9 Rqdhikd
noting the dark blue hero: yadunandana (vs. 12), prii'a
(vs. 13), iubhavesa (vs. 14), kamal/nana (vs. 16),
12-19 sa
manada (vs. 17), subh&asaya (vs. 18), pTtambara (vs. 20),

With the exception of the vocatives mdnini, priye, and
and finally Krsna (vs. 21).
mugdhe, all centered in cantos IX-XI, designations
Jayadeva has, then, succeeded in governing the
employed in reference to Radha alternate between the
dynamics of the psychological interplay between the
words sakhT, Radha, Radhika, and sa.
two symbolic characters throughout his poem; he has
In a manner similar to that which we have encoun-
skillfully shifted the emphasis back and forth between
tered in other texts, sd offers a striking contrast
Radha and Krsna. This has been accomplished pri-
to-and even culminates in-a long list of standard
marily by the staging of the scenes as we turn from one
and original words for woman. In XI. 14-20 Radha's
chapter to the next. Nevertheless, stylistic and semantic
friend addresses the hesitant cowherdess with a mass of
techniques also contribute to this end. For it is largely
vocative epithets, all of which stand in apposition to
how the poet refers to Radha and Krsna that both
the name Radha: ratirabhasahasitavadane, kucakala-
polarizes and unifies the two protagonists.
sataralahdre, kusumasukumaradehe, rasavalitalalita-
glte, madanarasasarasabhdve, daianarueirucirasikhare
V. We have seen that long clusters of the feminine
and alasapTnajaghane. In the refrain which follows this
personal pronoun, especially in the poems of Kalidasa,
unusual cluster (vss. 24-31), Radha is denoted by the

simple feminine pronoun:
which they occur. As mentioned, the motivations lying
often mirror the thematic content of the passages in
behind the use of s& clusters may well be stylistic.

harim ekarasam ciram abhilasitavilasam/
sd dadarga guruharsavasamvadavadanam anarganivasam/ /
Nevertheless, tradition itself supports the view that a

concentration of pronominal forms reached into the
semantic arena, affecting the contents as well as the
style (cf. note 15 above). The use of sa in a class of

verses from traditional anthologies leaves little doubt
Jayadeva has employed the entire range of epithets,
including Radha's proper name and the pronoun sain short, his complete designative system for Radha-
within vss. 1-31 of canto XI. This passage marks the

climax, or at least the beginning of the climax, of the
poem. It is in this canto that Radha is at last successfully urged into final confrontation and reconciliation
with Krsna. Here the tension of forces between the
hero and heroine, between God and soul, is, of course,
symbolized by the sexual tension that finds fulfillment
in the twelfth and final canto.
that the feminine pronoun is intended to promote the

image of idealized women. Nor is it unthinkable that
the effect of s&, to be illustrated below, was established
in part through the well-known passages of Kalidasa
which we have discussed.
The following verses exemplify a large number of

poems in which women are virtually worshipped,
sometimes even turned into the objects of meditation
or spoken of as the rewards of long ascetic practice in
former lives. This type of idealization is often reminiscent of many poems of the medieval troubadours and
It is, however, the pronoun sa which, in the end,
Minnesdnger. The manner in which the women are
denotes Radha. The refrain of canto XI1, verses 12-19,
"worshipped" may also recall the devotional acts of
certain Indian bhakti sects.2 Let us first consider
subject, a grammatically acceptable feature which need
Amarugataka 102, where the use of sa functions as a
not bear semantic import, the use of vayam, as well as
22
sort of religious mantra echoing throughout the verse.
apatavo, accentuate the singular beauty of the woman
designated by sa (vayam is perhaps best compared to
prasade sd diii di~i ca sa prsthatah sd purah sd
our editorial "we," which is not without suggestive
paryahke sd pathi pathi ca sa tadviyogdturasya/
coloring).
harmho cetah prakrtir apard ndsti me kdpi sd sd

sa sa sa sa jagati sakale ko 'yam advaitavadah//
To be sure, this pronoun functions as a referential; it is
she and she alone whom the poet is extolling. But

the literary effect of sa transcends this usage. Sa is a
designation which is non-restrictive, neither defining

nor confining its referent. In this poem, as well as in
those to follow, the use of this pronoun conveys the
image of a woman who is so idealized that she defies

description and therefore naming. Words such as
nitambini would not have created this mood. One is
reminded of the old philosophical descriptions of the
Absolute or God in which these ineffable entities were
denoted by mere pronouns such as tat, e.g., Katha
Upanisad 4. 3 ff.
Amaru. 34 offers another example of a verse in
which sa helps create the picture of a woman who is at

the same time both mysterious and distant.
sa bala vayam apragalbhamanasah sa stri vayam

katarah sa pinonnatimat payodharayugam. dhatte
The pronoun sa may serve to exalt a mere feature of
a woman's body. In ?rigdraiataka 15,24 it is the

beloved's romavali, the streak of hair above the navel,
which becomes the excitant of man's desire. The sd,
which grammatically belongs with romavali, is not

only separated from the noun by kena, but closes the
verse and thus echoes in the reader's ear. The fourth

pdda reads: "madhyasthapi karoti tapam adhikam
romavalih kena sa."
The emphatic final position of a verse is occupied by

sa in the 16th and 17th poems of the same anthology.
The women to which these pronouns refer are eulogized in an irrefutable fashion:
mukhena candrakantena mahn-ilaih Riroruhaih/
panibhydmr padmardgdbhydm reje ratnamayliva sd/ '

(SS. 16)
gurund stanabhdrena mukhacandrena bhasvatd/
sanais carabhyam, padabhyam. reje grahamayiva sa, /
(SS. 17)
The portrayal of Malati as an exalted, perfect creation is evident in Subhasitaratnakosa 446.25 The hero-
sakheda vayam/
sakranta jaghanasthalena guruna gantum. na ?aktd
ine is denoted by sa which opens the verse. Note the
vayam dosair anyajandirayair apatavo jatah sma ity
frequent repetition of "a" throughout the verse, espe-
adbhutam/ /
cially in the words va, ending padas a and b, and

vedhah, closing pada d. Here the sound of the refer-
Arjunavarmadeva, in commenting on this verse, explains that the repeated use of sa reflects the woman's
ential sa is as important as its lack of semantic import.
ineffable character (anirvacanTyatd-dyotakah); through

her power of being, the "bad" qualities of woman-
(opening the verse), and vedhah, the creator (closing
Observe the extreme opposition of sa, the created

the verse):
hood23 are incorporated by the enamoured poet.

Although the plural vavam is employed for a singular
sa ramanlyakanidher adhidevita va
saundaryasarasam udayaniketanam vd/
2' For example, of the 9 acts of devotion known to the
tasyah sakhe niyatam indusudhamrna1a-
jyotsnadi karanam abhun madanaR ca vedhah/ /
Vaisnava movement, i.e., arcana, vandana, sravana, sevana,

smarana, kTrtana, gunasravana, itma-nivedana, and ddsva,
The separated and lovesick narrator of SRK. 480
few are unknown to the man of passionate love as portrayed
confides in the reader by sharing his mantra. The
in Sanskrit love poetry. See Bhigavat Purdna 7.5.25, etc.
incantation itself denotes this beloved with sa alone:
Regarding the above list, mantra'apa is a frequent member

and often replaces ?raaana.
22 Amaru, Amaru?atakam, ed. with the commentary of

Arjunavarmadeva by Pt. Durgaprasad and Kasinath Pandurang Parab (Bombay: Nirnayasagara Press, 1922).
23 These qualities are, of course virtues; viparTtalaksand is

operative.
24 Bhartrhari, Subhhsitatrisati, ed. with the commentary of
Rdmacandrabudhendra by Vasudev Laxman Sastri Pansikar

(Bombay: Nirnayasagara Press, 1922).
25 Vidyakara, Subhasitaratnakosa, HOS 42, ed. by D.D.

Kosambi and V.V. Gokhale (Cambridge: Harvard U. Press,
1957). The verse is from MalatTmadhav'a 1.21.
sd sundariti taruniti tanfidariti mugdheti mugdhavadaneti muhurmuhur me/
kUntam ayam virahinTm anurantukamah kamaturo

japati mantram ivantaratm5/
This verse should be compared to SRK. 793 where a

similarly unbashful meditation upon the erotic qualities of a man's beloved contains no word for woman
but merely oblique forms of the personal pronoun and
the compound stem "tat." Only after pronouncing the
chant does the poet employ the word enTdri, fawn-eyed.
te jafighe jaghanam ca tat tad udaram tau ca stanau tat
smitam sfiktih sa ca tad Tksanotpalayugam dhammillabharah sa ca/
15vanyamrtabinduvarsi vadanam tac caivam enidrgas

tasyas tad vayam ekam evam asakrd dhyayanta
evasmahel /
Finally, let us consider Amarusataka 29:

sa patyuh prathame 'paradhasamaye sakhyopadegam
vina no janati savibhramangavalanavakroktisamsuicanam/
svacchair acchakapolamuilagalitaih paryastanetrotpala
bala kevalam eva roditi luthallolodakair agrubhih//
This poem portrays an innocent young woman who is

miserable on account of her husband's first show of
infidelity. The verse is particularly interesting in the
light of Arjunavarmadeva's final observations. Arjunavarmadeva does not actually discuss the suggestive
meaning of sd. Nevertheless, this 13th century commentator states that it would be inappropriate for
anybody but a messenger, impassioned lover, etc., to
use this word. He writes: "seti padam ca dtitdfitaprabhrtikasya rativasanalinigitantahkaranasya va
vaktur yujyate, na tu tatasthasya. tasmft kantasya
prathame 'paradhasamaye iti patho yuktah. athfinurakta eva naktfstu. maivam. patyur ity anupapannatvft." (It is appropriate that the word sa be
used by a speaker who is either a female or male
messenger, etc., or by someone whose heart is embraced by the feeling of love, but [the use of sa is not be
be made] by an indifferent speaker. Therefore, the

reading 'at the time of the beloved's first offense' is
preferable to the present reading which contains the
word sa. CJf the reading "pranesapranayaparadhasamaye" in Vemabhuipala's SrhgdradTpika.] If one
argues: 'Let us assume that the speaker is in fact
impassioned.' To this we say 'no,' since the word
'husband' would then be out of place.)." By the last
sentence, Arjunavarmadeva means to say that we
cannot accept the objector's solution and consider the
speaker emotionally attached to the woman portrayed,

since there is mention of a husband. In other words, it
would be inappropriate for a narrator to directly
express or suggest his love for a woman being portrayed in such a conjugal setting. Thus, in prohibiting
the use of sa here and in all other instances where an
impersonal narrator is speaking, Arjunavarmadeva is

clearly recognizing the full suggestive impact of this
feminine pronoun.
It is unnecessary to continue citing examples of this

sort. As a last remark I would like to suggest that the
use of sa which we have discussed, not to mention the
host of stereotyped words for woman which otherwise
denotes females in Sanskrit poetry, may be understood
in the framework of Sanskrit poetic theory. Some of
the most influential alamkiraiastrakdras proclaimed
that the success of poetry depends upon the transformation of the individual or the particular into the
universal. This concern is evidenced by the terminology. For example Bhatta Ndyaka's second function
of a word is its bhdvakatva, power of generalization,

which reduces the x'ibhdvas and sthdyi-bhjvas to general properties. Accordingly, the vibhdvas that are
specific women become reduced or transformed to
general women (symbolizing nothing less than "womanhood") before they can be instrumental in producing
rasas. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss
each particular theorist's view regarding the precise
locus of transformation from the particular to the
general or how this process actually occurs. Suffice it
to say that the wealth of Sanskrit words for woman
which usually denote general, stereo-typed traditional
feminine qualities or physical features, and particularly
the use of the personal (yet impersonal!) pronoun sd,
facilitates this process of generalization and thus ensures poetic appreciation. For Abhinavagupta and
others, poetry must evoke vdsanas, latent impressions
that linger on from former births; these, when brought
to consciousness, enable identification with poetic and

dramatic characters. This process, when stripped of its
mystical garb, might well be exemplified by a verse in
the Subhisitaratnakosa:
A word of general application
when I hear it,
comes to settle on a special object.

They say "woman,"
and straightaway my mind
runs to that very one whose eyes have charmed me.26
26 Translated by D.H.H. Ingalls, An Anthology of Sanskrit
Court Poetry: Vidhyakara's Subhdsitaratnakosa, HOS 44,

(Cambridge: Harvard U. Press, 1965) p. 191.

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Compartmentalization and Clustering of Words for Woman and the Role of S in the

Portrayal of Women in Sanskrit Court Poetry

COMPARTMENTALIZATION AND CLUSTERING OF WORDS

are: MeghadCita, Kurnirasamnbhava, Taghuvamnsa, GTtagovtnda, and selected poems from

1. DESPITE- THE WEALTH OF SANSKRIT WORDS and epi-

while unmarked numbers indicate instances of words

thets for woman which may be considered synonymous,

which designate women other than the wife of Kubera's

it is possible to show that Sanskrit poets carefully com-

banished servant. The entire referential scope3 of each

partmentalized these words in order to help distinguish

word is summarized in the far right-hand column.

certain words to the central female and others to all

categories: 1) words which denote the yaksi alone (all

women of less significance, classical poets empha-

words followed only by asterisked numbers), 2) words

sized the unique status of their heroines. Such com-

which refer to the 'aksJ in one or more verses and, in

partmentalization assured that the connotations which

accrue to words through their application to one group

indicate women in general, including the vaksT (words

"group," i.e. the heroine(s).

discover how Kaliddsa emphasized the unique and

and, women excluding the yaksT (words followed by

separate status of the wife of the banished ivaksa, it is

numbers in parentheses and unmarked numbers), and

lyric poem.' To the right of each word appear numbers

necessary to examine the referential scope of each

corresponding to the verses in which the particular

used2 ends with verse 66 and then begins again,

ahgana P: (9), 14, 28/ U: (27) ........... 4

belong to the puirvaniegha, those following "U" to the

abala P:2*/U:33*, (39), 41* ........... 2

uttaramegha. Asterisked numbers refer to instances in

avidhava U:39* ...................... 1

which the i'aksT is designated, numbers enclosed in

asitanayana U:52* ...................... 1

parentheses represent instances of words having as

their referent women in general, including the yaksT,

kalatra P:41 ....................... 5

' I have not included hahuv'rThi compounds which are purely

the heroine, women in general (including the heroine), and all

adjectival and possess no referential value.

women other than the heroine. I am not distinguishing

2 Kdliddsa, Meghadlfta, ed. with the commentary of Mal-

women peripheral to the heroine in any way other than in

linatha bv M.R. Kale (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1969).

relation to the heroine.

178 Journal of the American Oriental Society 101.2 (1981)

Although certain designations (5 or 18%') shift their

krnta P:I*/U:15*, 19* ............ . 1

denotation between two referential "sets," there is

kamini P:66/ U: I 1. .............. 5

always an overlapping element. Thus, the words of

gehini U:17* ................ 1

category 2, constituting 7% of the total, designate the

gunavatli U:47 ....................... I

vaksT in certain instances and women in general,

including the 'aksT, in others. Both of these referential

candT U :44* ...................... I

sets, i.e., "Y" and "(Y + W)," include "Y." Category 4

represents words ( 1% of the total) which either denote

abala P:2/U:33, (39), 41* ........... 2

krnta P:I/U:15, 19* ............ . 1

priya P:7, 23/U:24*. .......... 1