ASSIGNMENT

NICMAR/SODE OOFICE
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Course No.
Course Title
Assignment No.
Date of Dispatch
Last Date of Receipt of
Assignment at SODE office

-PGQS 11
-CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
-1
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SOIL STABILIZATION
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The term soil stabilization means the improvement of the stability or bearing power
of the soil by the use of controlled compaction; proportioning and or the addition of suitable
admixture or stabilizers.
SOIL STABILIZATION METHODS
The methods of soil stabilization which are in common use are:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Mechanical Soil Stabilization

Soil-Cement Stabilization
Soil Lime Stabilization
Soil-Bitumen Stabilization

1) Mechanical Soil Stabilization

Principles and Applications
Correctly proportioned materials when adequately compacted to get a mechanically
stable layer, the method is called mechanical stabilization. Thus the two basic principles in
this method of stabilization are:
i)
ii)

Proportioning
Compaction

Properties of Soil Aggregate Mixtures

The desirable properties of soil- aggregate mixture are strength, incompressibility,
less changes in volume and stability with variation in moisture content, good drainage, less
frost susceptibility and ease of compaction. It is generally believed that the stability or a soilaggregate mix could be increased by increasing its dry density. Hence proportioning of the
mixes is done to attain maximum dry density.

Factors Affecting Mechanical Stability

The stability of mechanical stabilized soil mixes depend on the following
factors:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

Mechanical strength of aggregates

Gradation
Properties of soil
Presence of salts, mica etc
Compaction

2) Soil Cement Stabilization

Principles and Applications

Soil cement is an intimate mix of soil, cement and water which is

well compacted to form a strong base course. Cement treated or cement
modified soil refers to the compacted mix when cement is used in small proportions to
impart some strength or to modify the properties of the soil.
In granular soil, the mechanism of stabilization is due to the development of bond
between the hydrated cement and the compacted soil particles at the points of contact. In fine
grained soil, the stabilization is due to reduction in plasticity and formation of matrix
enclosing small clay lumps. Degree of stabilisation depends on nature of soil, proportion of
cement compacting moisture cement added, there is an increase in the strength and durability
of soil-cement and decrease in volume change, moisture movement and plasticity.
Soil-cement can be used as a sub-base or base course of all types of pavements.
However , as the material has poor resistance to abrasion and impact, this cannot be used as a
surface course. A bituminous wearing course is placed over the base course.
Factor Influencing Properties of Soil -Cement
Various factors which influence the properties of cement treated soils are soil, cement,
pulverization and mixing compaction, curing and additives, if any.

Soil
The physical properties of the soil like particle size distribution, clay content,
specific surface, liquid limit and plasticity index affect the properties of soil cement. Also
surface chemical factors, organic matter and sulphate content alter the properties and
durability of soil-cement.
Cement
An increase in cement content generally causes increase in strength and durability.
Both normal and air entraining cement give almost the same results of stabilization.
Pulverisation and mixing
Better the pulverisation and degree of mixing, higher is the strength. Presence of
unpulverised dry lumps of soil reduces strength and durability of soil cement.
Compaction
There is an optimum moisture content corresponding to maximum value of dry
density or strength of a soil-cement mix. There is nothing like water cement ratio in soilcement, as in cement concrete. The moisture that is added for adequate compaction is more
than enough for the purpose of hydration of cement. If the dry density of the mix is increased
by increasing the amount of compaction, the strength and durability of the soil cement also
increase.
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Curing
During curing adequate moisture is to be retained. Higher temperature of curing
accelerates the rate of gain in strength, the strength also increases with age.
Additives
There are various useful activities to soil-cement which improve the properties.
Lime is a useful additive when clayey soil or an organic soil is to be stabilized. Sodium
hydroxide, sodium carbonate and calcium chloride are some of the useful chemical additives
to soil-cement.

3) Soil Lime Stabilization

Principles and Applications
Soil lime has been widely used either as a modifier for clayey soil or as a binder.
In several cases both actions of lime may be observed. When clayey soils with high
plasticity are treated with lime, the plasticity index is decreased and the soil becomes
friable and easy to be pulverized, having less affinity with water. All these
modifications are considered desirable for stabilization work. Lime also imparts some
binding action even in granular soils. In fine grained soils there can also be pozzolanic
action resulting in added strength.
When clay is treated with lime, the various possible reactions are base exchange,
coagulation or flocculation, reduction in thickness of water film around clay particles,
cementing action and carbonation.
The fine clay particles react with lime and get flocculated or aggregated into
larger particle groups which are fairly stable even under subsequent soaking. Plastic
clay soils tend to agglomerate more than silty and sandy soils. Due to this
flocculation; the lime treated clays indicate a different grain size distribution .The
changes in plasticity, characteristics of soil-lime mixture also take place
simultaneously; the total time required for the changes depending, on several factors
including the soil type.
Soil lime is quite suitable as sub-base course for high types of pavements and
base course for pavements with low traffic. As in the case of soil-cement, soil lime
also cannot be used as a surface course even for light traffic in view of its very poor
resistance to abrasion and impact.
Factors Affecting Properties of Soil Lime
The various factors on which the properties of soil-lime depend are soil type,
lime content; compaction, curing and additives; if any.
Soil Type
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Various soil properties affect the base exchange characteristics and pozzolanic
action. The proportion of increase in strength in a soil-lime mix depends on the
pozzolane in the soil.
Lime Content
Generally an increase in lime content causes a slight change in liquid limit and a
considerable increase in plastic limit resulting in reduction in plasticity index. The rate
of increase in plastic limit is first rapid and then the rate decreases beyond a certain
lime content. This point is often termed lime fixation point. This is the approximate
lime content that is considered to be used up for modification of clay. During this
range the increase in stability of the clay lime may not be noteworthy. When the lime
content in the mix is further increased, there is a high rate of increase in stability.
However when the lime content is increased beyond a certain proportion, the stability
values generally start decreasing.
Compaction
The compacted density is important as regards the strength of soil lime is
concerned. Hence compaction is done at OMC and maximum density is aimed at.
Curing
The strength of soil-lime increases with curing period upto several years. The rate
of increase in strength rapid during the initial period of curing, which also depends on
the during temperature. At low temperature the rate of strength gain decreases
considerably, below freezing point practically there is no gain in strength. The
humidity of the surroundings during curing also affects the strength.
Additives
Addition of lime alone with soil often does not increase the strength of the mix as
desired. Hence materials which increase the strength of soil-lime are tired as
additives. Portland cement and pozzolanic materials like fly ash and surkhi are most
promising materials in this respect. Lime-flyash stabilisation is cheap and is a
methods with considerable scope for the construction of low cost roads in warm
regions and where flyash is available as a waste product. Chemical additives like
sodium metasilicate, sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphate are also found to be
useful additives to soil-lime.
4) Soil-Bitumen Stabilization
Principles and Application
The basic principles in bituminous stabilization are water proofing and binding.
By water proofing the inherent strength and other properties of the soil could be
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retained. In case of the cohesionless soils the binding action is also important.
Generally both binding and water proofing actions are provided to soil.
In granular soil the coarser grains may be individually coated and stuck together
by a thin film of bituminous materials. But in fine grained soils bituminous material
plugs up the voids between materials. But in fine grained soils bituminous material
plugs up the voids between small soil clods, thus water proofing the compacted soilbitumen.
Most commonly used materials are cutback and emulsion. As heating of large
quantities of soil and bitumen is not possible, a suitable grade of cutback is chosen
depending upon the climatic conditions and mixing problems. Emulsions also may be
used, especially in places when there is scarcity of water for construction purposes.
After the soil-bitumen (cut back or emulsion) is compacted, the layer is cured during
which the water and violates evaporate and the mix hardens.
Bituminous stabilized layer may be used as a sub-base or base course of ordinary
roads and even as surface course for roads with low traffic in low rain fall regions.
Factors Affecting Properties of Soil-Bitumen
The various factors on which the properties of the stabilized mix depends are soil
type, proportion of bituminous material, mixing, compaction, curing and additives, if
any.
Soil
The particle size, shape and the gradation of the soil influence the properties of the
soil-bitumen mix. A small proportion of fines in the soil is preferred, though high clay
content is not desirable.
Types of Bituminous Material
Cutbacks of different grades give different stability values for a soil. The highest
grade that can be mixed with the soil at the time of construction should be preferred.
The type of cutback is also chosen depending on climatic conditions. Emulsion
generally gives slightly inferior results than cutback.
Amount of Bitumen
Increasing proportion of bitumen causes a decrease in maximum dry density of
soil-bitumen, but the stability increases and after a certain optimum bitumen content,
it rapidly falls. Water absorption decreases with increase in bitumen content though a
slight increase may be noted for very low bitumen content if the specimens are soaked
for long period, such as 28 days. The optimum bitumen content for maximum stability
generally ranges from 4 to 6 percent by weight of dry soil, depending on the soil
properties.
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Mixing
Improved type of mixing with low mixing period may be preferred. In order to
make mixing possible and to disperse bitumen in fine particles, it is necessary to first
mix the soil with water before adding the cutback. Mixing temperatures (which is
generally the atmospheric temperature itself) also affects the properties of the mix,
depending on the type and grade of cutback and the soil type.
Compaction
Better the compaction, higher will be the stability and resistance to absorb
water. The compaction characteristics and the properties of the resulting mix depend
on the compacting moisture content and temperature, aeration of the mix before
compaction and the amount and type of compaction. The optimum moisture content
values corresponding to maximum dry density , maximum soaked stability and
minimum water absorption for a soil bitumen mix may differ slightly depending on
the proportions and properties of mix constituents.
Curing
By curing soil bitumen, the water and the volatiles (of the solvent used in
cutback) are allowed to evaporate thereby allowing the bitumen to be effective to
impart the binding and water proofing actions. The curing period required to achieve
desired stability and loss in weight would depend on curing temperature, relative
humidity and soil type.
Additives
Anti-stripping and reactive chemical additives have been tried to improve the
properties of the mixes with varying degree of success. Portland cement is also some
times used along with soil-bitumen to increase the stability of the mix.
CONCRETE FORMWORK AND CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT CHECKLISTS

FORMWORK CHECKLIST DURING CONCRETING:

1) Before concreting commences ensure proper access for workers involved in

placing, compacting and finishing concrete.
2) Presence of experienced supervisor keeping a continuous watch for any dangerous
situation.
3) Adequate supply of spare props, clamps, bolts, wedges and skilled workers at site.

4) Alignment, camber, level and plumb (verticality) maintained while concreting is in

progress.
5) Effective depth between top and bottom reinforcement not disturbed.
6) Cover of concrete around reinforcement steel maintained as specified.
7) Grout loss due to movement at joints and corrective action taken against it.
8) Loosening of wedges and fixings due to vibrations transmitted to the formwork and
corrective action against it.
9) Spilt concrete and/or grout cleaned immediately.
10) All wooden spreaders, to hold vertical form faces apart, removed after placing concrete.
11) Wooden members for creating pockets eased before concrete sets fully.
12) Concrete pouring sequence as per that shown on formwork drawing (avoid eccentric
loading).
13) Prevention of heaping of concrete and high impact drops from concrete buckets.
14) Rate of concreting within allowable limits as shown on working drawing or as assumed
while designing the formwork against lateral pressures.
15) Proper bond between layers of concrete, in case concrete is placed in layers, by ensuring
that needle vibrator while vibrating the top layer also penetrates the lower layer.
CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT CHECKLIST

1) Check steel are placed as per drawing.

2) Check rebars are straight.
3) Check the dia of rebar.
4) Check spacing of rebar.
5) Check hooks and bends are placed as specified by structural designer.
6) Check the lap length is accurate.
7) Check the clear cover.
8) Check cover blocks are enough.
9) Check the rebars are rust free.
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10) Check the rebars are crack free.

11) Check minimum 1 inch clear distance is maintained between two bars.
12) Check the rods are tied properly with binding wire.

REFERENCE
1) Highway Engineering, S.K. Khanna & C.E.G Justo
2) http://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-formwork-checklist-at-site/9200/
3) http://www.acivilengineer.com/2013/06/rcc-checklist.html