Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur

Name:
Enrollment No.:
Branch: Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Semester: IV
Subject: Linear Integrated Circuits (EC 404)

INDEX
S. No.
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

List of Experiments
Design an amplifier using operational amplifier 741
which generates gain of 5.
To verify the operation of precision rectifier circuit
using operational amplifier.
Design and verify the operation of an integrator circuit
using operational amplifier having input 1 volt sine
wave.
Design and verify the operation of a differentiator
circuit using operational amplifier having input 1 volt
sine wave
Design and verify the operation of Schmitt Trigger
using operational amplifier having input 1 volt peak to
peak sine wave and saturation voltage 14 volts .

6.
7.

8.

9.
10.

Design and verify the operation of Zero Crossing

detector using operational amplifier.
Design and verify the operation of Low Pass 1 st order
Butterworth active filter having high corner frequency
of 159 Hz and an input impedance of 10 kHz using an
operational amplifier of gain 10.
Design and verify the operation of High Pass 1 st order
Butterworth active filter having low corner frequency of
1000 Hz and an input impedance of 10 kHz using an
operational amplifier of gain 2.
Design and verify the operation of Astable Multivibrator
using operational amplifier.
Design and verify the operation of Function Generator
that generates a sine wave, square wave and triangular
wave.

Date

Grade

Sign

Experiment No 1
Aim: Design an amplifier using operational amplifier 741 which generates gain of 5.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Design Parameters:
(a) Setting the input impedance R 1 to be too high will pose problems for the bias current, and it is usually
restricted to 10 k.
(b) The peak output voltage of the operational amplifier is limited by the power supply voltages, and it is
about 2 volts less than supply, beyond which, the operational amplifier enters into saturation.
Theory:
An inverting amplifier is a differential amplifier that amplifies a small difference in voltage between its
input terminals to a large voltage on its output terminal. The output voltage is at 180 o out of phase
compared to the input voltage.
A non-inverting amplifier is an amplifier that produces an output which is in phase with the input.

Inverting Op-amp Amplifier Configuration

Configuration

Non-Inverting

Op-amp

Amplifier

Given: Gain = AV = 5 volts, Input Voltage Vin = 1 Volt RMS at 50 Hz

(i) Since, an inverting amplifier is used the gain obtained will be negative. The closed loop voltage gain of
inverting amplifier using operational amplifier is given as: AV = - (Rf/R1)
(ii) Since, a non- inverting amplifier is used the gain obtained will be positive. The closed loop voltage
gain of non-inverting amplifier using operational amplifier is given as: AV = 1+ (Rf/R1)
S.
No.

Configuration

Input Resistance
(in k)

Feedback
Resistance (in k)

Output Voltage
(in Volts)
5 volts
5 volts
1.
Inverting Op-amp Amplifier
5 volts
5 volts
5 volts
2.
Non- Inverting Op- amp
5 volts
Amplifier
Result: The design and operation of inverting and non inverting amplifier using op-amp 741 has been
performed and verified under experimental error conditions.

Experiment No. 4
Aim: Design and verify the operation of differentiator circuit using operational amplifier having input 1
volt square wave.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Design Parameters:
(a) For good differentiation, the time period T of the input signal is larger than or equal to R FC1, i.e., T>=
RFC1.
(b) Choose fa equal to the highest frequency of the input signal. Assume a practical value of C 1 (< 1uF)
and then calculate RF.
(c) Choose fb= 10 fa (say). Now calculate the values of R1 and CF so that R1C1 = RFCF
Theory:
This operational amplifier circuit performs the mathematical operation of Differentiation that is it
produces a voltage output which is directly proportional to the input voltages rate-of-change with
respect to time. In other words the faster or larger the change to the input voltage signal, the greater the
input current, the greater will be the output voltage change in response, becoming more of a spike in
shape.
The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor. The capacitor blocks any DC content so
there is no current flow to the amplifier summing point, X resulting in zero output voltage. The capacitor
only allows AC type input voltage changes to pass through and whose frequency is dependent on the rate
of change of the input signal.
At low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is High resulting in a low gain ( R/Xc ) and low
output voltage from the op-amp. At higher frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is much lower
resulting in a higher gain and higher output voltage from the differentiator amplifier.
However, at high frequencies an op-amp differentiator circuit becomes unstable and will start to oscillate.
This is due mainly to the first-order effect, which determines the frequency response of the op-amp circuit
causing a second-order response which, at high frequencies gives an output voltage far higher than what
would be expected. To avoid this, high frequency gain of the circuit needs to be reduced by adding an
additional small value capacitor across the feedback resistor R.

The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance x Voltage across the capacitor

The rate of change of this charge is

but dQ/dt is the capacitor current i

from which we have an ideal voltage output for the op-amp differentiator is given as:

Therefore, the output voltage Vout is a constant -R.C times the derivative of the input voltage Vin with
respect to time. The minus sign indicates a 180o phase shift because the input signal is connected to the
inverting input terminal of the operational amplifier.

Calculation:

Result: The design and operation of differentiator circuit using op-amp 741 has been performed and
verified under experimental error conditions.

Experiment No. 3
Aim: Design and verify the operation of an integrator circuit using operational amplifier having input 1
volt sine wave.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Design Parameters:
(a) For good integration, the time period T of the input signal is larger than or equal to R 1CF, i.e., T>=
R1CF.
(b) Calculate fa = (1/2

R C ) and f = (1/2 R C ).
F F
b
1 F

(C) The practical rule of thumb is that if the input frequency is 10 times f a, than 99 % accuracy can result.
(d) Choose Rf= 10 R1 (say). Now calculate the values of R1 and CF so that R1C1 = RFCF
Theory:

The Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the mathematical operation
of Integration that is we can cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the
op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input voltage.
In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is present
at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor as the required
negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.

When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the uncharged
capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit allowing maximum current to flow
via the input resistor, Rin as potential difference exists between the two plates. No current flows into the
amplifiers input and point Xis a virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the impedance of the capacitor at
this point is very low, the gain ratio of Xc/Rin is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less
than one, (voltage follower circuit).
As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the input voltage, its
impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of charge. The capacitor charges up at a rate
determined by the RC time constant, () of the series RC network. Negative feedback forces the op-amp
to produce an output voltage that maintains a virtual earth at the op-amps inverting input.
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amps inverting input (which is at earth potential) and the
op-amps output (which is negative), the potential voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor slowly
increases causing the charging current to decrease as the impedance of the capacitor increases. This
results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing producing a linearly increasing ramp output voltage that
continues to increase until the capacitor is fully charged.
At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of DC current. The ratio of
feedback capacitor to input resistor (Xc/Rin) is now infinite resulting in infinite gain. The result of this

high gain (similar to the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the amplifier goes into saturation
as shown below. (Saturation occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier swings heavily to one
voltage supply rail or the other with little or no control in between).
The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is determined by the value of the
resistor and the capacitor, RC time constant. By changing this RC time constant value, either by
changing the value of the Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the time in which it takes the output voltage to
reach saturation can also be changed for example.

If the capacitor is charging and discharging, the rate of charge of voltage across the capacitor is given as:

But dQ/dt is electric current and since the node voltage of the integrating op-amp at its inverting input
terminal is zero, X = 0, the input current I(in) flowing through the input resistor, Rin is given as:

The current flowing through the feedback capacitor C is given as:

Assuming that the input impedance of the op-amp is infinite (ideal op-amp), no current flows into the opamp terminal. Therefore, the nodal equation at the inverting input terminal is given as:

From which we derive an ideal voltage output for the Op-amp Integrator as:

Circuit Diagram of Practical Integrator and its transfer function

Calculation:

Result: The design and operation of integrator circuit using op-amp 741 has been performed and verified
under experimental error conditions.

Experiment No 5
Aim: Design and verify the operation of Schmitt Trigger using operational amplifier having input 1 volt
peak to peak sine wave and saturation voltage

14 volts .

Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0

Theory:
Op amp Schmitt triggers circuit
A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a regenerative comparator circuit. The circuit is designed with a
positive feedback and hence will have a regenerative action which will make the output switch levels.
A basic comparator can be converted into a Schmitt trigger very easily by adding some positive feedback
to the operational amplifier or comparator circuit. This is provided by the addition of R3 in the circuit
below and the circuit is known as a Schmitt trigger.

Operational amplifier Schmitt trigger circuit diagram

The effect of the new resistor, R3 is to give the circuit different switching thresholds dependent upon the
output state of the comparator or operational amplifier. When the output of the comparator is high, this
voltage is fed back to the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier of comparator. As a result the
switching threshold becomes higher. When the output is switched in the opposite sense, the switching
threshold is lowered. This gives the circuit what is termed hysteresis.
The fact that the positive feedback applied within the circuit ensures that there is effectively a higher gain
and hence the switching is faster. This is particularly useful when the input waveform may be slow.
However a speed up capacitor can be applied within the Schmitt trigger circuit to increase the switching
speed still further. By placing a capacitor across the positive feedback resistor R3, the gain can be
increased during the changeover, making the switching even faster. This capacitor, known as a speed up
capacitor may be anywhere between 10 and 100 pF dependent upon the circuit.
It is quite easy to calculate the resistors needed in the Schmitt trigger circuit. The centre voltage about
which the circuit should switch is determined by the potential divider chain consisting of R1 and R2. This
should be chosen first. Then the feedback resistor R3 can be calculated. This will provide a level of
hysteresis that is equal to the output swing of the circuit reduced by the potential divide formed as a result
of R3 and the parallel combination of R1 and R2.

When Vout = +Vsat, the voltage across Rdiv1 is called Upper Threshold Voltage (Vupt). The input voltage,
Vin must be slightly more positive than Vupt inorder to cause the output Vo to switch from +Vsat to -Vsat.
When the input voltage is less than Vupt, the output voltage Vout is at +Vsat.
Upper Threshold Voltage, Vupt = +Vsat (Rdiv1/ [Rdiv1+Rdiv2])
When Vout = -Vsat, the voltage across Rdiv1 is called Lower Threshold Voltage (Vlpt). The input voltage,
Vin must be slightly more negaitive than Vlpt inorder to cause the output Vo to switch from -Vsat to
+Vsat. When the input voltage is less than Vlpt, the output voltage Vout is at -Vsat.
Lower Threshold Voltage, Vlpt = -Vsat (Rdiv1/ [Rdiv1+Rdiv2])
If the value of Vupt and Vlpt are higher than the input noise voltage, the positive feedback will eliminate the
false output transitions. With the help of positive feedback and its regenerative behaviour, the output
voltage will switch fast between the positive and negative saturation voltages.

Calculation:

Result: The design and operation of Schmitt Trigger Circuit using op-amp 741 has been performed and
verified under experimental error conditions.

Experiment No 9
Aim: Design and verify the operation of Astable Multivibrator using operational amplifier.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Theory:
Astable Multivibrator:
Astable Multivibrator is also called as free running multivibrator or relaxation oscillator with no stable
states. It is a square wave generator and has two unstable states. It oscillates back and forth between these
two states when the circuit is given power supply.
Design equations
The Time period of Square wave
T = 2*R*C*ln ((1+)/ (1-))
Assume R1=R2 then T= R*C*ln (3), and for R1= 1.16 R2, it can be seen that T = 2RC, in which the values
of R and C can have any combination based on availability of capacitor and resistor but should satisfy the
time period equation.
Circuit analysis
The output of opamp is +Vcc if V2 >> V1 and is Vcc if V2<< V1.Assume that the output initially is at
positive saturation value of +Vcc. By voltage divider rule the voltage at non inverting terminal of opamp
is Vcc*R1/ (R2+R1). The capacitor starts charging through R with time constant R*C and the voltage
across capacitor is given by Vc = Vcc*(1-exp (-R*C*t)). When the voltage across the capacitor is just
more than Vcc*R1/ (R2+R1), at that instant the output of opamp changes to Vcc .Now the Vc = -Vcc*R1/
(R2+R1), the capacitor has to discharge through R till it reaches to a value less than -Vcc* R1/ (R2+R1). At
that instant when V1 << -Vcc* R1/(R2+R1), output will be +Vcc.

During the charging and discharging time voltage across the capacitor will be Vc=-Vcc*exp (-R*C*t)).
Hence the voltage across capacitor switches between -Vcc* R1/(R2+R1) and +Vcc* R1/(R2+R1) and output
switches between +Vcc and -Vcc. The voltage across the capacitor during charging time is given by Vc =
Vcc*(1-(1+)exp(-t/(R*C)) where = R1/(R2+R1).

Let us assume that the voltage across capacitor at t= 0s is equal to -Vcc. At t= T/2, output transits fromVcc to +Vcc.
Hence at t=T/2, Vc = *Vcc, substituting in Vc = Vcc*(1-(1+) exp (-t/(R*C)), we get
*Vcc= Vcc*(1-(1+) exp (-T/ (2*R*C)))
T = 2*R*C*ln ((1+)/ (1-))
Hence the frequency of oscillation of square wave is f=1/T.

Calculation:

Result: The design and operation of Astable Multivibrator circuit using op-amp 741 has been performed
and verified under experimental error conditions.

Experiment No 7
Aim: Design and verify the operation of Low Pass 1st order Butterworth active filter having high corner
frequency of 159 Hz and an input impedance of 10 kHz using an operational amplifier of gain 10.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Theory:
Active Filters contain active components such as operational amplifiers, transistors or FETs within their
circuit design. They draw their power from an external power source and use it to boost or amplify the
output signal.
Filter amplification can also be used to either shape or alter the frequency response of the filter circuit by
producing a more selective output response, making the output bandwidth of the filter narrower or even
wider. Then the main difference between a passive filter and an active filter is amplification. The
most common and easily understood active filter is the Active Low Pass Filter.

The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that for the passive RC filter, except that the
amplitude of the output is increased by the pass band gain, AF of the amplifier. For a non-inverting
amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter is given as a function of the feedback
resistor (R2) divided by its corresponding input resistor (R1) value and is given as:

Therefore, the gain of an active low pass filter as a function of frequency will be:
Gain of a first-order low pass filter

Where:
AF = the pass band gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
= the frequency of the input signal in Hertz, (Hz)
c = the cut-off frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

Thus, the Active Low Pass Filter has a constant gain AF from 0Hz to the high frequency cut-off point, C.
At C the gain is 0.707AF, and after C it decreases at a constant rate as the frequency increases. That is,
when the frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain is divided by 10.
Calculation:

Result: The design and operation of 1 st order Butterworth Low Pass Filter using op-amp 741 has been
performed and verified under experimental error conditions.

Experiment No 8
Aim: Design and verify the operation of High Pass 1st order Butterworth active filter having low corner
frequency of 1000 Hz and an input impedance of 10 kHz using an operational amplifier of gain 2.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Theory:
A first-order (single-pole) Active High Pass Filter as its name implies, attenuates low frequencies and
passes high frequency signals. It consists simply of a passive filter section followed by a non-inverting
operational amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the passive filter, except
that the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the amplifier and for a non-inverting amplifier
the value of the pass band voltage gain is given as 1 + R2/R1, the same as for the low pass filter circuit.
Active High Pass Filter with Amplification

This first-order high pass filter consists simply of a passive filter followed by a non-inverting amplifier.
The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the passive filter, except that the amplitude of
the signal is increased by the gain of the amplifier.
For a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter is given as a function
of the feedback resistor (R2) divided by its corresponding input resistor (R1) value and is given as:
Gain for an Active High Pass Filter

Where:
AF = the Pass band Gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1 )
= the Frequency of the Input Signal in Hertz, (Hz)

c = the Cut-off Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

Then, the Active High Pass Filter has a gain AF that increases from 0Hz to the low frequency cut-off
point, C at 20dB/decade as the frequency increases. At C the gain is 0.707AF, and after C all frequencies
are pass band frequencies so the filter has a constant gain AF with the highest frequency being determined
by the closed loop bandwidth of the op-amp.
When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass band gain of the circuit is generally expressed
in decibels or dB as a function of the voltage gain and this is defined as:
Magnitude of Voltage Gain in (dB)

The lower cut-off or corner frequency (c) can be found by using the same formula:

The corresponding phase angle or phase shift of the output signal is the same as that given for the passive
RC filter and leads that of the input signal. It is equal to +45o at the cut-off frequency c value and is
given as:

Calculation:

Result: The design and operation of 1st order Butterworth High Pass Filter using op-amp 741 has been
performed and verified under experimental error conditions.
Experiment No 6

Aim: Design and verify the operation of Zero Crossing detector using operational amplifier.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Theory:
Zero crossing detector (ZCD) is a voltage comparator that switches the output between +Vsat and Vsat
(Vsat: Saturation voltage almost equal to 14V) when the input crosses zero reference voltage. Then what
is a comparator? In simple words comparators are basic operational amplifier circuits that compare two
voltages simultaneously and switches the output according to the comparison. We can say zero crossing
detection circuit is a comparator example.
Inverting zero cross detector circuit schematic using op amp 741 IC is shown below along with working,
input output wave forms.

As shown in the waveform, for a reference voltage 0V, when the input sine wave passes through zero and
goes in positive direction, the output voltage Vout is driven into negative saturation. Similarly, when the
input voltage passes through zero and goes in the negative direction, the output voltage is driven to
positive saturation. The diodes D1 and D2 are also called clamp diodes. They are used to protect the opamp from damage due to increase in input voltage. They clamp the differential input voltages to either
+0.7V or -0.7V.

Result: The operation of Zero Crossing Detector using op-amp 741 has been performed and verified
under experimental error conditions.

Experiment No. 2

Aim: To verify the operation of precision rectifier circuit using operational amplifier.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Theory:
The precision rectifier, also known as a super diode, is a configuration obtained with an operational
amplifier in order to have a circuit behave like an ideal diode and rectifier.[1] It is useful for high-precision
signal processing.
The circuit below accepts an incoming waveform and as usual with op amps, inverts it. However, only the
positive-going portions of the output waveform, which correspond to the negative-going portions of the
input signal, actually reach the output. The direct feedback diode shunts any negative-going output back
to the "-" input directly, preventing it from being reproduced. The slight voltage drop across the diode
itself is blocked from the output by the second diode. D1 allows positive-going output voltage to reach
the output.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

This circuit has the benefit that the op-amp never goes into saturation, but its output must change by two
diode voltage drops (about 1.2 V) each time the input signal crosses zero. Hence, the slew rate of the
operational amplifier, and its frequency response (gain-bandwidth product) will limit high frequency
performance - especially for low signal levels - although an error of less than 1% at 100 kHz is possible.
Similar circuitry can be used to create a precision full-wave rectifier circuit.
When Vin is positive Vo becomes negative and diode D1 gets Forward biased at the same moment diode
D2 is reverse biased. When Vin becomes negative, Vo becomes positive and diode D2 gets forward biased
corresponding to the applied sine wave Vin. Positive going ripples appear at output V2 and negative going
ripples appear at output point V1. The First Operational amplifier (OP AMP) (shown in circuit) act as
inverting amplifier while the second op amp act as Non Inverting amplifier. The circuit mainly works in
two modes, depending upon the polarity of input voltage. One is inverting and the other is in non
inverting mode. When Vin is Positive diode D1 conducts at that time diode D2 doesn't conduct. The
limitation of this circuit is that it doesn't have high input Impedance.

Result: The operation of precision diode circuit as half wave and full wave rectifier circuits using op-amp
741 has been performed and verified under experimental error conditions.

Experiment No. 10

Aim: To verify the operation of Function Generator that generates a sine wave, square wave and
triangular wave.
Simulation Tool: Multisim 13.0
Theory:
A phase-shift oscillator is a linear electronic oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave output. It consists
of an inverting amplifier element such as a transistor or op amp with its output fed back to its input
through a phase-shift network consisting of resistors and capacitors in a ladder network. The feedback
network 'shifts' the phase of the amplifier output by 180 degrees at the oscillation frequency to
give positive feedback.
One of the simplest implementations for this type of oscillator uses an operational amplifier (op-amp),
three capacitors and four resistors, as shown in the diagram.

(a) RC Phase Shift Oscillator

The mathematics for calculating oscillation frequency and oscillation criterion for this circuit are
surprisingly complex, due to each RC stage loading the previous ones. The calculations are greatly
simplified by setting all the resistors (except the negative feedback resistor) and all the capacitors to the
same values. In the diagram, if R1=R2=R3=R, and C1=C2=C3=C, then:

The Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the mathematical operation
of Integration that is we can cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the
op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input voltage.

In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is present
at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor as the required
negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.
The input current is offset by a negative feedback current flowing in the capacitor, which is generated by
an increase in output voltage of the amplifier. The output voltage is therefore dependent on the value of
input current it has to offset and the inverse of the value of the feedback capacitor. The greater the
capacitor value, the less output voltage has to be generated to produce a particular feedback current flow.
The input impedance of the circuit is almost zero because of the Miller effect. Hence all the stray
capacitances (the cable capacitance, the amplifier input capacitance, etc.) are virtually grounded and they
have no influence on the output signal.

(b) Practical Integrator Circuit

Op amp Schmitt triggers circuit
A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a regenerative comparator circuit. The circuit is designed with a
positive feedback and hence will have a regenerative action which will make the output switch levels.
A basic comparator can be converted into a Schmitt trigger very easily by adding some positive feedback
to the operational amplifier or comparator circuit. This is provided by the addition of R3 in the circuit
below and the circuit is known as a Schmitt trigger.

Operational amplifier Schmitt trigger circuit diagram

The effect of the new resistor, R3 is to give the circuit different switching thresholds dependent upon the
output state of the comparator or operational amplifier. When the output of the comparator is high, this
voltage is fed back to the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier of comparator. As a result the
switching threshold becomes higher. When the output is switched in the opposite sense, the switching
threshold is lowered. This gives the circuit what is termed hysteresis.

Result: The operation of function generator using op-amp 741 has been performed and verified under
experimental error conditions.