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Content

Guidance

Reasoning
Aircraft weight, and its accurate prediction, is critical as
it affects all aspects of performance, manufacturing
costs, selling price and all other items.
Designer must keep weight to a minimum as far as
practically possible.
Preliminary estimates possible for take-off weight,
empty weight and fuel weight using basic requirement,
specification (assumed mission profile) and initial
configuration selection.

Glossary
AFM: Aircraft flight manual
MTOW: Maximum takeoff weight
MEW: Manufacturers empty weight
MZFW: Maximum zero-fuel weight
MLW: Maximum landing weight
BOW: Basic operating weight
FAR: Federal Aviation Regulation
L/D: Lift-to-drag ratio
WTO: Weight at takeoff
WPL: Payload weight

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Some Tasks in the Conceptual Design


Sensitivity study (Wto to Wpl,
We, R, S.F.C(Cj), and L/D)

Preliminary drag and


weight estimation (CD0,
We,Wto,Wf)

Estimating
T/W, W/S

Cost prediction

Configuration
selection

Structural layout

Landing gear design

Design of stabilizers
and control
surfaces
Design of cockpit and
the fuselage

Estimation of cg
variation and
airplane inertias
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Design of the
wing

Selection Integration
of the Propulsion
system
6

This course material is concerned with


Preliminary drag and
weight estimation (CD0,
We,Wto,Wf)

Sensitivity study (Wto to Wpl,


We, R, S.F.C(Cj), and L/D)

Estimating
T/W, W/S
Cost prediction

Configuration
selection

Structural layout

Landing gear design

Design of stabilizers
and control
surfaces
Design of cockpit and
the fuselage

Estimation of cg
variation and
airplane inertias
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Design of the
wing

Selection Integration
of the Propulsion
system
7

Manufacturers Empty Weight:


Weight of the structure, powerplant, furnishings, systems and other items of
equipment that are an integral part of a particular aircraft configuration. It is
essentially a dry weight, including only those fluids contained in closed
systems.
Includes:
- airframe, systems
- closed system fluids
- seats, seat belts
- seller-furnished emergency equipment
- fire extinguishers
Does not include:
- galley structure, ovens, inserts, etc.
- escape slides
- life rafts, life vests
- portable oxygen bottles
- fluids like engine oil, trapped fuel, potable water

Standard Items:
Equipment and system fluids which are not considered an integral
part of a particular aircraft configuration, are not included in the
MEW, but which do not normally vary for aircraft of the same type.
Standard items may include, but are not limited to:
- unusable fuel, oil, and engine injection fluids
- unusable drinking and washing water
- first aid kits, flashlights, megaphone, etc
- emergency oxygen equipment
- galley/bar structure, inserts, ovens, etc.
- electronic equipment required by the operator

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Operational Items:
Personnel, equipment and supplies necessary for a particular
operation but not included in the Basic Empty Weight. These items
may vary for a particular aircraft and may include, but are not
limited to:
- flight and cabin crew plus their baggage
- manuals and navigation equipment
- removable service equipment:
cabin (blankets, pillows, literature, etc.)
galley (food, beverages, etc.)
- usable drinking and washing water
- toilet fluid and chemical
- life rafts, life vests, emergency transmitters
- cargo containers, pallets, and/or cargo tiedown equipment if used.

Weight Definitions
disposable load = payload + useable fuel (+any necessary ballast)
Where
Payload = the revenue earning load

Maximum ramp weight: MTOW + start, taxi, and run-up fuel


Maximum ramp weight is that approved for ground maneuver
Maximum landing weight: maximum weight approved for touchdown

Maximum zero fuel weight: Maximum weight allowed before usable fuel must
be loaded in defined sections of the aircraft. Any weight added above the MZFW
must be only due to fuel.
11

APS weight (aircraft prepared for service), which is the same as the basic empty
weight, i.e. fully equipped operational, without crew, usable fuel or payload (the
load that generates revenue, income).
AUW, Wo The all-up (gross) weight is the maximum weight at which flight
requirements must be met.
Maximum to take-off weight

= gross (all-up) weight = MTOW


= operating empty weight + disposable load

in which operating empty weight and disposable load are built up as follow
Basic empty weight = Manufactures weight + standard items
(From an equipment standpoint, the airplane is ready for operation.)

Operating empty weight = basic empty weight + operational items

The maximum allowable weights that can legally be used by a


given airline are listed in the AFM, and Weight and Balance
Manual; these are called the airplanes Certified Weight Limits:
Maximum weights chosen by the airline
Some airlines refer to these as the purchased weights
Certified weight limits are often below the structural limits
Airlines may buy a certified weight below structural capability
because many of the airport operating fees are based on the airplane's
AFM maximum allowable weight value. Typically the purchase price
is a function of the certified weight bought

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

The maximum allowable Operational Takeoff Weight may be


limited to a weight which is lower than the Certified Maximum
Weight by the most restrictive of the following requirements:
Airplane performance requirements for a given altitude and
temperature:
- Takeoff field length available
- Tire speed and brake energy limits
- Minimum climb requirements
- Obstacle clearance requirements
Noise requirements
Tire pressure limits
Runway loading requirements
Center of gravity limitations
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Weight Definitions
Take-off weight (WTO) (Roskam method)
WTO = WOE + WF + WPL

(1)

where:
WOE (or WOWE ) = operating weight empty
WF = fuel weight
WPL = payload weight
Note that other methods (e.g. Raymer) use slightly different
terminology but same principles.

15

Weight Definitions
Operating weight empty may be further broken down
into:
WOE = WE + Wtfo + Wcrew

(2)

where:
WE

= empty weight

Wtfo = trapped (unusable) fuel weight


Wcrew = crew weight
16
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Weight Definitions
Empty weight sometimes further broken down
into:
WE = WME + WFEQ

(3)

where:

WME = manufacturers empty weight


WFEQ = fixed equipment weight
(includes avionics, radar, airconditioning, APU, etc.)

17
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Weight Figures for Transport Aircraft


Aircraft

MTOW (tones)

MLW(tones)

Basic Operating
Weight (tones)

BOW/MTOW

Jet Airliners/Transports
Airbus A319

75.5

62.5

40.6

0.537

Airbus A380

560

386

276.8

0.494

ERJ-145LR

22

19.3

12.114

0.550

Embraer 170ER

37.2

32.8

20.94

0.563

Embraer 190LR

50.3

43

27.72

0.551

Boeing 747-400ER

412.769

295.742

180.985

0.438

Boeing 767-400ER

204.117

158.758

103.1

0.505

Boeing 777-200 (HGW, GE


Engines)

286.9

206.35

137.05

0.478

Boeing 777-200LR

347.452

223.168

145.15

0.418

Boeing 777-300ER

351.534

251.3

167.83

0.477

Boeing 727-200ADV

95.1

73.1

45.72

0.480

Boeing 757-200

115.65

95.25

62.10

0.537

Boeing 737-900

79.15

66.36

42.56

0.536

Boeing 787-8

219.539

167.829

114.532

0.522

Business Jets
Cessna Citation X

16.14

14.425

9.73

0.603

Dassault Falcon 50 EX

18.498

16.2

9.888

0.535

Embraer Legacy 600

22.50

18.5

13.675

0.600

Cessna Encore

7.634

6.895

4.763

0.624

Gulfstream G350

32.160

29.937

19.368

0.602

18

Weight Figures for Transport Aircraft (cont.)

19

Weight Figures for Fighter Aircraft

20

Overview
All textbooks use similar methods whereby
comparisons made with existing aircraft.
In Roskam (Vol.1, p.19-30), aircraft classified into one
of 12 types and empirical relationship found for log
WE against log WTO.
Categories are:
(1) homebuilt props, (2) single-engine props, (3) twinengine props, (4) agricultural, (5) business jets, (6) regional
turboprops, (7) transport jets, (8) military trainers, (9)
fighters, (10) military patrol, bombers & transports, (11)
flying boats, (12) supersonic cruise.
21

Overview (Cont.)

Most aircraft of reasonably conventional design


can be assumed to fit into one of the 12
categories.
New correlations may be made for new
categories (e.g. UAVs).
Account may also be made for effects of modern
technology (e.g. new materials) method
presented in Roskam Vol.1, p.18.
Raymer method uses Table 3.1 & Fig 3.1 (p.13).
22
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Roskams Empty Weight Estimation Method

Category 7

Category 8

23

Raymers Empty Weight Fraction Estimation Equation

24
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

This workflow addresses a higher fidelity approach for weight estimation!

Process begins with guess of take-off weight.


Payload weight determined from specification.
Fuel required to complete specified mission then
calculated as fraction of guessed take-off weight.
Tentative value of empty weight then found
using:
WE(tent) = WTO(guess) WPL - Wcrew - WF - Wtfo (4)

26
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Values of WTO and WE compared with appropriate


correlation graph.
Improved guesses then made and process iterated
until convergence.
Note that convergence will not occur if specification is
too demanding.

27
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Initial Guess of Take-off Weight

Good starting point is to use existing aircraft with similar


role and payload-range capability.
An accurate initial guess will accelerate the iteration
process.
28

Payload Weight & Crew


WPL is generally given in the specification and
will be made up of:
passengers & baggage; cargo; military loads (e.g.
ammunition, bombs, missiles, external stores, etc.).

Typical values given in Roskam Vol.1 p8.


Specific values for some items (e.g. weapons)
may be found elsewhere.

29
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Mission Fuel Weight


This is the sum of the fuel used and the reserve
fuel.
WF = WF(used) + WF(res) (5)
Calculated by fuel fraction method.
compares aircraft weights at start and end of
particular mission phases.
difference is fuel used during that phase (assuming no
payload drop).
overall fraction is product of individual phase
fractions.
30
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

civil jet
transport

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Start & warm-up


Taxi
Take off
Climb
Cruise
Loiter
Descend
Taxi

Fuel fractions for fuel-intensive phases (e.g. 4, 5 & 6 above)


calculated analytically.
Non fuel-intensive fuel fractions based on experience and
obtained from Roskam (Vol I, p12), Raymer, etc.
31

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Reference: Roskam Vol. I - Table 2.1


Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Using Roskams method/data for a transport jet


(Vol.I, Table 2.1):
W1/WTO = 0.99
W2/W1 = 0.99
W3/W2 = 0.995

For piston-prop a/c:


For jet a/c:
where:

1
Ecl 375
Vcl

1
Ecl
c
j

p

cp

L
W3
ln
cl D cl W4

L
W3
ln
cl D cl W4

(6a)

(6b)

Ecl = climb time (hrs), L/D = lift/drag ratio, cj is sfc for jet a/c
(lb/hr/lb), cp is sfc for prop a/c (lb/hr/hp), Vcl = climb speed
(mph), p = prop efficiency, W3 & W4 = a/c weight at start and
end of climb phase.
34
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Initial estimates of L/D, cj or cp, p and Vcl


made from Roskam or Raymer databases for
appropriate a/c category.

Alternatively, use
approximations, e.g. from
Roskam Vol.1, Table 2.1
(W4/W3=0.98 for jet
transport, 0.96 to 0.9 for
fighters).
35

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Phase 5 (cruise)
Weight fraction calculated using Breguet range
equations.
1 p L
W4
For prop a/c: Rcr 375 V c D ln W (7a)

V
Rcr
c
j

cl

cr

L
W4
ln


D

cl
W5
cr

For jet a/c:

These give the range in miles.

cl

(7b)

36
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

For jet a/c, range maximised by flying at 1.32 x


minimum drag speed and minimising sfc.

Wing operates at about 86.7% of maximum L/D value.


Cruise-climbing can also extend range.

For prop a/c, range maximised by flying at minimum


drag speed and sfc.

Wing operates at maximum L/D value.

37
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Initial Estimates of Lift/Drag Ratio (L/D)

Using Roskam (Table 2.2 selected values):


cruise

loiter

8 - 10

10 - 12

Business jets

10 12

12 - 14

Regional turboprops

11 13

14 16

Transport jets

13 15

14 - 18

Military trainers

8 10

10 - 14

Fighters

47

69

13 15

14 18

4-6

79

Homebuilt & single-engine

Military patrol, bombers & transports


Supersonic cruise

38
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

In order to obtain a better estimation for the L/D ratio we shall


consider the Breguet equations for range (R) and endurance (E):
Jet Airplane
V
R
c
j

L W

i
ln
W
f
D

Airplane fitted with propeller


1
R
c
j

(7a)

(7b)
1
E
c
j

L W

ln i W
f
D

(6b)

L W

ln i W
f
D

V
E
c
j

L W

ln i W
f
D

(6a)

39

Considering that he TSFC does not vary with speed and that the
drag polar can be written as

CD CD 0 kC

2
L

(8a)with

1
k
Ae

(8b)

After inserting into the preceding Breguet equations the above


drag polar, we obtain the L/D ratio for maximum range and
maximum endurance for a jet airplane deriving the resulting
equations and equaling them to zero:
1 3 A e
L


CD 0
D max range 4

(9a)

1 Ae
L


CD 0
D max endurance 2

(9b)

40

Using

CL2
L CL
CD CD 0

Ae
D CD

CL
CL2
CD 0
Ae

with
Differentiating with respect to CL and setting to zero
Diff
CL

CD
dCL

CL2
C
CD 0
CL 2 L
Ae
Ae

CL2
CD 0
Ae

0 CL2 CD 0 Ae

Therefore, the CD for this condition is


CD CD 0

1
CD 0 Ae 2CD 0
Ae
41

Specific Fuel Consumption


Jet aircraft - Initial estimates of cj (lb/hr/lb)
Using Raymer (Table 3.3):

cruise

loiter

Turbojet

0.9

0.8

Low-bypass turbofan

0.8

0.7

High-bypass turbofan

0.5

0.4

Roskam Vol.1 Table 2.2 (p.14) gives a/c


category-specific values (see next slide).
42

Specific Fuel Consumption


Jet aircraft - Initial estimates of cj (lb/hr/lb)
Using Roskam (Table 2.2):
cruise

Loiter

Business & transport jets

0.5 - 0.9

0.4 - 0.6

Military trainers

0.5 - 1.0

0.4 - 0.6

Fighters

0.6 - 1.4

0.6 - 0.8

Military patrol, bombers,


transports, flying boats

0.5 0.9

0.4 - 0.6

Supersonic cruise

0.7 1.5

0.6 - 0.8
43

Specific Fuel Consumption

Using Raymer (Table 3.4):


cruise

loiter

Piston-prop (fixed pitch)

0.4

0.5

Piston-prop (variable
pitch)

0.4

0.5

turboprop

0.5

0.6

Take propeller efficiency (p) as 0.8 or 0.7 for


fixed-pitch piston-prop in loiter.

44

Specific Fuel Consumption

Using Roskam (Table 2.2):


Cruise

loiter

Single engine

0.5 0.7, 0.8

0.5 0.7, 0.7

Twin engine

0.5 0.7, 0.82

0.5 0.7, 0.72

Regional turboprops

0.4 0.6, 0.85

0.5 0.7, 0.77

Military trainers

0.4 0.6, 0.82

0.4 0.6, 0.77

Fighters

0.5 0.7, 0.82

0.5 0.7, 0.77

Military patrol, bombers &


transports

0.4 0.7, 0.82

0.5 0.7, 0.77

Flying boats, amphibious

0.5 0.7, 0.82

0.5 0.7, 0.77


45

Specific Fuel Consumption


Java code and applet can be obtained @
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/ngnsim.html

Better estimation for


Engine Thrust and
fuel flow

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Fuel fraction (W6/W5) found from appropriate


endurance equation as in Phase 4.
For jet a/c, best loiter at minimum drag speed
(maximum L/D value); for prop a/c at minimum
power speed.
W7/W6 = 0.99
W8/W7 = 0.992
47

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

W8 W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1
M ff
W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1 WTO

(10)

Mission fuel used (WF(used))


WF (used ) 1 M ff WTO

(11)

48
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

WF then found from equation (5), by adding


reserve fuel (WF,res).
This then allows for tentative value for WE(tent) to
be found, from eq. (4).
This may be plotted with WTO on appropriate a/c
category graph to check agreement with fit.
If not, then process must be iterated until
satisfactory.
49

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Two other possible mission phases may need to be


considered for certain aircraft:
maneuvering
payload drop

50
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Breguet range equation may be used with


range covered in turn (Rturn) from perimeter
length of a turn (Pturn) multiplied by number
of turns (Nturn).

Rturn Nturn Pturn

(12a)

For manoeuvre under load factor of n:


Pturn

V2
(12b)
2

g n2 1

51

Payload Drop

Treated as separate sortie phase with change in


total weight but no fuel change.
Fuel fraction taken as 1 but subsequent phases
corrected to allow for payload drop weight change.
Roskam Vol.1 pp.63-64 gives details.
e.g. if W5 and W6 are weights before and after
payload drops:
W W W W W
W5

W4 W3 W2 W1 WTO

W6 W5 WPL

WTO

(13a)

(13b)
52

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Worked Example Jet Transport


(Roskam Vol.1, p55)
Specification
Payload: 150 passengers at 175 lb each & 30 lb
baggage each.
Crew: 2 pilots and 3 cabin attendants at 175 lb each
and 30 lb baggage each.
Range: 1500 nm, followed by 1 hour loiter, followed
by 100 nm flight to alternate and descent.
Altitude: 35,000 ft for design range.
Cruise speed: Mach number = 0.82 @ 35,000 ft.
53
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Worked Example Jet Transport


(Roskam Vol.1, p55)
Specification (Cont.)
Climb: direct climb to 35,000 ft at max WTO.
Take-off & landing: FAR 25 field-length of 5,000 ft.

54

WPL = 150 x (175 + 30) = 30,750 lb


Wcrew = 1,025 lb
Initial guess of WTO required, so compare with
similar aircraft:

Boeing 737-300 has range of 1620 nm for payload


mass of 35,000 lb WTO = 135,000 lbs.
Initial guess of 127,000 lb seems reasonable.

Now need to determine a value for WF, using


the fuel fraction method outlined above.
55

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

As in earlier example, for a transport jet:

W1/WTO = 0.99
W2/W1 = 0.99
W3/W2 = 0.995
56

Phase 4 (climb)
W4/W3 = 0.98
The climb phase should also be given credit in
the range calculation.
Assuming a typical climb rate of 2500 ft/min at
a speed at 275 kts then it takes 14 minutes to
climb to 35,000 ft.
Range covered in this time is approximately
(14/60) x 275 = 64 nm.
57
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Cruise Mach number of 0.82 at altitude of


35,000 ft equates to cruise speed of 473 kts.

Using eq. (7b):

Assumptions of L/D = 16 and cj = 0.5 lb/hr/lb


with a range of 1500 64 (=1436 nm) yield a
value of:

V
Rcr
c
j

L
W4
ln
cr D cl W5

W5/W4 = 0.909
58

1
Ecl
c
j

L
W3
ln
cl D cl W4

Using eq. (6b):

Assumptions of L/D = 18 and cj = 0.6 lb/hr/lb.

No range credit assumed for loiter phase.

Substitution of data into eq. (6b) yields:

W6/W5 = 0.967

59
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

No credit given for range.


W7/W6 = 0.99

May be found using eq. (6b) again.


Cruise will now take place at lower speed and
altitude than optimum assume cruise speed of
250 kts (FAR 25), L/D of 10 and cj of 0.9 lb/hr/lb.
Gives: W8/W7 = 0.965

60
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

No credit given for range.


W9/W8 = 0.992

found from eq. (8) (with additional term for


W9/W8)
= 0.992x0.965x0.99x0.967x0.909x0.98x0.995x0.99x0.99
= 0.796

Using eq. (9), WF = 0.204 WTO = 25,908 lb


61

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Using eq. (4):


WE(tent) = WTO(guess) WPL - Wcrew - WF Wtfo
WE(tent) = 127,000 30,750 1,025 25,908 - 0
= 69,317 lb

By comparing with Roskam Vol. 1, Fig. 2.9, it is


seen that there is a good match for these values of
WE and WTO, hence a satisfactory solution has
been reached.
62

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Specification / design requirements often reevaluated and refined at this stage, using above
method.
Examples include:
Effect of a range increase/decrease on MTO.
Effect of payload mass change on MTO.
Effect of using composite materials instead of
aluminium alloys.
More details and examples in Raymer p.28-31 and
Ch.19.
63

Essentially Roskams version (Vol.1, p.68) of


Raymers trade studies detailed above.

Sensitivity of MTO is investigated with changes to


the following typical set of parameters:

Empty weight (WE), payload (WPL), range (R),


endurance (E), lift/drag (L/D), specific fuel consumption
(cj or cp) and propeller efficiency (p).

Sensitivity to general parameter y expressed by: WTO


y
Regression constants used in equations are relevant
to particular a/c category.
64

Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Estimating Cruise Fuel Consumption


IPET7 Airliner

Performance
Max operating Mach number

0.83

Max operating altitude

41,000 ft (cabin altitude: 8,000 ft)

Take-off field lenght

6,500 ft (SL / ISA + 15C / MTOW)

Landing field

5,000 ft (SL / MLW = 90% of MTOW)

Range with max payload

2,200 nm (overall fuel volume for 3,200 nm version)

External noise

FAR 36 Stage IV minus 15 db

Estimating Cruise Fuel Consumption


The number of Mach for maximum specific range (SR) is not the same as that for
maximum M*L/D because sfc increases with speed

IPET7
Mach*L/D vs. Mach number

IPET7
SR vs. Mach number

41000 ft
14,00

41000 ft

12,00
0,290

10,00
M*L/D

SR [nm/kg]

0,270
0,250
0,230
0,210

8,00
6,00
4,00

0,190

2,00

0,170
0,150
0,40

0,50

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

0,00
0,40

0,50

Mach
MTOW

90% MTOW

Long Range

MMO

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

Mach
80% MTOW

MTOW

90% MTOW

80% MTOW

67

TAS
SR
Fuel flow

69

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