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Guidance
Reasoning
Aircraft weight, and its accurate prediction, is critical as
it affects all aspects of performance, manufacturing
costs, selling price and all other items.
Designer must keep weight to a minimum as far as
practically possible.
Preliminary estimates possible for take-off weight,
empty weight and fuel weight using basic requirement,
specification (assumed mission profile) and initial
configuration selection.
Glossary
AFM: Aircraft flight manual
MTOW: Maximum takeoff weight
MEW: Manufacturers empty weight
MZFW: Maximum zero-fuel weight
MLW: Maximum landing weight
BOW: Basic operating weight
FAR: Federal Aviation Regulation
L/D: Lift-to-drag ratio
WTO: Weight at takeoff
WPL: Payload weight
Estimating
T/W, W/S
Cost prediction
Configuration
selection
Structural layout
Design of stabilizers
and control
surfaces
Design of cockpit and
the fuselage
Estimation of cg
variation and
airplane inertias
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
Design of the
wing
Selection Integration
of the Propulsion
system
6
Estimating
T/W, W/S
Cost prediction
Configuration
selection
Structural layout
Design of stabilizers
and control
surfaces
Design of cockpit and
the fuselage
Estimation of cg
variation and
airplane inertias
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
Design of the
wing
Selection Integration
of the Propulsion
system
7
Standard Items:
Equipment and system fluids which are not considered an integral
part of a particular aircraft configuration, are not included in the
MEW, but which do not normally vary for aircraft of the same type.
Standard items may include, but are not limited to:
- unusable fuel, oil, and engine injection fluids
- unusable drinking and washing water
- first aid kits, flashlights, megaphone, etc
- emergency oxygen equipment
- galley/bar structure, inserts, ovens, etc.
- electronic equipment required by the operator
Operational Items:
Personnel, equipment and supplies necessary for a particular
operation but not included in the Basic Empty Weight. These items
may vary for a particular aircraft and may include, but are not
limited to:
- flight and cabin crew plus their baggage
- manuals and navigation equipment
- removable service equipment:
cabin (blankets, pillows, literature, etc.)
galley (food, beverages, etc.)
- usable drinking and washing water
- toilet fluid and chemical
- life rafts, life vests, emergency transmitters
- cargo containers, pallets, and/or cargo tiedown equipment if used.
Weight Definitions
disposable load = payload + useable fuel (+any necessary ballast)
Where
Payload = the revenue earning load
Maximum zero fuel weight: Maximum weight allowed before usable fuel must
be loaded in defined sections of the aircraft. Any weight added above the MZFW
must be only due to fuel.
11
APS weight (aircraft prepared for service), which is the same as the basic empty
weight, i.e. fully equipped operational, without crew, usable fuel or payload (the
load that generates revenue, income).
AUW, Wo The all-up (gross) weight is the maximum weight at which flight
requirements must be met.
Maximum to take-off weight
in which operating empty weight and disposable load are built up as follow
Basic empty weight = Manufactures weight + standard items
(From an equipment standpoint, the airplane is ready for operation.)
Weight Definitions
Take-off weight (WTO) (Roskam method)
WTO = WOE + WF + WPL
(1)
where:
WOE (or WOWE ) = operating weight empty
WF = fuel weight
WPL = payload weight
Note that other methods (e.g. Raymer) use slightly different
terminology but same principles.
15
Weight Definitions
Operating weight empty may be further broken down
into:
WOE = WE + Wtfo + Wcrew
(2)
where:
WE
= empty weight
Weight Definitions
Empty weight sometimes further broken down
into:
WE = WME + WFEQ
(3)
where:
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
MTOW (tones)
MLW(tones)
Basic Operating
Weight (tones)
BOW/MTOW
Jet Airliners/Transports
Airbus A319
75.5
62.5
40.6
0.537
Airbus A380
560
386
276.8
0.494
ERJ-145LR
22
19.3
12.114
0.550
Embraer 170ER
37.2
32.8
20.94
0.563
Embraer 190LR
50.3
43
27.72
0.551
Boeing 747-400ER
412.769
295.742
180.985
0.438
Boeing 767-400ER
204.117
158.758
103.1
0.505
286.9
206.35
137.05
0.478
Boeing 777-200LR
347.452
223.168
145.15
0.418
Boeing 777-300ER
351.534
251.3
167.83
0.477
Boeing 727-200ADV
95.1
73.1
45.72
0.480
Boeing 757-200
115.65
95.25
62.10
0.537
Boeing 737-900
79.15
66.36
42.56
0.536
Boeing 787-8
219.539
167.829
114.532
0.522
Business Jets
Cessna Citation X
16.14
14.425
9.73
0.603
Dassault Falcon 50 EX
18.498
16.2
9.888
0.535
22.50
18.5
13.675
0.600
Cessna Encore
7.634
6.895
4.763
0.624
Gulfstream G350
32.160
29.937
19.368
0.602
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Overview
All textbooks use similar methods whereby
comparisons made with existing aircraft.
In Roskam (Vol.1, p.19-30), aircraft classified into one
of 12 types and empirical relationship found for log
WE against log WTO.
Categories are:
(1) homebuilt props, (2) single-engine props, (3) twinengine props, (4) agricultural, (5) business jets, (6) regional
turboprops, (7) transport jets, (8) military trainers, (9)
fighters, (10) military patrol, bombers & transports, (11)
flying boats, (12) supersonic cruise.
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Overview (Cont.)
Category 7
Category 8
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24
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
civil jet
transport
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1
Ecl 375
Vcl
1
Ecl
c
j
p
cp
L
W3
ln
cl D cl W4
L
W3
ln
cl D cl W4
(6a)
(6b)
Ecl = climb time (hrs), L/D = lift/drag ratio, cj is sfc for jet a/c
(lb/hr/lb), cp is sfc for prop a/c (lb/hr/hp), Vcl = climb speed
(mph), p = prop efficiency, W3 & W4 = a/c weight at start and
end of climb phase.
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
Alternatively, use
approximations, e.g. from
Roskam Vol.1, Table 2.1
(W4/W3=0.98 for jet
transport, 0.96 to 0.9 for
fighters).
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Phase 5 (cruise)
Weight fraction calculated using Breguet range
equations.
1 p L
W4
For prop a/c: Rcr 375 V c D ln W (7a)
V
Rcr
c
j
cl
cr
L
W4
ln
D
cl
W5
cr
cl
(7b)
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
loiter
8 - 10
10 - 12
Business jets
10 12
12 - 14
Regional turboprops
11 13
14 16
Transport jets
13 15
14 - 18
Military trainers
8 10
10 - 14
Fighters
47
69
13 15
14 18
4-6
79
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
L W
i
ln
W
f
D
(7a)
(7b)
1
E
c
j
L W
ln i W
f
D
(6b)
L W
ln i W
f
D
V
E
c
j
L W
ln i W
f
D
(6a)
39
Considering that he TSFC does not vary with speed and that the
drag polar can be written as
CD CD 0 kC
2
L
(8a)with
1
k
Ae
(8b)
CD 0
D max range 4
(9a)
1 Ae
L
CD 0
D max endurance 2
(9b)
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Using
CL2
L CL
CD CD 0
Ae
D CD
CL
CL2
CD 0
Ae
with
Differentiating with respect to CL and setting to zero
Diff
CL
CD
dCL
CL2
C
CD 0
CL 2 L
Ae
Ae
CL2
CD 0
Ae
0 CL2 CD 0 Ae
1
CD 0 Ae 2CD 0
Ae
41
cruise
loiter
Turbojet
0.9
0.8
Low-bypass turbofan
0.8
0.7
High-bypass turbofan
0.5
0.4
Loiter
0.5 - 0.9
0.4 - 0.6
Military trainers
0.5 - 1.0
0.4 - 0.6
Fighters
0.6 - 1.4
0.6 - 0.8
0.5 0.9
0.4 - 0.6
Supersonic cruise
0.7 1.5
0.6 - 0.8
43
loiter
0.4
0.5
Piston-prop (variable
pitch)
0.4
0.5
turboprop
0.5
0.6
44
loiter
Single engine
Twin engine
Regional turboprops
Military trainers
Fighters
W8 W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1
M ff
W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1 WTO
(10)
(11)
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
(12a)
V2
(12b)
2
g n2 1
51
Payload Drop
W4 W3 W2 W1 WTO
W6 W5 WPL
WTO
(13a)
(13b)
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54
W1/WTO = 0.99
W2/W1 = 0.99
W3/W2 = 0.995
56
Phase 4 (climb)
W4/W3 = 0.98
The climb phase should also be given credit in
the range calculation.
Assuming a typical climb rate of 2500 ft/min at
a speed at 275 kts then it takes 14 minutes to
climb to 35,000 ft.
Range covered in this time is approximately
(14/60) x 275 = 64 nm.
57
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
V
Rcr
c
j
L
W4
ln
cr D cl W5
W5/W4 = 0.909
58
1
Ecl
c
j
L
W3
ln
cl D cl W4
W6/W5 = 0.967
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Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
60
Prof. Bento S. de Mattos
Specification / design requirements often reevaluated and refined at this stage, using above
method.
Examples include:
Effect of a range increase/decrease on MTO.
Effect of payload mass change on MTO.
Effect of using composite materials instead of
aluminium alloys.
More details and examples in Raymer p.28-31 and
Ch.19.
63
Performance
Max operating Mach number
0.83
Landing field
External noise
IPET7
Mach*L/D vs. Mach number
IPET7
SR vs. Mach number
41000 ft
14,00
41000 ft
12,00
0,290
10,00
M*L/D
SR [nm/kg]
0,270
0,250
0,230
0,210
8,00
6,00
4,00
0,190
2,00
0,170
0,150
0,40
0,50
0,60
0,70
0,80
0,90
0,00
0,40
0,50
Mach
MTOW
90% MTOW
Long Range
MMO
0,60
0,70
0,80
0,90
Mach
80% MTOW
MTOW
90% MTOW
80% MTOW
67
TAS
SR
Fuel flow
69