MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting
surface
and
slightly
subsurface
discontinuities
in ferromagnetic
materials such
as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys and must be performed to worldwide standards such
as EN473 and ISO9712 by qualified personnel.
The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect
magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed through the test
object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric
current is passed through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The
magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current which may be
either alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current(DC) (rectified AC).

When the material or part under test is magnetized, magnetic discontinuities that lies in a
direction generally transverse to the direction of the magnetic field cause a leakage field to be
formed at and above the surface of the part.
The discontinuity is detected by the use of finely divided ferromagnetic particles applied
over the surface, with some of the particles being gathered and held by the leakage field.

Application of Magnetic Media (Wet Versus Dry)

MPI can be performed using either dry particles, or particles suspended in a liquid. With
the dry method, the particles are lightly dusted on to the surface. With the wet method, the
part is flooded with a solution carrying the particles.

The dry method is more portable. The wet method is generally more sensitive since the
liquid carrier gives the magnetic particles additional mobility.

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Can detect both surface and near sub-surface defects.
Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
Precleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some other inspection methods.
Most contaminants within a flaw will not hinder flaw detectability.
Fast method of inspection and indications are visible directly on the specimen surface.
Considered low cost compared to many other NDT methods.
Is a very portable inspection method especially when used with battery powered equipment.
Limitations of Magnetic Particle Inspection
Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium or most stainless steels.
Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with special power requirements.
Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve desired inspection sensitivity.
Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum depth sensitivity is
approximately 0.6 (under ideal conditions).
Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary.
Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important
Magnetic particle crack detection
Magnetic particle crack detection was executed even earlier than X-ray testing. The
Englishman S.M. Saxby already in 1868 and the American William Hooke in 1917 tried to find
cracks in gun barrels by magnetic indications. Real industrial application was made by Victor de
Forest and Foster Doane after 1929. They formed a company with the name Magnaflux in 1934,

famous world-wide until today. The first European who built a magnetic particle crack detector was
an Italian in 1932: Giraud. His machine was named "Metalloscopio".
Magnetic Particle Inspection
This method is suitable for the detection of surface and near surface discontinuities in magnetic
material, mainly ferrite steel and iron. An Illustration of the Principle of Magnetic Particle
Inspection in fig.

Fig. Magnetic Particle Inspection

The principle is to generate magnetic flux in the article to be examined, with the flux lines running
along the surface at right angles to the suspected defect. Where the flux lines approach a
discontinuity they will stay out in to the air at the mouth of the crack. The crack edge becomes
magnetic attractive poles North and South. These have the power to attract finely divided particles
of magnetic material such as iron fillings. Usually these particles are of an oxide of iron in the size
range 20 to 30 microns, and are suspended in a liquid which provides mobility for the particles on
the surface of the test piece, assisting their migration to the crack edges. However, in some
instances they can be applied in a dry powder form. The particles can be red or black oxide, or they
can be coated with a substance, which fluoresces brilliantly under ultra-violet illumination (black
light). The object is to present as great a contrast as possible between the crack indication and the
material background. The technique not only detects those defects which are not normally visible to
the unaided eye, but also renders easily visible those defects which would otherwise require close
scrutiny of the surface. There are many methods of generating magnetic flux in the test piece, the
simplest one being the application of a permanent magnet to the surface, but this method cannot be
controlled accurately because of indifferent surface contact and deterioration in magnetic strength.
Modern equipments generate the magnetic field electrically either directly or indirectly.
In the direct method high amperage current is passed through the object and magnetic flux is
generated at right angles to the current flow. Therefore the current flow should be in the same line
as the suspected defect. If it is not possible to carry out this method because of the orientation of the
defect, then the indirect method must be used.
This can be one of two forms:
1. Passing a high current through a coil that encircles the subject.
2. Making the test piece form part of a yoke, this is wound with a current carrying coil. The effect is
to pass magnetic flux along the part to reveal transverse and circumferential defects.
If a bar with a length much greater than its diameter is considered, then longitudinal defects
would be detected by current flow and transverse and circumferential defects by the indirect method
of an encircling coil or magnetic flux flow. Subjects in which cracks radiating from a hole are
suspected can be tested by means of the threading bar technique, whereby a current carrying
conductor is passed through the hole and the field induced is cut by any defects. Detection of
longitudinal defects in hollow shafts is a typical application of the threaded bar technique. The
electricity used to generate the magnetic flux in any of these methods can be alternating current,
half wave rectified direct current or full wave rectified direct current. A.C. generated magnetic flux,
because of the skin effect, preferentially follows the contours of the surface and does not penetrate
deeply into the material. H.W.D.C. penetrates more deeply but is inclined not to follow sharp

changes in section. H.W.D.C. is useful for the detection of slightly subsurface defects. The pulsing
effect of A.C. and H.W.D.C. gives additional mobility to the indicating particles. D.C. penetrates
even more deeply but does not have this facility. Furthermore, demagnetizing of the material after
D.C. magnetizing is far more difficult than after A.C. magnetizing. Normally, to ensure that a test
piece has no cracks, it is necessary to magnetize it in at least two directions and after each
magnetizing - and ink application visually examine the piece for crack indications. Since this
double process, which would include adjustment of the magnetizing equipment controls in between
each magnetizing takes time it is obviously advantageous to have the facility to reduce the time
required.
The recent development of the Swinging Field method of multi-directional magnetizing will
indicate all defects, regardless of their orientation on the surface, with one magnetizing shot and
therefore requires only one inspection. (Please refer to our paper entitled Faster Magnetic Crack
Detection using the Multi-directional Swinging Field Method).
Basically magnetic crack detection equipment takes two forms. Firstly, for test pieces which are part
of a large structure, or pipes, heavy castings, etc. which cannot be moved easily, the equipment
takes the form of just a power pack to generate a high current. This current is applied to the subject
either by contact prods on flexible cables or by an encircling coil of cable. These power packs can
have variable amperages up to a maximum of 2000 Amps for portable units, and up to 10,000 Amps
for mobile equipments. Both A.C. and H.W.D.C. magnetizing current is available. The indicating
material is applied by means of a spray and generally the surplus runs to waste. For factory
applications on smaller more manageable test pieces the bench type of equipment, as represented by
our EUROMAG range, is normally preferred. This consists of a power pack similar to those
described above, an indicating ink system which recirculates the fluid, and facilities to grip the
work piece and apply the current flow or magnetic flux flow in a more methodical, controlled
manner. The work pieces are brought to the equipment and can be individually tested. Subjects up
to approximately 100" long can be accommodated is such equipments and can be loaded by crane if
necessary. This type of universal equipment is ideally suited to either investigative work or routine
quality control testing. These bench type equipments often incorporate a canopy to prevent direct
light falling on the subject so that ultra-violet fluorescent material can be used to the best effect. The
indicating particles may be suspended in very thin oil (kerosene) or water. In some circumstances
the indicating medium can be applied dry. These equipments are suited to production work and in
certain circumstances can be automated to the extent of loading, magnetizing, inking and unloading.
The work pieces still have to be viewed by eye for defect indications. Specialized equipments are
also frequently manufactured to test a particular size and type of test piece.

An Illustration of Magnetic Particle Inspection

MAGNETISM
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that includes forces exerted by magnets on other
magnets. It has its origin in electric currents and the fundamental magnetic moments of elementary
particles. These give rise to a magnetic field that acts on other currents and moments. All materials
are influenced to some extent by a magnetic field.

The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on temperature (and other variables such as
pressure and the applied magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more than one form of
magnetism depending on its temperature, etc.
The strongest effect is on permanent magnets, which have persistent magnetic moments caused by
ferromagnetism. Most materials do not have permanent moments. Some are attracted to a magnetic
field (paramagnetism); others are repulsed by a magnetic field (diamagnetism); others have a much
more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field (spin glass behavior and
antiferromagnetism).
Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are known as non-magnetic substances.
They include copper, aluminum, gases, and plastic. Pure oxygen exhibits magnetic properties when
cooled to a liquid state.
Types of Magnetism
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Diamagnetism
Paramagnetism
Ferromagnetism
Ferrimagnetism
Anti ferromagnetism

Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied
magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with
paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the
paramagnetic behavior dominates. Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is
observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired
electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases,
the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as
follows:
When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in
addition to their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field.
Depending on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force
on the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them
away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were
aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with
Lenz's law). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the applied
field.
Bismuth is diamagnetic
Paramagnetism
Para magnetism is a form of magnetism whereby certain materials are attracted by an externally
applied magnetic field. In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by
magnetic fields. Paramagnetic materials include most chemical elements and some compounds;
they have a relative magnetic permeability greater than or equal to 1 (i.e., a positive magnetic
susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The magnetic moment induced by the
applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. Paramagnetic materials have a small,
positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field
and the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the
realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field.

Paramagnetic Materials
Aluminum
Barium
Calcium
Liquid Oxygen
Platinum
Sodium
Strontium
Uranium
Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent
magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different types of magnetism are
distinguished. Ferromagnetism (including ferrimagnetism) is the strongest type; it is the only type
that creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common phenomena of
magnetism encountered in everyday life. Other substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with
two other types of magnetism, paramagnetism and diamagnetism, but the forces are so weak that
they can only be detected by sensitive instruments in a laboratory. An everyday example of
ferromagnetism is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. The attraction
between a magnet and ferromagnetic material is "the quality of magnetism first apparent to the
ancient world, and to us today".
Permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and remain
magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are
other materials that are noticeably attracted to them. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic. The
common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt and most of their alloys, some compounds of rare earth
metals, and a few naturally-occurring minerals such as lodestone.
Ferrimagnetism
A ferrimagnetic material is one that has populations of atoms with opposing magnetic moments, as
in antiferromagnetism; however, in ferrimagnetic materials, the opposing moments are unequal and
a spontaneous magnetization remains. this happens when the populations consist of different
materials or ions (such as fe2+ and fe3+).
Antiferromagnetism
In materials that exhibit antiferromagnetism, the magnetic moments of atoms or molecules,
usually related to the spins of electrons, align in a regular pattern with neighboring spins (on
different sublattices) pointing in opposite directions. This is, like ferromagnetism and
ferrimagnetism, a manifestation of ordered magnetism. Generally, antiferromagnetic order may
exist at sufficiently low temperatures, vanishing at and above a certain
temperature,Antiferromagnetic materials occur commonly among transition metal compounds,
especially oxides. Examples include hematite, metals such as chromium, alloys such as iron
manganese (FeMn), and oxides such as nickel oxide (NiO).
Parameters related to Magnetism
Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of
a magnetic field within itself
The reciprocal of magnetic permeability is magnetic reluctivity.
Flux density

Magnetic flux crossing a unit area perpendicularly is defined as magnetic flux density.

Where, dB is the infinitesimal flux density at point P.

Current I is passing through the conductor.
dl is infinitesimal length of conductor.
r is the radius vector from center of element dl to point P.
is the angle between current and radius vector.

Cohesive force

In physics, the intermolecular attractive force acting between two adjacent portions of a
substance, particularly of a solid or liquid
It is this force that holds a piece of matter together.

Retentivity
The ability of a magnetizable material to retain the alignment of the magnetic domains after
the magnetizing force has been removed.
Hard steel normally has a high retentivity,
While soft iron and electrical steel both have very low retentivity.
Magnetizing force

The degree to which a magnetic field can magnetize a material is expressed in terms of
magnetizing force.

Consider a toroidal solenoid with n turns per unit length carrying a current I. The magnetic
induction of the field produced will be
B = nI ,
The product nI is called magnetizing force, that is ,
Therefore,

H = nI

B = H

Magnetizing force may be defined as the number of ampere turns flowing round unit length
of Toroidal solenoid to produce magnetic induction B in the solenoid.

Residual magnetism

Residual magnetism is the remains of magnetism after a magnetized object no longer exists
in a certain location.
This phenomenon causes attraction to remain even when the magnetic object has been
removed.
It is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic
field

Magnetism is a property of matter in which there is a force of repulsion or attraction between

like or unlike poles. Only a few solid materials are naturally magnetic.
Electrons in most atoms exist in pairs, with each electron spinning in an opposite. Each spinning
Electron causes a magnetic field to form around it. In most materials, the magnetic field of one
electron is cancelled by an opposite magnetic field produced by the other electron in the pair.
The atoms in materials such as iron, cobalt and nickel have unpaired electrons, so they don't
cancel the electrons' magnetic fields.
Dry and wet magnetic particle inspection

This module is intended to present information on the widely used method of magnetic
particle inspection.
Magnetic particle inspection can detect both production discontinuities (seams, laps,
grinding cracks and quenching cracks) and in-service damage (fatigue and overload cracks).
A ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with a strong magnetic field created by a
magnet or special equipment. If the specimen has a discontinuity, the discontinuity will
interrupt the magnetic field flowing through the specimen and a leakage field will occur.
Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are applied to the test specimen.
These particles are attracted to leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly
over the discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting
conditions.

Basic steps involved:

1. Component pre-cleaning
2. Introduction of magnetic field
3. Application of magnetic media
4. Interpretation of magnetic particle indications
Magnetic particles come in a variety of colors. A color that produces a high level of contrast against
the background should be used. Wet particles are typically supplied as visible or fluorescent. Visible
particles are viewed under normal white light and fluorescent particles are viewed under black
light.After applying the magnetic field, indications that form must interpreted. This process requires
that the inspector distinguish between relevant and non-relevant indications. Advantages and
disadvantages of MPI
Can detect both surface and near sub-surface defects. Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
Precleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some other inspection methods. Most
contaminants within a flaw will not hinder flaw detectability. Fast method of inspection and
indications are visible directly on the specimen surface. Considered low cost compared to many
other NDT methods. Is a very portable inspection method especially when used with battery
powered equipment. Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium or most
stainless steels. Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with special power
requirements. Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve desired inspection
sensitivity. Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum depth sensitivity is
approximately 0.6 (under ideal conditions). Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often
necessary. Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important
CENTRAL CONDUCTOR TESTING
The central conductor is kept inside the hollow specimen and is clamped between the
contact place of head and tail stock. High ampere magnetic current is passed through the
central conductor.
This causes a magnetic field around the conductor, due to this a magnetic field of sufficient
intensity is induced on inside & outside the hollow part.
Through this way one can easily inspect the inside as well as outside surface for cracks, failures etc.
Advantages
o As the magnetic field is induced on the inside surface too, it become possible to inspect both
inner and outer surface of the hollow material.

o Several components such as washers, nuts, bushes etc. can be suspended on the central
conductor and inspection can be carried out easily.
o As one does not go for direct electrical contact of the component and the contact plate, the
likelihood of getting burnt surface of the components under inspection are avoided.
MAGNETIC CRACK DETECTORS
Portable Magnetic Crack Detectors are portable in nature. These units are self-contained and are
housed in rugged aluminum and steel cases magnetizing cables, in a wide selection of lengths and
prod assemblies are available separately. Controls, indicators, either end output terminals or the
remote control plug-in receptacle are located on the front panel for maximum visibility and
convenience. The current control is in steps. But at extra cost at customer's option stateless current
control with built in automatic demagnetizing facilities can be incorporated.
The ammeters show the true magnetizing current in either the A.C or H.W.D.C Mode operation
Applications:

The FD portable magnetic particle test units provide an economical, convenient way to
inspect wide range of parts for surface and near surface defects. These compact devices
supply either Alternating Current or Half-Wave D.C Current outputs. Used in conjunction
with Flaw check magnetic particles, both circular and longitudinal surface and near surface
irregularities may be quickly detected. After inspection, the parts can be demagnetized

The model FD-1000 Series operates on 220 Volts, 1 Phase, & 50 Hz are Portable Series.
The rated outputs (through a part of 3/5 Meter long cables and prods) makes the units
suitable for heavy-duty services in weld inspection application during fabrication or repair
as well as for maintenance inspection of machinery and equipment
Operation:

These units supply both Alternating current and Half-Wave Direct Current. Either dry or
wet magnetic particles are used as indicator

Operation in A.C mode offers maximum sensitivity and speed in locating surface defects.
A.C. operation minimizes background interference, permitting better signal interpretation
and thereby, increased defect identification sensitivity

Bar Crack Detectors which helps one to detect cracks in metals and metal products thus ensuring
quality.
These magnetic or bar crack detectors have the following advantages:

Saves waste of labour and machine time on a defective raw material

Pinpoints, which operation causes problem and can establish process system

Ensure product reliability

Avoid rejection at customer's site and transportation charges

Customer satisfaction and company's goodwill stands good

Reduction in material cost

Finds all surface and near surface cracks and other similar discontinuities in any ferromagnetic materials

Current & Coil Type Magnetic Crack Detectors

The bar or Magnetic Crack Detectors are of Current & Coil Type, are to be tested is magnetized
by passing a heavy current through it or by making it the core of a coil through which a heavy
current is passed. Cracks or inclusions cause the magnetic flux to break the surface forming free
magnetic poles. When the component is sprayed with a suspension of finely divided magnetic
particles they collect at the free poles to visibly show the presence of defects. Electro-Magfield
Controls & Services have manufactured these magnetic crack detectors series taking care of the
customer's full requirement and satisfaction.
Current & Yoke Type Magnetic Crack Detectors
Features:

Meets pertinent military specifications

AC Magnetization locates surface discontinuities

HWDC magnetization locates Sub-surface discontinuities

Change over switch with pneumatic control from AC to HWDC

Accurate inspection at manufacturing speed

Locates defects before, during and after processing

Eliminates waste of machine time & labour on defective components

Helps pin point defect causes

Rugged heavy-duty construction

Integral all welded steel tank and frame

Stainless-Steel tank with reverse flow agitation and bath circulation system at extra cost

Infinitely variable thyristorised current control

Pneumatically operated Headstock contact plates for positive and spark free clamping of
parts

Combined Magnetization. Both Longitudinal & Circular Magnetization in one setting

Digital Ammeters with display and retention facility at extra cost

Movable Tailstock with locking facilities

Analog meter for magnetizing current (Digital optional available)

Circular Magnetization

Parts are circularly magnetized by either passing the current through the part or through a central
conductor inserted through the part or through a central conductor inserted through a hole in the
part. This is done by clamping the part or the conductor between the contact plates. This results in a
circular magnetic field in the part under test. The defects which are visible are perpendicular to the
field i.e. longitudinal cracks or cracks which deviate from the longitudinal direction by not more
than 45 degree. The ammeter read the amount of magnetizing current used. The current is controlled
infinitely from 0 to maximum.
Longitudinal Magnetization
Longitudinal magnetization is accomplished with the part placed between the contact plates. This
magnetic field created for magnetic crack detectors is longitudinal. Detectable defects are transverse
to the longitudinal field i.e. transverse cracks and cracks deviating slightly from the transverse
direction. A Stateless control circuit is used to regulate the flux density.

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

1. Simplicity of operation and application.
2. Quantitative.
3. Can be automated, apart from viewing. (Though modern developments in automatic defect
recognition can be used in parts of simple geometry e.g. billets and bars. In this case a
special camera captures the defect indication image and processes it for further display and
action)
4. Can detect both surface and near sub-surface defects.
5. Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
6. Precleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some other inspection methods.
Most contaminants within a flaw will not hinder flaw detectability.
7. Fast method of inspection and indications are visible directly on the specimen surface.
8. Considered low cost compared to many other NDT
methods.
9. Is a very portable inspection method especially when used with battery powered equipment.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection
1. Restricted to ferromagnetic materials.
2. Restricted to surface or near surface flaws.
3. Not fail safe in that lack of indication could mean no defects or process not carried out
properly.
4. Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium or most stainless steels.
5. Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with special power requirements.
6. Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve desired inspection
sensitivity.
7. Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum depth sensitivity is
approximately 0.6 (under ideal conditions).
8. Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary.
Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability
To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to understand that
the orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important. There are two
general types of magnetic fields that can be established within a component.
A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run parallel to the long axis of the
part. Longitudinal magnetization of a component can be accomplished using the longitudinal field

set up by a coil or solenoid. It can also be accomplished using permanent magnets or

electromagnets.

A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run circumferentially around the perimeter
of a part. A circular magnetic field is induced in an article by either passing current through the
component or by passing current through a conductor surrounded by the component.

The type of magnetic field established is determined by the method used to magnetize the specimen.
Being able to magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best detection of defects
occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to the longest dimension of
the defect. This orientation creates the largest disruption of the magnetic field within the part and
the greatest flux leakage at the surface of the part. As can be seen in the image below, if the
magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will see little disruption and no flux leakage field
will be produced.

An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is necessary to form an
indication. Since defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each part is normally
magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other. If the component below is considered, it
is known that passing current through the part from end to end will establish a circular magnetic
field that will be 90 degrees to the direction of the current. Therefore, defects that have a significant
dimension in the direction of the current (longitudinal defects) should be detectable. Alternately,
transverse-type defects will not be detectable with circular magnetization.

Portable Magnetizing Equipment for

Magnetic Particle Inspection
To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become familiar with the
different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to generate them. As discussed
previously, one of the primary requirements for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic material is that
the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degree angle. Flaws
that are normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications because
they disrupt more of the magnet flux.
Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to be able to establish a magnetic
field in at least two directions. A variety of equipment exists to establish the magnetic field for MPI.
One way to classify equipment is based on its portability. Some equipment is designed to be
portable so that inspections can be made in the field and some is designed to be stationary for ease
of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing facility. Portable equipment will be discussed first.
Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic particle inspection as the source of
magnetism. The two primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets and horseshoe (yoke)
magnets. These industrial magnets are usually very strong and may require significant strength to
remove them from a piece of metal. Some permanent magnets require over 50 pounds of force to
remove them from the surface. Because it is difficult to remove the magnets from the component
being inspected, and sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the magnets, their use is not
particularly popular. However, permanent magnets are sometimes used by divers for inspection in
underwater environments or other areas, such as explosive environments, where electromagnets
cannot be used. Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight areas where
electromagnets might not fit.
Electromagnets
Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field used in MPI is based on
electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current to produce the magnetic field. An
electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment that is used to establish a magnetic
field. It is basically made by wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of soft ferromagnetic steel.
A switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the current and, therefore, the magnetic field can
be turned on and off. They can be powered with alternating current from a wall socket or by direct
current from a battery pack. This type of magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in a local
area where the poles of the magnet touch the part being inspected. Some yokes can lift weights in
excess of 40 pounds.

Portable yoke with battery pack

Portable magnetic particle kit

Prods

Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of the component being inspected
to make contact for passing electrical current through the metal. The current passing between the
prods creates a circular magnetic field around the prods that can be used in
magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically made from copper and have an insulated handle to
help protect the operator. One of the prods has a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly
and easily turned on and off. Sometimes the two prods are connected by any insulator (as shown in
the image) to facilitate one hand operation. This is referred to as a dual prod and is commonly used
for weld inspections.
If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface, electrical arcing
can occur and cause damage to the component. For this reason, the use of prods are not allowed
when inspecting aerospace and other critical components. To help prevent arcing, the prod tips
should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with scale or other
contaminant, or damaged.
Portable Coils and Conductive Cables
Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within a component.
When a preformed coil is used, the component is placed against the inside surface on the coil. Coils
typically have three or five turns of a copper cable within the molded frame. A foot switch is often
used to energize the coil. Conductive cables are wrapped around the component. The cable used is
typically 00 extra flexible or 0000 extra flexible. The number of wraps is determined by the
magnetizing force needed and of course, the length of the cable. Normally, the wraps are kept as
close together as possible. When using a coil or cable wrapped into a coil, amperage is usually
expressed in ampere-turns. Ampere-turns is the amperage shown on the amp meter times the
number of turns in the coil.

Conductive Cable
Portable Coil
Portable Power Supplies
Portable power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to the prods, coils or cables.
Power supplies are commercially available in a variety of sizes. Small power supplies generally
provide up to 1,500A of half-wave direct current or alternating current when used with a 4.5 meter
0000 cable. They are small and light enough to be carried and operate on either 120V or 240V
electrical service. When more power is necessary, mobile power supplies can be used. These units
come with wheels so that they can be rolled where needed. These units also operate on 120V or
240V electrical service and can provide up to 6,000A of AC or half-wave DC when 9 meters or less
of 0000 cable is used.
Stationary Equipment for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Stationary magnetic particle inspection equipment is designed for use in laboratory or production
environment. The most common stationary system is the wet horizontal (bench) unit. Wet horizontal
units are designed to allow for batch inspections of a variety of components. The units have head
and tail stocks (similar to a lathe) with electrical contact that the part can be clamped between. A
circular magnetic field is produced with direct magnetization. The tail stock can be moved and
locked into place to accommodate parts of various lengths. To assist the operator in clamping the
parts, the contact on the headstock can be moved pneumatically via a foot switch.
Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into place so the indirect magnetization can
be used to produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have five turns and can be obtained in a
variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution is collected and held in a tank. A pump and hose
system is used to apply the particle solution to the components being inspected. Either the visible or
fluorescent particles can be used. Some of the systems offer a variety of options in electrical current
used for magnetizing the component. The operator has the option to use AC, half wave DC, or full
wave DC. In some units, a demagnetization feature is built in, which uses the coil and decaying AC.
To inspect a part using a head-shot, the part is clamped between two electrical contact pads. The
magnetic solution, called a bath, is then flowed over the surface of the part. The bath is then
interrupted and a magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5
seconds. (Precautions should be taken to prevent burning or overheating of the part.) A circular field
flowing around the circumference of the part is created. Leakage fields from defects then attract the
particles to form indications.

When the coil is used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within the part, the part is placed on
the inside surface of the coil. Just as done with ahead shot, the bath is then flowed over the surface
of the part. A magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5
seconds, just after coverage with the bath is interrupted. (Precautions should be taken to prevent
burning or overheating of the part.) Leakage fields from defects attract the particles to form visible
indications.
The wet horizontal unit can also be used to establish a circular magnetic field using a central
conductor. This type of a setup is used to inspect parts that have an open center, such as gears,
tubes, and other ring-shaped objects. A central conductor is an electrically conductive bar that is
usually made of copper or aluminum. The bar is inserted through the opening and the bar is then
clamped between the contact pads. When current is passed through the central conductor, a circular
magnetic field flows around the bar and enters into the part or parts being inspected.
Multidirectional Equipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection
Multidirectional units allow the component to be magnetized in two directions, longitudinally and
circumferentially, in rapid succession. Therefore, inspections are conducted without the need for a
second shot. In multidirectional units, the two fields are balanced so that the field strengths are
equal in both directions. These quickly changing balanced fields produce a multidirectional field in
the component providing detection of defects lying in more than one direction.
Just as in conventional wet-horizontal systems, the electrical current used in multidirectional
magnetization may be alternating, half-wave direct, or full-wave. It is also possible to use a
combination of currents depending on the test applications. Multidirectional magnetization can be
used for a large number of production applications, and high volume inspections.
To determine adequate field strength and balance of the rapidly changing fields, technique
development requires a little more effort when multidirectional equipment is used. It is desirable to
develop the technique using a component with known defects oriented in at least two directions, or
a manufactured defect standard. Quantitative Quality Indicators (QQI) are also often used to verify
the strength and direction of magnetic fields
Lights for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection can be performed using particles that are highly visible under white
light conditions or particles that are highly visible under ultraviolet light conditions. When an
inspection is being performed using the visible color contrast particles, no special lighting is
required as long as the area of inspection is well lit. A light intensity of at least 1000 lux (100 fc) is
recommended when visible particles are used, but a variety of light sources can be used.
When fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must be used. Fluorescence is defined
as the property of emittingradiation as a result of and during exposure to radiation. Particles used in
fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are coated with a material that produces light in the visible
spectrum when exposed to near-ultraviolet light. This "particle glow" provides high contrast
indications on the component anywhere particles collect. Particles that fluoresce yellow-green are
most common because this color matches the peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark
conditions. However, particles that fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are available.
Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light or"black light"is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to 400nm)wavelength

range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light that is invisible to the
human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000A fall into the visible light spectrum and are seen as the color
violet. UV is separated according to wavelength into three classes: A, B, and C. The shorter the
wavelength, the more energy that is carried in the light and the more dangerous it is to the human
cells.
Class
UV-A
UV-B
UV-C

Wavelength
Range
3,2004,000
Angstroms
2,8003,200
Angstroms
2,8001,000 Angstroms

The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500 and 3,800A with a
peak wavelength at about 3,650A. This wavelength range is used because it is in the UV-A range,
which is the safest to work with. UV-B will do an effective job of causing substances to fluoresce,
however, it should not be used because harmful effects such as skin burns and eye damage can
occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding process. UV-C
(1,000 to 2,800A) is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill bacteria in industrial and
medical settings.
The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is obtained by filtering the ultraviolet light generated
by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of wavelengths. The short
wavelengths of 3,120 to 3,340A are produced in low levels. A peak wavelength of 3650A is
produced at a very high intensity. Wavelengths in the visible violet range (4050A to 4350A), greenyellow (5460A), yellow (6220A) and orange (6770A) are also usually produced. The filter allows
only radiation in the range of 3200 to 4000A and a little visible dark purple to pass.
Inspection Using Magnetic Rubber
The magnetic rubber technique was developed for detecting very fine cracks and is capable of
revealing finer cracks than other magnetic techniques. Additionally, the technique can be use to
examine difficult to reach areas, such as the threads on the inside diameter of holes, where the
molded plugs can be removed and examined under ideal conditions and magnification if desired.
The tradeoff, of course, is that inspection times are much longer.
The technique uses a liquid (uncured) rubber containing suspended magnetic particles. Therubber
compound is applied to the area to be inspected on a magnetized component. Inspections can be
performed using either an applied magnetic field, which is maintained while the rubber sets (active
field), or the residual field from magnetization of the component prior to pouring the compound. A
dam of modeling clay is often used to contain the compound in the region of interest. The magnetic
particles migrate to the leakage field caused by a discontinuity. As the rubber cures, discontinuity
indications remain in place on the rubber.
The rubber is allowed to completely set, which takes from 10 to 30 minutes. The rubber cast is
removed from the part. The rubber conforms to the surface contours and provides a reverse replica
of the surface. The rubber cast is examined for evidence of discontinuities, which appear as dark
lines on the surface of the molding. The molding can be retained as a permanent record of the
inspection.
Magnetic rubber methods requires similar magnetizing systems used for dry method magnetic
particle tests. The system may include yokes, prods, clamps, coils or central conductors.
Alternating, direct current, or permanent magnets may be used to draw the particles to the leakage

fields. The direct current yoke is the most common magnetization source for magnetic rubber
inspection.
Dry Magnetic Particles
Magnetic particles come in a variety of colors. A color that produces a high level of contrast
against the background should be used.
Wet Magnetic Particles
Wet particles are typically supplied as visible or fluorescent. Visible particles are viewed
under normal white light and fluorescent particles are viewed under black light.
CENTRAL CONDUCTOR TESTING

The central conductor is kept inside the hollow specimen and is clamped between the
contact place of head and tail stock. High ampere magnetic current is passed through the
central conductor.
This causes a magnetic field around the conductor, due to this a magnetic field of sufficient
intensity is induced on inside & outside the hollow part.
Through this way one can easily inspect the inside as well as outside surface for cracks, failures etc.
Advantages
o As the magnetic field is induced on the inside surface too, it become possible to inspect both
inner and outer surface of the hollow material.
o Several components such as washers, nuts, bushes etc. can be suspended on the central
conductor and inspection can be carried out easily.
o As one does not go for direct electrical contact of the component and the contact plate, the
likelihood of getting burnt surface of the components under inspection are avoided.
FLAW DETECTION IN RODS AND PIPES USING MPI

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) also sometimes called as Magnetic Test (MT) is a nondestructive test method for the detection of surface and sub-surface discontinuities in ferrous
materials. Fatigue-crack-in-a-shaft- magpart. The test method involves application of magnetic field
externally or applying electric current through the material which in turn produces magnetic flux in
the material. Simultaneously, visible ferrous particles on sprinkled or sprayed on the test surface.
The presence of a surface or near surface discontinuities in the material causes distortion in the
magnetic flux which in turn causes leakage of the magnetic fields at the discontinuity. The magnetic
particles are attracted by the surface field in the area of the discontinuity and adhere to the edges of
the discontinuity appearing the shape of the discontinuity.