Theory of Interval Affect

Adrian Willaert and the
Theory of Interval Affect

The Musica nova Madrigals and the
Novel Theories of Zarlino and Vicentino
Timothy R. McKinney

To Cyndi

The Musica nova Madrigals and the
Novel Theories of Zarlino and Vicentino
Timothy R. McKinney
Baylor University, USA
Timothy R. McKinney 2010

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
Timothy R. McKinney has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act,
1988, to be identified as the author of this work.
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
McKinney, Timothy R., 1956
Adrian Willaert and the theory of interval affect : the Musica nova madrigals and the novel
theories of Zarlino and Vicentino.
1. Willaert, Adrian, 1490?1562. Musica nova. 2. Madrigals, Italian Italy 16th century
Analysis, appreciation.
I. Title
782.430945dc22
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
McKinney, Timothy R., 1956
Adrian Willaert and the theory of interval affect : the Musica nova madrigals and the novel
theories of Zarlino and Vicentino / Timothy R. McKinney.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7546-6509-0 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Willaert, Adrian, 1490?1562.
Musica nova. 2. Madrigals, Italian Italy 16th century History and criticism. I. Title.
ML410.W71M35 2009
782.0092dc22
2009011256
ISBN 9780754665090 (hbk)
ISBN 9780754696728 (ebk)
Bach musicological font developed by Yo Tomita
V
Contents
List of Tables
List of Musical Examples
Acknowledgements
vii
ix
xv
Contexts
Definition, Evaluation, and Validation of the Theory of Interval Affect
41
Expressive Functions of Harmony in the Musica nova Madrigals
97
Willaerts Other Madrigals and the Theory of Interval Affect
191
The Compositional Legacy of Willaerts Theory of Interval Affect
225
Select Bibliography
Index
295
311
This page has been left blank intentionally
List of Tables
2.1a
2.1b
2.2
2.3
Major modes and harmonic quality in Musica nova madrigals

Minor modes and harmonic quality in Musica nova madrigals
Melodic interval affect as defined by Vicentino
Affective associations for the imperfect consonances
3.1
Representative fifth successions from Musica nova madrigals
101
5.1
Sixteenth- and eighteenth-century classifications of interval affect
291
49
49
51
84

Adrian Willaert, Liete e pensose, mm. 15; Musica nova (Venice:
Antonio Gardano, 1559)
1.2 Baldassare Donato, Mentre questalme et honorate rive, mm. 1216;
Il primo libro de madrigali a cinque, et a sei voci, con tre dialoghi
a sette di nuovo riveduti, & con somma diligentia corretti (Venice:
Plinio Pietrasanta, 1557; first edn 1553)
1.3 Guillaume Dufay, Ave Regina caelorum, mm. 7796; Biblioteca
apostolica vaticana, San Pietro B80
1.4 Orlande de Lassus, Psalmus Tertius Poenitentialis, verse 21, mm.
15; Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales, modis musicis redditi, atque
antehac nunquam in lucem aediti ... (Munich: Adam Berg, 1584)
1.5 Hard and soft B
1.6 Willaert, Aspro core e selvaggio e cruda voglia, mm. 122; Musica
nova (Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1559)
1.7 Willaert, Confitebor tibi Domine, mm. 13440; Musica nova
(Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1559)
1.1
2.1
2.2
Zarlinos exemplar of harsh harmony

Willaert, Lasso, chi ardo, mm. 11721; Musica nova (Venice:
2.3 Interval qualities above each pitch-class of the basic gamut
2.4 Major, minor, and dubious sonorities
2.5 65 or 56 motions
2.6 56 or 65 motions over adjacent positions of similar quality
2.7 Willaert, Aspro core e selvaggio e cruda voglia, mm. 122
2.8 Melodic lines from harsh and sweet sections of Aspro core
2.9 Willaert, Io amai sempre, mm. 1732; Musica nova (Venice:
2.10 Shared voice-leading strands in opening of Aspro core
2.11 Analytical reductions of sections A and B in opening of Aspro core
2.12 Willaert, Aspro core, mm. 10316
2.13 Willaert, Giunto mha Amor, mm. 519; Musica nova (Venice:
2.14 Willaert, Giunto mha Amor, mm. 9098
2.15 Willaert, Giunto mha Amor, mm. 12432
2.16 Willaert, O invidia, nemica di virtute, mm. 7093; Musica nova
14
16
18
21
23
26
39
45
46
60
61
62
62
64
67
69
70
71
74
77
79
80
81
Adrian Willaert and the Theory of Interval Affect
2.17 Girolamo Parabosco, Aspro cor, mm. 117; Madrigali a cinque

voci di Girolamo Parabosco discipulo di M. Adriano novamente
da lui composti & posti in luce (Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1546)
2.18 Giaches de Wert, Aspro cor, mm. 114; Il primo libro de madrigali
a cinque voci novamente posti in luce et da lui proprio corretti alla
stampa (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1558)
2.19 Cipriano de Rore, Sfrondate, o sacre dive, mm. 5761; Di
Cipriano il secondo libro de madregali a cinque voci insieme
alcuni di M. Adriano et altri autori a misura comune novamente
posti in luce (Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1544)
2.20 Jacques Arcadelt, Perch non date voi, donna crudele, mm. 812;
Il primo libro di madrigali dArchadelt a quatro con nuova gionta
impressi (Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1541; first edn 1538)
2.21 Arcadelt, Benedetti martiri, mm. 1924; Il primo libro di
madrigali dArchadelt a quatro con nuova gionta impressi (Venice:
Antonio Gardano, 1541; first edn 1538)
2.22 Rore, Strane ruppi, mm. 17; Di Cipriano il primo libro de
madregali cromatici a cinque voci con una nova gionta del
medesmo autore novamente ristampato & da infiniti errori
emendato (Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1544; first edn 1542)
2.23 Wert, Dura legge, mm. 110; Madrigali del fiore a cinque voci,
libro secondo (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1561)
2.24 Analytical reductions for Examples 2.7, 2.22, and 2.23
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
Willaert, Laura mia sacra; Musica nova (Venice: Antonio

Gardano, 1559)
Willaert, I vidi in terra angelici costumi; Musica nova (Venice:
Willaert, Mentre chel cor; Musica nova (Venice: Antonio
Gardano, 1559)
Willaert, I piansi, hor canto; Musica nova (Venice: Antonio
Gardano, 1559)
Willaert, Cantai: hor piango; Musica nova (Venice: Antonio
Gardano, 1559)
Willaert, Madonna, il bel desire; Madrigali a quatro voci di
Adriano Willaert con alcune napolitane et la canzon de Ruzante
tutte racolte insieme ... (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1563)
Willaert, Qual dolcezza giamai, mm. 5675; Di Verdelot le dotte et
eccellente compositioni de i madrigali a cinque voci, insieme con
altri madrigali di varii autori, novamente ristampati, & ricorretti
(Venice: Antonio Gardano, n.d.)
86
88
90
91
91
92
93
94
124
138
151
164
177
194
200
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Willaert, Gi mi godea felice, mm. 133; Madrigali a quatro voci

di Adriano Willaert con alcune napolitane et la canzon de ruzante
tutte racolte insieme ... (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1563)
Willaert, Rompi de lempio cor, mm. 147; La piu divina, et piu
bella musica, che se udisse giamai delli presenti madrigali, a sei
voci composti per lo eccellentissimo Verdelot, et altri musici ...
Willaert, Se la gratia divina, mm. 114; Di Cipriano Rore et di
altri eccellentissimi musici il terzo libro di madrigali a cinque
voce novamente da lui composti et non piu posti in luce (Venice:
Girolamo Scotto, 1548)
Willaert, Ne le amare freddonde, mm. 111; Di Cipriano Rore et
di altri eccellentissimi musici il terzo libro di madrigali a cinque
voce novamente da lui composti et non piu posti in luce (Venice:
Willaert, Piangetegri mortali, mm. 120; Musica spirituale libro
primo di canzon et madrigal a 5 (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1563)
Willaert, Piangetegri mortali, mm. 4872
5.1 Nicola Vicentino, Capitolo de la passione di Christo, mm. 98109;

Madrigali a cinque voci per theorica et pratica da lui composti al
nuovo modo dal celeberrimo suo maestro ritrovato. Libro primo
(Venice, 1546)
5.2 Vicentino, Alma gentil, mm. 3542; Madrigali a cinque voci per
theorica et pratica da lui composti al nuovo modo dal celeberrimo
suo maestro ritrovato. Libro primo (Venice, 1546)
5.3 Vicentino, Fin che mamasta mai arsi, mm. 1642; Madrigali a
cinque voci per theorica et pratica da lui composti al nuovo modo
dal celeberrimo suo maestro ritrovato. Libro primo (Venice, 1546)
5.4 Vicentino, Capitolo de la passione di Christo, mm. 20620
5.5 Vicentino, Fiamma gentil, mm. 7793; Madrigali a cinque
voci per theorica et pratica da lui composti al nuovo modo dal
celeberrimo suo maestro ritrovato. Libro primo (Venice, 1546)
5.6 Vicentino, Occhi lucenti e belli, mm. 4048; Madrigali a cinque
voci di larcimusico Don Nicola Vicentino pratico et theorico et
inventore delle nuove armonie (Milan: Paolo Gottardo Pontio, 1572)
5.7 Gioseffo Zarlino, Amor mentre dormia, mm. 4671; I dolci et
harmoniosi concenti fatti da diversi eccellentissimi musici sopra
varii soggetti. A cinque voci. Libro primo (Venice: Girolamo
Scotto, 1562)
5.8 Zarlino, questol legno, mm. 10710; I dolci et harmoniosi
concenti fatti da diversi eccellentissimi musici sopra varii soggetti.
A cinque voci. Libro primo (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1562)
xi
203
207
212
215
218
221
228
230
232
236
238
243
246
251
xii
Zarlino, Lauro gentile, mm. 326; Di Cipriano Rore et di altri

eccellentissimi musici il terzo libro di madrigali a cinque voce
novamente da lui composti et non piu posti in luce (Venice:
5.10 Zarlino, Spentera gi lardor, mm. 2332; I dolci et harmoniosi
concenti fatti da diversi eccellentissimi musici sopra varii soggetti.
A cinque voci. Libro primo (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1562)
5.11 Zarlino, I vo piangendo, mm. 19; I dolci et harmoniosi concenti
fatti da diversi eccellentissimi musici sopra varii soggetti. A cinque
voci. Libro primo (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1562)
5.12 Zarlino, I vo piangendo, mm. 3142
5.13 Zarlino, I vo piangendo, mm. 5363
5.14 Rore, Quanto pi mavicino, mm. 10812; Di Cipriano il primo
libro de madregali cromatici a cinque voci con una nuova gionta
del medesmo autore novamente ristampato & da infiniti errori
emendato (Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1544; first edn 1542)
5.15 Rore, Quel sempre acerbo et honorato giorno, mm. 110; Di
Cipriano il primo libro de madregali cromatici a cinque voci con
una nuova gionta del medesmo autore novamente ristampato & da
infiniti errori emendato (Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1544; first edn
1542)
5.16 Perissone Cambio, Gionto mha Amor, mm. 6978; Il segondo
libro di madregali a cinque voci con tre dialoghi a otto voci &
uno a sette voci novamente da lui composti & dati in luce (Venice:
5.17 Parabosco, Solo e pensoso, mm. 120; Madrigali a cinque voci di
Girolamo Parabosco discipulo di M. Adriano novamente da lui
composti & posti in luce (Venice: Antonio Gardano, 1546)
5.18 Parabosco, Solo e pensoso, mm. 918
5.19 Francesco dalla Viola, Deh perche non credete, mm. 1518;
Il primo libro de madrigali a quatro voci novamente con ogni
diligentia dal proprio autore corretto & dato in luce (Venice:
5.20 Francesco dalla Viola, Poi che nostro servir, mm. 110; Il primo
libro de madrigali a quatro voci novamente con ogni diligentia dal
proprio autore corretto & dato in luce (Venice: Antonio Gardano,
1550)
5.21 Francesco dalla Viola, Siepi chel bel giardin, mm. 1519; Il primo
libro de madrigali a quatro voci novamente con ogni diligentia dal
proprio autore corretto & dato in luce (Venice: Antonio Gardano,
1550)
5.9
253
254
259
260
263
267
269
273
275
277
279
280
281
5.22 Donato, Qual sera mai si miserabil pianto, mm. 2132; Il primo
libro de madrigali a cinque, et a sei voci, con tre dialoghi a sette
di nuovo riveduti, & con somma diligentia corretti (Venice: Plinio
Pietrasanta, 1557; first edn 1553)
5.23 Gioseffo Guami, Giunto mha Amor, mm. 90101; Il primo libro
di madrigali a cinque voci novamente da lui composti (Venice:
5.24 Guami, Occhi fiamme damore, mm. 1930; Il primo libro di
madrigali a cinque voci novamente da lui composti (Venice:
5.25 Vincenzo Bellavere, Pria si vedr nellarenoso lido, mm. 1116; Il
secondo libro de madrigali a cinque voci novamente posti in luce
(Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1575)
xiii
283
286
288
289
Acknowledgements
In the spring of 1985, while doing research for a graduate seminar at the University
of North Texas, I encountered what struck me as a curious assertion in Gioseffo
Zarlinos famous statement in Book 4, Chapter 32 of Le istitutioni harmoniche
on how harmony may be accommodated to words: that the intervals of the major
and minor sixths bear opposing affective meanings. Being more familiar with
nineteenth-century repertoire than that of the sixteenth century, and being poised
on the verge of pursuing a dissertation on the songs of Hugo Wolf, I had no doubt
that major thirds could be happy and minor thirds could be sad. But I wondered
if the major and minor sixths really meant different things in the sixteenth century,
and, if so, how that might play out in compositional practice. These thoughts led
to a term paper for Benito Rivera, whose seminars on the history of theory and on
mode opened up new vistas for me and sparked my interest in Zarlino and Adrian
Willaert. Though I stuck to my plan to study Hugo Wolf and music of the nineteenth
century, the question prompted by Zarlino continued to occupy me over the years.
When I initially posed it while standing among the stacks in the library in Denton,
I had no idea of the ever-broadening scope of the journey it would spur, nor that
it would eventually lead to this book. I am grateful first and foremost to Benito
Rivera for starting me down this path and for providing assistance and guidance as
I have made my way along it. He has generously shared his wisdom and the fruits
of his research with me, and graciously gave of his time and expertise to read and
comment upon an earlier draft of this book.
Because most of my formal training focused upon another era, I am particularly
grateful to those specialists in the history of theory or early music who have
provided encouragement, direction, constructive criticism, or source materials for
my work in the Renaissance over the years: Bonnie J. Blackburn, Lester Brothers,
David E. Cohen, Jeffrey Dean, Ruth DeFord, Willem Elders, Michle Fromson,
Christine Getz, James Haar, Leofranc Holford-Strevens, Cristle Collins Judd,
Andrew Kirkman, William Mahrt, Stefano Mengozzi, Russell Murray, Jessie Ann
Owens, Graham Phipps, Keith Polk, Katherine Powers, Katelijne Schiltz, Anne
Smith, Grayson Wagstaff, and Rob C. Wegman. In addition to many of those just
named, I am grateful to others whose work has taught me much and rendered mine
far more feasible, particularly Howard Mayer Brown, Robert Durling, Martha
Feldman, Edward E. Lowinsky, Maria Rika Maniates, Clement Miller, Claude
Palisca, and Leeman Perkins. I also thank the anonymous reviewers engaged
by Ashgate for the excellent advice and critical commentary they provided for
this project. None of the folks mentioned above should bear any blame for my
remaining shortcomings.
xvi
I benefited much from the intellectual stimulation and collegiality provided

by the inaugural Mannes Institute for Advanced Studies in Music Theory in
2001, which focused upon the history of theory, and particularly Cristle Collins
Judds course on Zarlino and Sarah Fullers course on early modal theory. I thank
Wayne Alpern for founding and directing the institute, Joel Lester and Thomas
Christensen for co-chairing its faculty in 2001, those providing financial support,
and the Mannes College of Music for hosting the event.
Research for this book drew upon the resources of numerous librariesfar
too many to mention them allbut I wish to acknowledge the Bayerische
Staatsbibliothek in Munich, the Bibliothque Nationale in Paris, the Accademia
Filarmonica in Verona, the University of California system, SUNY Binghamton,
the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Pittsburgh, the University of
Kentucky, and the University of Washington. My work was greatly facilitated by
the holdings, services, and staff of the Baylor University libraries; I appreciate the
support for my research given by Sha Towers, fine arts librarian, Kenneth Carriveau,
access services librarian, and Janet Jasek and her interlibrary loan team.
I am grateful as well to the Center for the History of Music Theory and
Literature at Indiana University (Thomas J. Mathiesen, director, Peter Slemon,
associate director) for providing the Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum and saggi
musicali italiani (Andreas Giger, Louisiana State University, project director), and
to the University of Utrecht for sponsoring TMIWeb, the online version of the
Thesaurus musicarum italicarum (Frans Wiering, project director). The search
features of these online databases of historical Latin and Italian treatises on music
yield in seconds what might take months to track down manually. Also helpful
in tracking down the source of several madrigal texts was the online database
Antologie della Lirica Italiana Raccolte a stampa (ALI RASTA) hosted by the
University of Pavia.
The musical examples in this study contain my own transcriptions from
fifteenth- and sixteenth-century print and manuscript sources, though I consulted
the modern editions listed in the Select Bibliography for second opinions on text
underlay and musica ficta. In some cases, a later edition than the first to appear
served as my source; the exact edition used for each transcription is given in the
List of Musical Examples. I present the examples in the original note values rather
than in reduction, so that they correspond to references to note values contained
in quotations from contemporaneous theoretical sources. Following standard
editorial procedure, an accidental placed before a notehead indicates that that sign
appeared in the source being transcribed, while all editorial accidentals appear
above the noteheads to which they apply; this distinction is especially significant
in the present study because of my focus on interval affect and potential symbolic
uses of accidental inflections. The question of text underlay, paramount to any
study hinging upon text-music relationships, seldom presented problems in most
of the current transcriptions because of the care exercised by Willaert and those
under his influence in this regard. I have generally preserved the original spelling
Acknowledgements
xvii
and punctuation of the poetic texts in the transcriptions, though I have used modern
spellings and the modern alphabet at times in the interest of clarity.
In preparing my own translations of madrigal texts given herein, I often
consulted those in Robert Durlings Petrarchs Lyric Poems or Martha Feldmans
dissertation and her City Culture and the Madrigal at Venice. Mine are in no way
superior to theirs in a poetic sense; in fact, mine are far more stilted. I have sought
to place English equivalents as close as practical to their Italian counterparts and
to use cognates whenever possible, even if a more attractive or precise translation
were possible, in order to assist those relying on the translations to match concepts
expressed in the poetry with their corresponding musical setting. Once again I
must express my appreciation to Benito Rivera for his suggestions concerning
several of the translations.
Generous financial support for my project has been provided by Baylor
University in the form of summer research sabbaticals. I am grateful also to
graduate assistants Aaron VanValkenburg and Sharon McCarthy for help in
preparing the musical examples for Chapter 3 and for assistance with microfilm
and other library materials.
I have appreciated working with Ashgate Publishing on many levels, but
particularly in regard to their uncommon generosity concerning the number and
length of musical examples that could be included in this book. I especially thank
Heidi Bishop, Senior Commissioning Editor, for her support of my project, and
both her and Rosie Phillips for their editorial assistance in bringing it to fruition.
I thank my daughter, Erin Gonzales, for her willing and able proofreading of
the initial draft, and my son, Brian, for helping me keep things in perspective.
I thank them both for their understanding when work impinged upon our time
together through the years. To my parents, James Carroll and Elizabeth Richmond
McKinney, I owe a debt of gratitude for nurturing my love of music and encouraging
and supporting my studies. To them I also owe the fascination with word-music
relationships that has informed most of my scholarly efforts. Professors of music
themselves, they made such relationships come alive for me, he singing, she at the
piano. Finally, I thank my wife, Cynthia, for her unfailing belief in and support for
me and her assistance in innumerable ways with this project. It is to her I dedicate
this volume.
Chapter 1
Contexts
He who has no imagination for such things has no understanding of the meaning,
the purpose, and the very life of the madrigal.
Alfred Einstein
In the writings of Nicola Vicentino and Gioseffo Zarlino, two of the most
significant music theorists of the sixteenth century, we find for the first time
a systematic means of explaining musics expressive power based upon the
melodic and harmonic intervals from which it is constructed. This theory of
interval affect originates not with these theorists, however, but with Venicebased Flemish composer Adrian Willaert, and receives its clearest expression in
the madrigals of his Musica nova, as I shall show in the current study. The title
of Willaerts legendary collection of motets and madrigals refers not as much to
music that is new as to a new approach to composing music. Though completed
by the 1540s, it was kept from public view before its eventual publication in 1559
and was first known and understood only by its intended audience, the cognoscenti
of the Venetian intellectual circles in which it was performed and discussed. The
madrigals of the collection have become famous for their coupling of serious
poetry of high quality with a grave musical stylecharacterized by meticulous
text setting, dense polyphony, restrained melodic and rhythmic writing, and
unusually low voicingand for the relatively sophisticated readings of the
poetic texts they embody, in comparison to the madrigal repertoire up until that
time. Significant in these readings were the musical analogues Willaert forged
for the frequent antitheses encountered in the sonnets by fourteenth-century poet
Francesco Petrarch, which provide all but one of the texts for the 25 Musica
nova madrigals. In crafting these analogues, he established two broad categories
of musical affect that segregated major and minor interval qualities. As has
often been suggested, Willaerts affective categories may have been influenced
Alfred Einstein, The Italian Madrigal (3 vols, Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1949; reprint 1971), vol. 1, p. 330.

On the dating and publication history of Musica nova, see, among others, Helga
Meier, Zur Chronologie der Musica Nova Adriano Willaerts, Analecta musicologica 12
(1973), pp. 7196; and Jessie Ann Owens and Richard J. Agee, La stampa della Musica nova
di Willaert, Rivista italiana di musicologia 24/2 (1989), pp. 219305; and Ignace Bossuyt,
O socii durate: A Musical Correspondence from the Time of Philip II, Early Music 26/3
(1998), pp. 4367. On the cultural context of Musica nova, see principally Martha Feldman,
City Culture and the Madrigal at Venice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
by literary theorist Pietro Bembos similar categories of expressive quality in

poetry, called gravit and piacevolezza, which Bembo based upon his studies of
Petrarchs vernacular works. Willaerts compositional and pedagogical practice
in turn was influential on the sudden appearance of systematic theories of interval
affect in two of the most important treatises devoted to music theory in the
sixteenth century, Vicentinos Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica of
1555 and Zarlinos Le istitutioni harmoniche of 1558.
While much of this has been more or less assumed for some time now, several
questions remain unanswered: How highly developed was Willaerts own theory
of interval affect? What was the precise nature of his influence upon Zarlino and
Vicentino in this regard? How does the theory of interval affect interact with
the pitch system and principles of counterpoint in use by mid-sixteenth-century
composers, and how deeply did Willaert ponder these matters? Through what
specific means did Willaert emphasize certain intervals, and how might these
means affect the flow and course of a composition? Did he apply the affective
use of intervals only to individual words or phrases on a local level, as commonly
thought, or might he wield it to project a broader-arching reading of a text in part
or in whole?
Because Willaert left no theoretical writings of his own as far as we know,
evidence pertinent to addressing these questions must be recovered from his
compositions. In this book I reconstruct from Willaerts music traces of his
innovative theorizing concerning how extramusical ideas might be communicated,
and examine the influence of this theorizing on the way he wrote music and on
the work of subsequent theorists and composers in his circle of influence. Using
the Musica nova madrigals as my nexus and working outward from there, I shall

Pietro Bembo, Prose della volgar lingua (Venice, 1525). See Dean Mace, Pietro
Bembo and the Literary Origins of the Italian Madrigal, Musical Quarterly 55 (1969),
pp. 6586; Claude Palisca, Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought (New
Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 35568; Howard Mayer Brown,
Words and Music: Willaert, the Chanson and the Madrigal about 1540 in Florence and
Venice: Comparisons and Relations: Acts of Two Conferences at Villa I Tatti in 1976
1977, organized by Sergio Bertelli, Nicolai Rubinstein, and Craig Hugh Smyth, vol. 2,
Cinquecento (Florence: La Nuova Italia Editrice, 197980), pp. 22931; and Martha
Feldman, City Culture and the Madrigal at Venice, pp. 12355, 1846, and passim. See
also nn. 75 and 81 later in this chapter. The potential connection between Bembos theory
of word-sound and Willaerts theory of interval affect will be examined in Chapter 3, in
relation to Willaerts setting of Mentre chel cor.

Citations from Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica and Le istitutioni
harmoniche will be made by book, chapter, and page or folio followed by the page number
of the English translation in parentheses; e.g., Zarlino, 3.10, p. 156 (21). English translations
have been altered in some instances to maintain consistency of terminology in the present
study or to more closely reflect the original context. Vicentinos treatise contains a book on
music theory followed by five books (numbered one through five) on music practice.
All references in the current study come from the practical books.
Contexts
demonstrate that Willaerts new music articulated a new theory of musical affect
more complex and forward-looking than currently recognized. I shall uncover
specific details of compositional technique demonstrating that the madrigals of
Musica nova comprise a grand experiment in writing music that seeks both to
project the composers reading of a text and to move the listeners affections by
utilizing inherent properties of musical sound as well as affective conventions. I
shall show that these madrigals represent a proving ground for testing theories
about musics expressive effects, and that they do indeed instantiate a new way of
writing music in which harmony steps closer to the fore and influences melodic
and contrapuntal techniques to an unprecedented degree.
The Principal Players and a Venetian Backdrop
Adrian Willaert lived from around 1490 to 1562 and in many respects was the most
influential composer of the post-Josquin generation. Although northern-European
by birth, as with so many of his Franco-Flemish musical brethren, he spent most
of his professional life in Italy. Probably born in Bruges or Roulaers, both now in
modern-day Belgium, he first studied law in Paris before switching to music and
studying composition with Jean Mouton. He may have been in Rome by 1514 and,
beginning around 1515, served the influential dEste family in various capacities in
Ferrara and Hungary. In 1527, Willaert obtained the office of maestro di cappella
at San Marco cathedral in Veniceat this time one of the more important musical
posts in Europeand held it until his death in 1562.
Willaert was renowned as a composer and as a teacher both during his lifetime and
by subsequent generations. Though it is difficult to establish precise relationships
in many instances, in addition to Zarlino and Vicentino, his pupils are thought to
have included significant figures such as Cipriano de Rore, Girolamo Parabosco,
Perissone Cambio, Baldassare Donato, Costanzo Porta, and Francesco dalla Viola,
among many others. His extant works encompass most of the principal genres of
his day, including motets, masses, psalms, hymns, chansons, madrigals, lighter
Italian genres such as the canzona villanesca, and instrumental ricercars, and he

The biographical information on Willaert, Zarlino, and Vicentino given here is
intended only to place these men succinctly in historical context and comes for the most
part from standard sources; I do not claim to augment the known details of their lives.

For a current overview of Willaerts life, see Lockwood, Lewis, Giulio Ongaro,
Michle Fromson, and Jessie Ann Owens, s.v. Willaert, Adrian, Grove Music Online
<http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com>. Other important biographical details may be found in
Ignace Bossuyt, Adriaan Willaert (ca. 14901562): Leven en werk: Stijl en genres (Leuven:
Universitaire Pers Leuven, 1985); Giulio Ongaro, The Chapel of St. Marks at the Time of
Adrian Willaert (15271562) (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1986); and
further sources listed in the biographical section of David Kidger, Adrian Willaert: A Guide to
Research (New York and London: Routledge, 2005), pp. 3815.
was responsible for significant stylistic advances in many of these. In the proem of
Le istitutioni harmoniche of 1558, arguably the most significant treatise devoted to
music theory in the sixteenth century, Zarlino styles Willaert as a new Pythagoras
who corrected many errors in the art of music. Zarlinos homage in such an
influential theoretical work helped to extend Willaerts reputation well beyond his
lifetime and well after performance of his works largely had ceased, and cemented
his historical position as a leading figure of the sixteenth century. Writing in
defense of his famous brother Claudio in the Artusi-Monteverdi controversy some
45 years after Willaerts death, Giulio Cesare Monteverdi credited Willaert with
having perfected the compositional style (and Zarlino the theoretical rules) of the
prima prattica, the older first practice gradually supplanted by the more modern
second practice stemming from Rore and mastered by Claudio Monteverdi.
In her City Culture and the Madrigal in Venice, Martha Feldman has traced
the weave of the rich tapestry of vigorous humanistic discussions taking place in
Venetian academies and the influence of trends in literary theory upon Willaerts
music. We know of his interest in more arcane music theoretical matters from
two primary sources: (1) his enigmatic setting of Quid non ebrietas (probably
written by 1519 and thus predating his time in Venice), which ends on a notated
seventh that actually sounds as an octave due to successive hexachordal mutations
that eventually lead to enharmonicism;10 and (2) his apparent participation in a
Gioseffo Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice: Francesco Franceschi Senese,
1558; facs. edn New York: Broude Brothers, 1965), pp. 12. (Nondimeno l ottimo Iddio, a
cui grato, che la sua infinita potenza, sapienza, & bont sia magnificata & manifestata da
gli huomini con hinni accompagnati da gratiosi & dolci accenti, non li parendo di comportar
pi, che sia tenuta a vile quell arte, che serve al culto suo; & che qua gi ne fa cenno di quanta
soavit possano essere i canti de gli Angioli, i quali nel cielo stanno a lodare la sua maest;
ne h conceduto gratia di far nascere a nostri tempi Adriano Willaert, veramente uno de pi
rari intelletti, che habbia la Musica prattica giamai essercitato: il quale a guisa di nuovo
Pithagora essaminando minutamente quello, che in essa puote occorrere, & ritrovandovi
infiniti errori, ha cominciato a levargli, & a ridurla verso quell honore & dignit, che gi
ella era, & che ragionevolmente doveria essere; & h mostrato un ordine ragionevole di
componere con elegante maniera ogni musical cantilena, & nelle sue compositioni egli ne
h dato chiarissimo essempio.)

Giulio Cesare Monteverdi, Dichiaratione della lettera stampata nel quinto libro de
suoi madregali, in Giulio Cesare Monteverdi (ed.), Scherzi musicali a tre voci di Claudio
Monteverde [sic] (Venice, 1607); trans. in Oliver Strunk (ed.), Source Readings in Music
History; rev. edn Leo Treitler (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1998), pp. 53644.

See also the extensive reviews of Feldmans City Culture by James Haar, Early
Music History 16 (1997), pp. 31828; Brian Mann, Journal of the Royal Musical Association
122/1 (1997), pp. 10919; and Laura Buch, Journal of the American Musicological Society
52/1 (1999), pp. 18393.
10
See Dorothy Keyser, The Character of Exploration: Adrian Willaerts Quid non
ebrietas, in Carol E. Robertson (ed.), Musical Repercussions of 1492 (Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), pp. 185207; further bibliography there. The piece
Contexts
discussion of the genera of ancient Greek music theory, along with music theorists
Giovanni del Lago and Giovanni Spataro, at the house of the Venetian ambassador
of English king Henry VIII, Giambattista Casali, in 1532.11 His humanistic
pondering of the more esoteric theoretical aspects of his craft, which would have
included the legendary ability of ancient music to move the human soul, coupled
with his immersion in a Venetian culture fascinated with questions of style and
decorum, gave birth to the Musica nova madrigals and the theory of interval affect
they embody.
Gioseffo Zarlino (151790) was a native of Chioggia, located on a island
in the Venetian Lagoon less than 20 miles south of the city proper. Other than
what has been gleaned from surviving archival documents and the occasional
autobiographical comment in his writings, most of the sketchy details we know
of his life come from a biography written by mathematician Bernandino Baldi,
who claimed the facts therein were told to him by the theorist himself.12 Zarlino
remained in Chioggia until 1541, receiving his early training from Franciscans
there and earning a series of promotions in his studies toward the priesthood. He
is known to have been a singer at the cathedral in 1536 and its organist from
1539 until 1540. In 1541 he moved to Venice and sometime thereafter began
study with Willaert, though we do not know precisely when or for how long. He
eventually succeeded Willaert and Cipriano de Rore as maestro di cappella at
San Marco in 1565, and remained in that post until his death in 1590.13 Although
caused quite a stir in theoretical circles from at least 1524, as documented in correspondence
between theorists Giovanni Spataro and Pietro Aaron and others (see A Correspondence of
Renaissance Musicians in the following note, letters 1214 and passim), and continues to
generate theoretical discussion in the twenty-first century; see Roger Wibberly, Quid non
ebrietas dissignat? Willaerts Didactic Demonstration of Syntonic Tuning, Music Theory
Online 10/1 (2004), <http://mto.societymusictheory.org/issues/mto.04.10.1>. In his paper
Adrian Willaerts Revenge: A Further Reexamination of His Celebrated Duo, presented
for the 2009 meeting of the Renaissance Society of America, Richard Wexler argued that
the duo was intended to confound the papal singers of the Sistine Chapel in retaliation for a
perceived slight described by Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche 4.36, p. 346 (107).
11
See letters 46 and 98 in Bonnie J. Blackburn, Edward E. Lowinsky, and Clement
A. Miller (eds), A Correspondence of Renaissance Musicians (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1991); see also the commentary by Lowinsky on pp. 554 and 9278.
12
The biographical sketch given here depends largely on Claude V. Palisca, s.v.
Zarlino, Gioseffo, in Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (eds), New Grove Dictionary of
Music and Musicians, second edn (London: Macmillan, 2001). The biography of Zarlino
by Bernardino Baldi was included in the latters Le Vite de Matematici. In unpublished
materials generously shared with me, Benito Rivera has been able to confirm many details
of Baldis account, yet notes that the whole should be approached with caution.
13
See Rebecca Edwards, Setting the Tone at San Marco: Gioseffo Zarlino Amidst
Doge, Procuratori and Cappella Personnel, in La Cappella musicale di San Marco nelleta
moderna: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi, Venezia, Palazzo Giustiniani Lolin, 57
settembre 1994 (Venice: Fondazione Ugo e Olga Levi, 1998), pp. 389400.
Zarlino composed both sacred and secular music, continually served the church,
and pursued scholarly interests in other disciplines, by far his most significant
accomplishments were as a music theorist. When one surveys the history of the
field, Zarlino stands out as a giant who produced a corpus of theoretical works
of immense value; few theorists before or since approach his influence on the
subsequent flow of theoretical discourse.
Active on the Venetian intellectual scene like his mentor, Zarlino sought to
position himself as Willaerts successor and thus as the leading musical authority
in the city, a quest in which he ultimately succeeded; between the two of them,
Willaert and Zarlino held the principal musical post in Venice for sixty years.
Zarlinos monumental Le istitutioni harmoniche of 1558 may have played a
pivotal role in his ascension. Cristle Collins Judd suggests several career-related
reasons why the treatise emerged when it did and was then reissued in 1561 and
1562: (1) Willaert took a leave of absence at San Marco in 1556 in order to return
to Flanders and was known to be in poor health, raising the possibility that he
would not return and a successor might be needed (exacerbated by the fact that
he overstayed his leave), (2) Zarlino needed to respond more generally to the
threats posed by fellow Willaert disciples Rore and Vicentino, the former for his
success as a composer and the latter for the appearance of his Lantica musica
in 1555, and (3) Zarlinos affiliation with the Accademia Veneziana della Fama,
in which he had assumed a leadership role by 1560.14 In the treatise he sought to
display his erudition and to unite speculative and practical theory in one volume
on an unprecedented scale, with its first two parts being devoted to mathematical,
philosophical, and historical considerations, and the third and fourth parts to the
practical concerns of counterpoint and mode.15 He continued to pursue theoretical
matters throughout his lifetime, and, though later editions of Le istitutioni
harmoniche were produced with some revision in 1573 and 158889, refinements
to his ideas and responses to his critics appear principally in two further treatises,
14
Cristle Collins Judd, Reading Renaissance Music Theory: Hearing with the Eyes
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 1968; further bibliography there.
See also Iain Fenlon, Gioseffo Zarlino and Venetian Humanism, introductory essay to
Gioseffo Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1561; facs. edn Bologna: Arnoldo
Forni, 1999), pp. 712; and Feldman, City Culture, pp. 1716. The short-lived tenure of
the Accademia is described in Paul Rose, The Accademia Venetiana: Science and Culture
in Renaissance Venice, Studi veneziani 11 (1969), pp. 191242. For more on Willaerts
illness and the effects of his absence on San Marco, see Ongaro, The Chapel of St. Marks,
pp. 1434 and passim; and Edwards, Setting the Tone at San Marco, pp. 3912.
15
Paliscas Humanism, pp. 24450, his New Grove article on Zarlino, and his
introduction to the translation of Book 3 (The Art of Counterpoint) provide a readily
accessible overview of the intellectual context of the Istitutioni. See also Cristle Collins
Judd, Reading Renaissance Music Theory, pp. 18892; and Jairo Moreno, Musical
Representations, Subjects, and Objects: The Construction of Musical Thought in Zarlino,
Descartes, Rameau, and Weber (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press,
2004), pp. 2543.
Contexts
Dimostrationi harmoniche of 1571 and Sopplimenti musicali of 1588.16 Because it

remained Zarlinos principal statement on compositional practice in general, and
on the theory of interval affect in particular, and because of its closer temporal
proximity to his studies with Willaert, the 1558 edition of the Istitutioni will be the
principal source for Zarlinos ideas used in the current study.17
Though Zarlino makes reference to a number of classical authorities as
well as composers and theorists of his own and preceding generations in the
Istitutioni, it is clear that Willaerts teaching and compositional practice form the
principal foundations upon which his theory rests, as he explicitly states in the
later Sopplimenti musicali.18 Martha Feldman suggests that his focus on Willaert
may have been influenced by Bembos single-model theory of imitation; in his
own work, Bembo chose Petrarch as his principal model for Tuscan poetry, and
Boccaccio for prose.19 In a similar vein, Zarlino frequently cites Willaerts works
in his discussions of counterpoint and mode in Le istitutioni harmoniche, and it has
been suggested that, through these citations and the overt homage paid to Willaert,
he hoped not only to establish authority for his theory, but also to suggest Willaerts
approval of it.20 The citations include many Musica nova works and demonstrate
16
Gioseffo Zarlino, Dimostrationi harmoniche (Venice: Francesco Franceschi Senese,
1571; facs. edn New York: Broude Brothers, 1965); Gioseffo Zarlino, Sopplimenti musicali
(Venice: Francesco Franceschi Senese, 1588; facs. edn New York: Broude Brothers, 1979).
All references to Zarlinos writings in the current study are to Le istitutioni harmoniche
unless otherwise specified.
17
The differences between the 1558 edition and later editions of Le istitutioni
harmoniche will be taken into account here as they are relevant to the topic at hand. For a
comparison of the 1558 edition with the final edition produced during Zarlinos lifetime in
158889, see Paolo Da Col, Tradizione e scienza: Le Istitutioni harmoniche di Gioseffo
Zarlino, introductory study to Gioseffo Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1561;
facs. edn Bologna: Arnoldo Forni, 1999), pp. 5495; also appears in English translation by
Hugh Ward-Perkins as The Tradition and Science: The Istitutioni harmoniche of Gioseffo
Zarlino, pp. 3555.
18
Gioseffo Zarlino, Sopplimenti musicali, p. 9. (Ne fu mai ne anco mia intentione
di scriuer luso della Prattica secondo l modo de gli Antichi, Greci, Latini, se bene alle
fiate la v adombrando; ma solamente il modo di quelli, channo ritrovato questa nostra
maniera, nel far cantar insieme molte parti, con diverse Modulationi, & diverse Aria, &
specialmente secondo la via & il modo tenuto dAdriano Vuillaert, prattico eccellentissimo,
di giudicio grande, di felicissima & fecondissima memoria, & di grande, isperientia nella
Musica, & nelle cose della Prattica mio Precettore.)
19
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 129 and 1724.
20
See Cristle Collins Judd, Reading Renaissance Music Theory, pp. 179261 for a
penetrating examination of the factors influencing Zarlinos choice and use of citations
of musical works in Le istitutioni harmoniche, and of the origins, theoretical and cultural
contexts, and publication history of the treatise. See also Paolo Da Col, Tradizione e
scienza; and Katelijne Schiltz, Self-Citation and Self-Promotion: Zarlino and the Miserere
Tradition, in Mark Delaere and Pieter Berg (eds), Recevez ce mien petit labeur: Studies
that he was thoroughly familiar with this collection prior to its publication (which
occurred after that of his treatise).
While Zarlino largely was a codifier and defender of tradition, balance, and
order, Nicola Vicentino (151176) styled himself, and is known today, primarily as
an innovator who based his experiments in chromatic and enharmonic theory and
composition on his supposed reconstruction of the music of the ancient Greeks,
as he makes clear in the title of his treatise Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna
prattica of 1555, translated by Maria Rika Maniates as Ancient Music Adapted to
Modern Practice.21 He spent his early years in his birthplace of Vicenza, less than
40 miles west of Venice, and thus in fairly close proximity to Willaert.22 Though it
is generally assumed that he studied with Willaert in Venice in the 1530s, the extent
and nature of those studies have not been established, nor do we currently have
solid evidence establishing a relationship between the two, other than Vicentinos
claim to be Willaerts disciple (discussed below) and his obvious familiarity with
Willaerts methods. We know little about his formal training except for the fact
that he had been ordained to the priesthood, and we know virtually nothing of his
life before he emerged as a singer in the employment of the powerful dEste family
in Ferrara, principally for Cardinal Ippolito II. It has not been established when
this service began or ended, but it could have begun several years before he is
known to have been in Rome in the company of the cardinal in 1549, and perhaps
ended by 1561 when Vicentino announced his availability for a new position in
a published broadside describing an instrument of his design.23 By 1563 he had
returned to Vicenza and assumed the post of maestro di cappella at the cathedral,
yet he resigned from this post in January of 1565. In a letter dating from 1570,
he refers to himself as the rector of the church of Saint Thomas in Milan,24 and
documentary evidence examined by Davide Daolmi suggests that he was granted
this post during 1565, the year of his departure from Vicenza.25 Vicentino was
in Renaissance Music in Honour of Ignace Bossuyt (Leuven: Leuven University Press,
2008), pp. 21125.
21
Nicola Vicentino, Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica (Rome, 1555; facs.
edn, Kassel, Basel, London, and New York: Brenreiter, 1959); trans. Maria Rika Maniates
as Ancient Music Adapted to Modern Practice (New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 1996).
22
The principal biographical study of Vicentino remains Henry Kaufmanns The
Life and Works of Nicola Vicentino (American Institute of Musicology, 1966). See also
Maniatess introduction to her translation of his treatise. Documents relating to Vicentino
and his time in Milan have been gathered and studied extensively in Davide Daolmi, Don
Nicola Vicentino: Arcimusico in Milano (Lucca: Libreria Musicale Italiana, 1999). The
biographical sketch presented here is drawn primarily from these sources.
23
See Henry W. Kaufmann, Vicentinos Arciorgano: An Annotated Translation,
Journal of Music Theory 5 (1961), pp. 3841.
24
Facsimile and translation in Kaufmann, Life and Works, pp. 4041.
25
Daolmi, Don Nicola Vicentino, pp. 6370 and 15961.
Contexts
long thought to have died in Milan during an outbreak of the plague in 1576, yet
Daolmi revises the date of his death precisely to April 11, 1577.26
Vicentino never secured a major post such as that held by Willaert and Zarlino
at San Marco, and of necessity was a vigorous self-promoter of his speculative
theories and experimental music. He designed microtonal instruments to play in
the chromatic and enharmonic genera and to teach and accompany the specially
trained singers with whom he traveled about Italy in order to perform his music.27
He did achieve a fair degree of fame for his experiments, though even his own
musicians had difficulty performing his music on occasion and little of it has
survived, both facts suggesting that it would not have been in widespread use.
Yet Vicentinos innovations and instruments were influential on other progressive
composers active in Ferrara at the time such as Luzzasco Luzzaschi and Carlo
Gesualdo.
Documentary evidence indicates that by 1549 Vicentino was teaching his ideas
about the chromatic and enharmonic genera and that a treatise on the subject was
in the works or at least planned.28 Maniates asserts that the treatise was originally
intended to establish Vicentinos authority and prepare the way for publication
of his compositions in these genera.29 Vicentinos plans and the treatise itself
were affected greatly by his 1551 debate with Vicente Lusitano over whether the
music of their time was written in the diatonic genus of ancient Greek theory, or a
mixture of the diatonic with the chromatic and enharmonic genera, with Lusitano
arguing the former position, and Vicentino the latter.30 The judges of the debate
26
Ibid., pp. 1014. Daolmi also questions whether Vicentino died of the plague or
from another cause.
27
Vicentinos chromatic and enharmonic music has been studied extensively; see
primarily Kaufmann, Life and Works; Karol Berger, Theories of Chromatic and Enharmonic
Music in Late 16th Century Italy (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1980); Maniates,
introduction to Ancient Music Adapted to Modern Practice; and especially Manfred Cordes,
Nicola Vicentinos Enharmonik Musik mit 31 Tnen (Graz: Akademische Druck- und
Verlagsanstalt, 2007), which contains audio recordings of the genera and musical examples
from Vicentinos treatise.
28
See Kaufmann, Life and Works, pp. 212; Maniates, Ancient Music Adapted to
Modern Practice, pp. xvxvii and 4456; and Richard J. Agee, The Privilege and Venetian
Music Printing in the Sixteenth Century (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1982),
pp. 814 and 1012.
29
Ibid., p. xvii.
30
On the debate and its aftermath, see Kaufmann, Life and Works; Maria Augusta
Alves Barbosa, Vincentius Lusitanus: Ein Portugiesischer Komponist und Musiktheoretiker
des 16. Jahrhunderts (Lisbon: Secretaria de Estado da Cultura, 1977); Berger, Theories of
Chromatic and Enharmonic Music; Ann E. Moyer, Musica Scientia: Musical Scholarship
in the Italian Renaissance (Ithaca and London: Cornell, 1992); Maria Rika Maniates,
introduction to Nicola Vicentino, Ancient Music Adapted to Modern Practice; Giuliana
Gialdroni, introduction to Vincenzo Lusitano, Introduttione facilissima et novissima di
canto fermo, figurato, contraponto semplice et in concerto (Venice, 1553; facs. edn Lucca:
10
ruled in Lusitanos favor, much to Vicentinos chagrin. In his treatise, Vicentino

summarizes the circumstances and arguments of the debate, and it often pulses
with his resentment over the outcome and functions as an apology for his position.
It is interesting that the debate centered on the same topic discussed by Willaert,
Spataro, and del Lago in Venice some 19 years before. According to Spataros
account of that discussion, the conclusion they reached would support the position
Vicentino later argued: that modern music represented a mixture of the genera.31
Vicentinos treatise has traditionally been regarded as a manifesto for his
experimental compositional practice, and certainly it fulfills this purpose. Many
aspects of the treatise are firmly grounded in the common compositional practice
of his day, however, as it was also his purpose to explicate how modern music
related to ancient music. Though Vicentino mentions no composers by name in his
treatise, in his first book of five-voice madrigals, published in 1546, he declares
himself a disciple of Willaert, and claims to have written the madrigals therein
according to the theory and practice of his master.32
While both Vicentino and Zarlino declare allegiance to Willaert, and while
both discuss interval affect in a manner largely consonant with his practice (with
the exceptions noted below), they could not agree upon which intervals should
be used in composition. Vicentino the progressive embraced microtonal intervals
Libreria Musicale Italiana Editrice, 1989); and Timothy R. McKinney, Point/Counterpoint:
Vicentinos Musical Rebuttal to Lusitano, Early Music 33/3 (2005), pp. 393411; further
bibliography in these sources.
31
See A Correspondence of Renaissance Musicians, letter 46, pp. 54853, and
particularly Lowinskys commentary on p. 554, which notes the similarity between the
wording of Spataros letter and Vicentinos statement of his position. See also Lowinskys
Adrian Willaerts Chromatic Duo Re-Examined, pp. 1213; reprinted in Music and the
Culture of the Renaissance and Other Essays, vol. 2, pp. 6856. Vicentino presented the
view that the presence of the major third indicated the enharmonic genus and the minor
third the chromatic genus, arguing that these intervals did not occur between adjacent tones
in the diatonic genus. Zarlino criticized Vicentino, though not by name, on this very point,
among others, in Chapters 7280 of the third part of Le istitutioni harmoniche, published
three years after Vicentinos treatise. Zarlinos position, like that of Lusitano and Ghiselin
Danckerts before him, was that, while intervals such as the major third and minor third may
be components of the enharmonic and chromatic genera, respectively, their presence alone
does not mean that one is writing in those genera, as these intervals occur as well between
non-adjacent tones in the diatonic genus; he argued that one must see the chromatic semitone
(such as CC) to have the chromatic genus, and a quartertone to have the enharmonic.
For more on the tacit relationship between Zarlinos and Vicentinos treatises, see Michael
Fend, Theorie des Tonsystems: Das erste und zweite Buch der Istitutioni harmoniche (1573),
Europische Hochschulschriften 36/43 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1989), pp. 3979
and 42333.
32
Del unico Adrian Willaerth Discipulo / Don Nicola Vicentino / Madrigali a cinque
voci per theorica / et pratica da lui composti al nuovo modo / dal celeberrimo suo maestro
/ ritrovata. Libro primo (Venice, 1546).
Contexts
11
that Zarlino the conservative clearly rejects in the final chapter of the counterpoint
portion of his treatise, entitled A rebuttal to the opinions of the chromaticists
(Opinioni delli Chromatisti ributtate) and tacitly directed at Vicentino. Though
their general philosophical stances and their views of what music should be like
are often widely divergent, the notion of interval affect nonetheless proves to be
a common thread linking their theories and compositional practices with those
of Willaert. As we shall see in the following chapters, in Willaerts expressive
shadings of harmony we often find embodied the core tenet upon which Vicentinos
and Zarlinos theories of interval affect agree: that the major and minor imperfect
consonances are suitable for the expression of antithetical affects.
The Novelty of the Theory of Interval Affect
The notion that music can convey thoughts and stir emotions is perhaps as old
as music itself. From ancient Greece onward learned authorities have asserted
that the expressive character of music yoked to words should be appropriate to
the meaning and mood of these words, and that mode and rhythm were principal
means by which this could be accomplished.33 The Greek concept of ethos was
transmitted by Boethius to the Middle Ages,34 where writers filtered it through
the musical repertoire they knew and adopted it for their own purposes, though
they were unknowingly grappling with a different modal system. Sometimes their
discussions provide vague clues about practical aspects of mode or melody that
might contribute to musics expressive power, such as range or characteristic
melodic figures;35 in particular, plagal modes tended to be viewed as more
See, for example, Platos famous call for harmonia (which means more than
merely scale type) and rhythm to follow the words and his coupling of certain harmoniai
to sorrowful, convivial, or warlike subjects in his Republic (excerpt translated in Oliver
Strunk, Source Readings in Music History, pp. 1011). See also Thomas J. Mathiesen,
Greek Music Theory, in The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory; Thomas J.
Mathiesen, Apollos Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages
(Lincoln, Nebraska: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1999); and Warren Anderson and Thomas
J. Mathiesen, s.v. Ethos in New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second ed.
(London: Macmillan, 2001).
34
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, De institutione musica (c. 505); modern edition
by Gottfried Friedlein (Frankfurt: Minerva, 1966); trans. Calvin Bower as Fundamentals of
Music (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989).
35
For example, Johannes Affligemensis refers to the well-bred high spirits and the
sudden fall to the final of the fifth mode and the hoarse profundity of the second in his
De musica (c. 1100), Chapter 16, in Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum,
edited by Martin Gerbert (3 vols, St. Blaise: Typis San-Blasianis, 1784; reprint edition,
Hildesheim: Olms, 1963), vol. 3, p. 253; translation from Warren Babb in Hucbald, Guido,
and John on Music: Three Medieval Treatises (New Haven and London: Yale Univ. Press,
1978), p. 133. He also advises composers to compose chant so aptly that it seems to
33
12
somber than their authentic counterparts. Driven by theoretical tradition and

a renewed interest in recapturing the legendary expressive power of ancient
music, discussions of modal ethos continued in the sixteenth century, yet nothing
resembling a universally consistent theory developed, and modern attempts to
establish connections between the prevailing affect of a text and a composers
choice of mode have met with mixed results at best.36 I am not aware of any
evidence suggesting that music theorists discussing polyphonic music prior to
the 1550s were concerned with the affective quality of intervals in a systematic
way, whether in the abstract or in relation to an intervals position within a mode.
Previous theorists attended to intervals primarily for their propaedeutical value
as fundamental building blocks of musical structure, necessary for constructing
theoretical pitch systems such as tetrachords, hexachords, modes, and so forth, or
for addressing melodic, harmonic, or contrapuntal concepts. Although the terms
major and minor, or their equivalents, were applied to certain intervals,37 these
terms were understood more quantitatively than qualitatively, as typified in this
express what the words say (uti ita proprie cantum proponat, ut quod verba sonant, cantus
exprimere videatur) in Chapter 18; Hucbald, Guido, and John on Music, p. 137.
36
An extensive historical survey of comments on modal ethos occurs in Steven Charles
Krantz, Rhetorical and Structural Functions of Mode in Selected Motets of Josquin des
Prez, (2 vols, Ph.D. dissertation: University of Minnesota, 1989). Other representative
samples from a large body of literature that touches upon this topic include Claude V.
Palisca, Mode Ethos in the Renaissance, in Essays in Musicology: A Tribute to Alvin
Johnson (Philadelphia: American Musicological Society, 1990), pp. 12639; Bernhard
Meier, The Modes of Classical Vocal Polyphony Described According to the Sources, trans.
Ellen Beebe (New York: Broude Brothers, 1988; original German edition 1974), pp. 385
405 and passim; Bernhard Meier, Rhetorical Aspects of the Renaissance Modes, Journal
of the Royal Music Association 115/2 (1990), pp. 18290; Manfred Cordes, Tonart und
Affekt in der Musik des 16. Jahrhunderts, Jahrbuch alte Musik 2 (1993), pp. 925; Angela
Jane Lloyd, Modal Representation in the Early Madrigals of Cipriano de Rore (Ph.D.
dissertation, Royal Holloway College, University of London, 1996), pp. 28192; Harold S.
Powers and Frans Wiering, s.v. Mode in New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
second ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001); Wiering, The Language of the Modes: Studies in
the History of Polyphonic Music (New York and London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 1315,
160, and passim; and Hartmut Krones, Secundus tonus est gravis et flebilisTertius tonus
severus est: Zur Semantik der Modi in Trauermotetten der Zeit um 1500, in Stefan Gasch
and Birgit Lodes (eds), Tod in Musik und Kultur: Zum 500. Todestag Philipps des Schnen,
(Tutzing: Hans Schneider, 2007), pp. 15788.
37
Carl Dahlhaus has examined the numerous ways the terms durum and molle
have been applied to music over the centuries in his Die Termini Dur und Moll, Archiv
fr Musikwissenschaft 12 (1955), pp. 28096. See also David E. Cohen, Notes, scales, and
modes in the earlier Middle Ages, in Thomas Christensen (ed.), The Cambridge History of
Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002), pp. 30763. Bernhard
Meier notes that, although not yet widespread in written sources, the Latin terms tertia
dura and tertia mollis for the major and minor third, respectively, begin to appear in
theoretical treatises written in Germany in the early 16th century; The Modes, p. 406.
Contexts
13
definition drawn from the influential Contrapunctus (1412) of Prosdocimo de

Beldomandi: An interval is said to be major because it is extended over a greater
distance, minor because it is extended over a lesser.38 As for employing these
intervals in polyphonic composition, the choice of major or minor is made upon
the basis of contrapuntal progression: for you should always choose that form,
whether major or minor, that is less distant from that location which you intend
immediately to reach.39 Traditionally, no particular expressive function was
assigned to the imperfect consonances beyond their tendency to seek perfection by
moving to perfect consonances,40 and no general distinction between the emotive
properties of major and minor was made.41
In their published theories of interval affect stemming from Willaerts
compositional and pedagogical practices, on the other hand, Vicentino and Zarlino
ascribe specific expressive characteristics to certain intervals, ascriptions which
in their simplest and most familiar guise survive until the present day: major
intervals are suitable for happy affections, and minor intervals for sad ones.
Perhaps the most clear-cut example of the compositional conflation of the happy/
sad and major/minor dichotomies in Willaerts Musica nova occurs in the oft-cited
opening of the seven-voice dialogue Liete e pensose (Example 1.1).42 Here the
38
Prosdocimo de Beldomandi, Contrapunctus (1412), ed. and trans. Jan Herlinger;
Greek and Latin Music Theory 1 (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press,
1984), 3.7, pp. 545. (et dicitur maior combinatio quia per maiorem distantiam dilatatur,
minor vero quia per minorem.)
39
Prosdocimo, 5.6, pp. 823. (quoniam illam semper sumere debes que minus distat
a loco ad quem immediate accedere intendis )
40
On the history of this notion, see David E. Cohen, The Imperfect Seeks Its
Perfection: Harmonic Progression, Directed Motion, and Aristotelian Physics, Music
Theory Spectrum 23/2 (Fall, 2001), pp. 13969.
41
Though one interval may be described as more or less harsh or sweet than another,
as in Stephanus Vanneuss description of the effect of ending on a minor third as being less
sweet (suavis) than ending on a major third; Recanetum de musica aurea (Rome 1533; facs.
edn Kassel, Basel, Paris, and London: Brenreiter, 1969), 3.37, fol. 91r.
42
See, for representative samples, the discussion of Liete e pensose in Erich
Hertzmann, Adrian Willaert in der weltlichen Vokalmusik seiner Zeit: Ein Beitrag zur
Entwicklungsgeschichte der niederlndisch-franzsischen und italienischen Liedformen in
der ersten Hlfte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hrtel, 1931), p. 53; Armen
Carapetyan, The Musica Nova of Adriano Willaert: With a Reference to the Humanistic
Society of 16th Century Venice (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1945), pp. 1856;
Mace, Pietro Bembo, pp. 8083; Bernhard Meier, The Modes, p. 415; David Alan Nutter,
The Italian Polyphonic Dialogue of the Sixteenth Century (Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Nottingham, 1978), p. 55; Maria Anne Archetto, Francesco Portinaro and the Academies
of the Veneto in the Sixteenth Century (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, 1991),
pp. 18490; Martha Feldman, City Culture, pp. 2534; and Paul Christopher Schick,
Concordia Discourse: Polyphony and Dialogue in Willaert, Wert, and Monteverdi (Ph.D.
dissertation, Yale University, 1997), pp. 6685.
14
word liete (happy) is set with two sustained major sonorities, and the following
e pensose (and pensive) with three minor ones.43 Though the affective contrast
in this example might be viewed by some as nave or shallow, we shall see in the
course of this study that, in Willaerts expert hands, the dichotomy between major
and minor intervals provides the basis for far more subtle and profound expressive
interpretations of texts.
Example 1.1 Adrian Willaert, Liete e pensose, mm. 15
Text-Music Relations in General

It will be helpful to distinguish between different ways in which music and text
may interact, and in doing so I shall draw upon the useful categories of text-music
relations suggested not long ago by Leeman Perkins.44 In addition to declamatory,
43
Similar contrasts occur at Ov la vita (where is [my] life) and ove la morte
mia, (where [is] my death) in mm. 1425 and Liete siam (we are happy) and Dogliose
([we are] sad) in mm. 3744. Willaert uses several expressive devices other than harmonic
sonority in these passages, such as the bright F and predominantly ascending motion at
vita and a darker B and descending motion with morte, and the vigorous octave leap at
vita in the settima parte in m. 21 versus the much more somber minor sixth leap into B
at morte in m. 23. See also the discussion of the former passage in James Anderson Winn,
Unsuspected Eloquence: A History of the Relations between Poetry and Music (New Haven
and London: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 1468.
44
Leeman Perkins, Towards a Theory of Text-Music Relations in the Music of the
Renaissance, in Andrew Kirkman and Dennis Slavin (eds), Binchois Studies (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 31329. See also the lists of sixteenth-century expressive
devices in Bernhard Meier, The Modes, pp. 23747; and James Haar, Essays on Italian
Poetry and Music in the Renaissance, 13501600 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 1986), pp. 1345; the extensive catalogue of associative devices in Irving
Contexts
15
formal, and syntactical levels of text-music relations, he defines three expressive

levels: rhetorical, mimetic, and affective. In a broader sense, of course, each of
Perkinss categories intersects with some aspect of rhetorical theory, yet the category
he calls rhetorical expression describes an emphasis on significant words of
the text by the manner of their presentation, which can be considered separately
from either their intrinsic meaning alone or their possible affective resonances.45
The mimetic level encompasses the concept of word-painting and consists of two
principal types: (1) sonorous mimesis seeks to imitate an actual sound, such as
birdsong or a trumpet call, that is specifically mentioned or referenced indirectly in
the text; and (2) cognitive mimesis establishes a conceptual link between a textual
element and a musical element or elements, such as the use of quick note values
with a word such as flee, or a rising line with and ascended into heaven.46 The
affective level comprises the representation and communication in music of the
emotional content of the text.
Perkins notes that the affective level is by far the most problematic category
in which to pin down compositional intent because contemporary treatises do not
explain how to manipulate musical affect, at least prior to the writings of Vicentino
and Zarlino, and because there seemed to be no coherent doctrine or theory
concerning affective response during the Renaissance.47 It is only beginning
with the Willaert school that the presence of an intentional affective level in textmusic relations can be established beyond a reasonable doubt because there we
have not only the evidence provided by Willaerts music, but also the testimony
of the treatises of Vicentino and Zarlino that explicitly encourage the affective
deployment of specific musical devices in the precise manner found in Willaerts
madrigals.48
Another potential problem is the ease with which rhetorical emphasis of words
or phrases may be mistaken for affective expression, particularly by observers from
another era. The methods of rhetorical emphasis Perkins lists include an abrupt
interruption of the rhythmic pace, a shift in the mensuration, a change in voicing or
Godt, A Systematic Classification for Madrigalism, Ars lyrica 7 (1993), pp. 7881; and the
list of affective devices for weeping in Ute Ringhandt, Sunt lacrimae rerum: Untersuchungen
zur Darstellung des Weinens in der Musik, (Sinzig: Studio, 2001), pp. 467.
45
Perkins, Towards a Theory, p. 323.
46
Ibid., pp. 3247.
47
48
After citing Zarlinos famous comments in Book 4, Chapter 32 of Le istitutioni
harmoniche (quoted in Chapter 2 below), Perkins suggests that the practice they describe
represents an extension of cognitive mimesis; that is, musical devices are applied to
individual happy or sad words or phrases with descriptive intent rather than a truly affective
one; they imitate the emotion mentioned in the text rather than convey it, at least in the
sense meant by Vincenzo Galilei in reference to setting the overall affection of the text
rather than painting its details only; pp. 3289. Perkins nonetheless considers the practice
Zarlino describes as affective, though as a sublevel of the mimetic.
16
register, or modification of the prevailing contrapuntal texture.49 To illustrate how

rhetorical emphasis might work in connection with harmonic quality, a possibility
not specifically mentioned by Perkins yet falling well within his parameters, I draw
upon an example from one of Willaerts disciples, Baldassare Donato.50 Donato
dedicated his first madrigal book to the Cardinal of Santo Angelo, whom Martha
Feldman identifies as Ranuccio Farnese.51 An interesting use of major harmonic
quality to emboss this dedication in the music itself occurs in the first madrigal,
Mentre questalme et honorate rive, the text of which names Rinnuccio (see
Example 1.2). The name is stated and repeated in long note values primarily
within a major sonority over F that is sustained for three full measures, flanked
on either end with major sonorities over C.52 In this case the major sonorities and
static harmonic rhythm serve a general rhetorical function rather than an affective
one: they make the name stand out clearly for the dedicatee and others to hear.53
Example 1.2 Baldassare Donato, Mentre questalme et honorate rive, mm. 1216
49

See the further discussion of Baldassare Donato in Chapter 5, pp. 27982.
51
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 39091, gives the entire dedication and her translation of it.
52
Throughout this study I shall employ the modern convenience of referring to
specific locations within Renaissance musical works by measure numbers and beats.
53
A well-known earlier example of musical embossing of a dedicatees name, yet
without the emphasis on major harmonic sonority, occurs in Dufays chanson Resvellies
vous et faites chiere lye, written for the marriage of Carlo Malatesta and Vittoria Colonna
in 1423. Dufay set Charle gentil with four homorhythmic sonorities in equal slow note
values with a fermata over each, a sharp contrast to the consistent use of faster note values
throughout the chanson, except at major cadence points, in order to ensure that Carlo heard
his name (in its French equivalent). Other examples of this and other means of rhetorical
emphasis of certain words are cited in Perkins, Towards a Theory, pp. 3234.
50
Contexts
17
Donato enhances this musical embossing of the name through the ascending octave
and fifth leaps in the bass and quinto that mimic shouts of acclamation.
While we are not likely to confuse this particular rhetorical use of harmonic
sonority with an affective one, such distinctions can be difficult to make. A wellknown and much earlier passage from Guillaume Dufays four-voice setting of Ave
regina caelorum provides a case in point (see Example 1.3). 54 Dufay composed
this work in 1464 with the intention that it be sung at his deathbed, interjecting at
intervals into the Marian text portions of his trope Miserere tui labentis Dufay
(have mercy on your perishing Dufay). In two passages Perkins observes the
introduction of an E at Miserere that sounds in sharp contrast to the pitches
of the natural hexachord with which the preceding phrases conclude their melodic
lines, yet rightly passes over the fact that the E changes what would be a C major
sonority into a C minor one.55 He views the pronounced effect of the E as but one
element in a compositional strategy intended to give rhetorical emphasis to the
textual change from Marian text to personal trope, and, though he acknowledges
that such rhetorical emphases may result in an emotional impact upon the listener,
he concludes that such gestures must be distinguished from those that are truly
affective.
Others have seized upon the change in harmonic/modal quality in this particular
case as an end in itself. Heinrich Bessler claimed that Dufay intended to interpret
the text in a very personal way by making a striking turn from C major to
C minor.56 Leon Plantinga later echoed this sentiment, noting that the distinct
emotional connotations of major and minor modes have been in evidence for a
very long time and calling the trope in Ave regina caelorum perhaps the earliest
clear demonstration, because the music at that point abruptly (and, to our modern
ears, appropriately) shifts from major to minor.57 It is true that the harmony shifts
from major to minor from Besslers and Plantingas twentieth-century audial
perspectives, and appropriately so to those steeped in the affective modal contrasts
of Schubert songs, or the minor-mode funeral-march and major-mode triumphantmarch topics used by Beethoven, Chopin, Mahler, and many others, or the related
large-scale nineteenth-century tragic or tragic-to-triumphant expressive genres,
See Guillaume Dufay, Opera omnia, vol. 5, Compositiones Liturgicae Minores,
ed. Heinrich Besseler, Corpus mensurabilis musicae 1 (Rome: American Institute of
Musicology, 1966).
55
Perkins, Towards a Theory, p. 324. The first passage begins in m. 21. I give the
second passage in Example 1.3 because it is the more striking of the two, and it is the one
to which Besseler refers in his comments (see below).
56
Heinrich Besseler, introduction to Guillaume Dufay, Opera omnia, vol. 5,
Compositiones Liturgicae Minores, p. iv.
57
Leon Plantinga, Poetry and Music: Two Episodes in a Durable Relationship, in
Nancy Kovaleff Baker and Barbara Russano Hanning (eds), Musical Humanism and Its
Legacy: Essays in Honor of Claude V. Palisca (Stuyvesant, New York: Pendragon Press,
1992), p. 327.
54
18
Example 1.3 Guillaume Dufay, Ave Regina caelorum, mm. 7796
Contexts
19
defined by Robert Hatten, that may span an entire multimovement work,58 or

in myriad other affective uses of mode in music for concert, theater, film, and
television. But the question in relation to Dufays Ave regina caelorum should
be How would the E sound to fifteenth-century ears, and to what would its
expressive effect be attributed?
The answer to this question does not lie in anachronistic concepts such as
major and minor modes or triads; from our modern perspective these entities
might be apparent, yet their mere presence does not elucidate their coeval intent or
interpretation. In his setting of Ave regina coelorum, Dufay naturally would have
been aware that the flat would change the sound of the interval above C. Yet the flat
and its sonic effect are better understood rhetorically, and not from the standpoint
that the harmonic minor third or a minor mode were considered inherently sad
at the time and therefore appropriate to a deathbed plea for mercy.59 As Alejandro
Planchart has said, the nature of the music, with its uncommon setting of the two
miserere tropes and the ecstatic ending of both partes plainly points to the
contrast, more than implied in the tropes, between earthly despair and the hope
of salvation.60 Dufay reflects this contrast by suddenly and unexpectedly shifting
into a different pitch-space, a softer one in both sound and symbol (as discussed
further below). The minorness of the resulting sonority certainly contributes
to the effect of the passage, but one cannot safely conclude that this minorness
was the primary intent behind introducing the flats, nor that minorness would be
taken affectively in and of itself at the time (i.e., detached from the accidentals).
Furthermore, minorness does not persist throughout the passage; rather, it
emphasizes the entry of the trope and its textual contrast.
One might more profitably speculate that a tradition of expressive manipulation
of pitch-space could have prompted a composer such as Willaert to experiment
with utilizing harmonic interval quality systematically for expression of emotional
affects. From a purely practical standpoint, given that two basic harmonic qualities
predominate in sixteenth-century music, given the growing concern with expressing
the text that characterizes vocal music of the century, given the long taxonomic
tradition of using harsh/sweet and hard/soft oppositions in music theory61 (as well
Robert Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and
Interpretation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 79, 290, and passim.
59
See also the discussion of a similar striking accidental in another of Dufays works
in Don Michael Randel, Dufay the Reader, in Music and Language (New York: Broude
Brothers, 1983), p. 72.
60
Alejandro Planchart, Notes on Guillaume Du Fays Last Works, Journal of
Musicology 13/1 (1995), p. 60. Planchart (p. 56) remains open to the possibility that the
changes in harmonic color were intended affectively. See also Robert Nosow, Song and
the Art of Dying, Musical Quarterly 82/34 (1998), pp. 5426.
61
For example, Boethiuss basic descriptions of the diatonic genus as aliquanto durius
while the chromatic genus is mollius (1.21, p. 21213), and consonance as suaviter while
dissonance is aspera (1.8, p. 195) are replicated again and again down the centuries.
58
20
as in philosophical thought more generally), and given the prevalence of such

oppositions in the Petrarchan poetry that attracted Willaert and many subsequent
madrigalists, it seems inevitable that the major and minor harmonic qualities
would eventually be assigned to opposite sides of an affective spectrum.
In my examination of the extant madrigals of Verdelot, Arcadelt, Willaert,
Rore, Parabosco, Vicentino, Zarlino, Wert, and others, I have found that
expressive uses of harmonic intervals that can be documented through recurring
usage generally derive from one or more of three basic techniques: (1) contrast
between contrapuntally consonant and dissonant intervals; (2) contrast between
five-three and six-three sonorities (root-position and first-inversion triads in
modern terminology); and (3) contrast between major and minor intervals.62 Of
these three techniques, instances of the first two are found far more frequently
and consistently in the works of a broader spectrum of composers, yet it is the
first and third techniques upon which Vicentino and Zarlino focus their theoretical
attention, as we shall see in the next chapter, and they do not even mention the
second as such. In the madrigal repertoire, numerous examples exist in which
textual ideas such as harshness, torment, or sorrow call forth a series of harmonic
major and minor sixths without any noticeable attempt to emphasize one quality
over the other (see, for instance, Example 2.19 in the following chapter, p. 90). In
such cases, composers utilize the generic harmonic instability of the sixth and its
ability to move in parallel motion (as compared to the fifth in both regards) rather
than its specific quality.
Pulling back to a broader point of view for a moment, we may recall that
various expressive uses of fauxbourdon or fauxbourdon-like successions of sixth
chords have been recognized from the time of Dufay in the mid-fifteenth century,
and that in sixteenth-century sacred and secular vocal music they frequently occur
at textual references to anguish, harshness, bitterness, hardness, sorrow, weeping,
weakness, antiquity, sin or other bad quality, and so forth.63 In isolated cases
62
As we have just seen in relation to Dufay, a related technique involves manipulation
of pitch-space through accidental inflection. Although such manipulations affect harmonic
intervals, the primary expressive intent may lie in the alteration of the pitch-space itself or
in the creation of expressive alterations to melodic intervals.
63
To cite but a few examples from the literature, see Theodor Kroyer, Die threnodische
Bedeutung der Quart in der Mensuralmusik, in Bericht ber den Musikwissenschaftlichen
Kongress in Basel (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hrtel, 1925), pp. 23142; Fritz Feldmann,
Untersuchungen zum Wort-Ton-Verhltnis in den Gloria-Credo-Stzen von Dufay bis Josquin,
Musica Disciplina 8 (1954), especially pp. 16064; Willem Elders, Guillaume Dufays Concept
of Faux-Bourdon, in Symbolic Scores: Studies in the Music of the Renaissance (Leiden, New
York, and Kln: Brill, 1994), especially pp. 28 and 4041; Patrick Macey, Josquin and Musical
Rhetoric, in Richard Sherr (ed.), The Josquin Companion (Oxford and New York: Oxford
University Press, 2000), especially pp. 490 and 50713; Bernhard Meier, The Modes, pp. 2467;
Bernhard Meier, Affektives in Komposition und Ausfhrung von Vokalmusik der Renaissance,
in Hartmut Krones (ed.), Alte Musik und Musikpdagogik, (Vienna, Bohlau, 1997), pp. 12737;
Ellen S. Beebe, Text and Mode as Generators of Musical Structure in Clemens non Papas
Contexts
21
the change from a normal contrapuntal texture, featuring many stable five-three
sonorities, to an emphasis on less stable six-three sonorities and parallel voiceleading perhaps constitutes sonorous mimesis by imitating the rise and fall of the
voice of one who weeps and wails. Most instances, however, represent cognitive
mimesis, depending as they do upon the listener making the association between
the harmonic instability and weakness in the music and the emotional or physical
instability or weakness mentioned in the text, or on associating a waywardness
in voice-leading with sin or some other digression from natural order, or on
associating an outdated musical style with times past, and so forth.
Expressive contrasts between five-three and six-three sonorities do not depend
entirely upon associations with fauxbourdon, though, but can be based simply on
harmonic strength alone. Consider the passage from Lassuss Penitential Psalms
shown in Example 1.4, where the text translates as They that return bad for good.
What modern theory would call a root-position triad, perhaps decorated with a
suspension, accompanies every syllable of every word in the passage, except the
two syllables of mala (bad). These bear six-three sonorities featuring major sixths,
an interval described as harsh or almost dissonant by Zarlino and Vicentino.64
Example 1.4 Orlande de Lassus, Psalmus Tertius Poenitentialis, verse 21, mm. 15
Accesserunt ad Jesum, in Music and Language, Studies in the History of Music 1 (New York:
Broude Brothers, 1983), p. 91; and Ute Ringhandt, Sunt lacrimae rerum, pp. 679. Fauxbourdon
is mentioned specifically as a rhetorical figure by Joachim Burmeisters Musica Poetica of
1606; see the modern edition and translation by Benito Rivera, Musical Poetics (New Haven
and London: Yale University Press, 1993), pp. 1845.
64
Vicentino, 2.20, fol. 35r (11516) and 4.21, fol. 82r (255); Zarlino, 4.32, p. 339
(95). See Chapter 2, pp. 425 and 53.
22
More important than the text painting itself is the theoretical concept lying behind
it: consonant five-threes were considered stable (harmonically strong = good)
while six-threes of all sorts were considered unstable, thus contextually dissonant
(harmonically weak = bad); the same principle more obviously governs the final
cadential sonority of Renaissance works, which, if involving three pitch classes, will
be a five-three rather than a six-three.65
In a theoretical vein conversely related to the expressive use of unstable sixthree sonorities, Bernhard Meier found many examples by composers ranging from
Josquin to Victoria in which he claims major harmonic quality underscores concepts
of strength or glory in the setting of religious texts.66 Most of the earliest examples
he cites, particularly those from Josquin, fall in the general rhetorical category, as
did the dedicatory passage from Donatos Mentre questalme et honorate rive cited
above. In these passages, harmonic quality is used to emphasize a line of text and
make it stand out from its surroundings without necessarily attaching expressive
significance beyond the rhetorical to the quality in and of itself, except perhaps
the fact that major is larger, thus stronger, while minor is smaller, thus
weaker (which, if so intended, would represent cognitive mimesis).67
Reading harmonic sonorities as chords might invite the backlash still felt in
musicological circles to the overzealous and anachronistic application of modern
concepts of chordal theory to music of the Renaissance in the early- to midtwentieth century. As Anthony Newcomb noted recently in the context of a slightly
later repertoire than Willaerts, however, even if sixteenth-century musicians did
not think of chords as harmonic entities in the modern sense, the position that
they did not think of them as autonomous units seems untenable.68 Willaerts
65
See in this regard Franchino Gaforis statement that the sixth between the lower
parts generally discords (plerumque discordat); Practica musicae (Milan, 1496), 3.11; facs.
edn (Farnborough: Gregg Press, 1967); trans. Clement Miller (n.p.: American Insitute of
Musicology, 1968), p. 142; trans. Irwin Young as The Practica musicae of Franchinus
Gafurius (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), p. 152.
66
Bernhard Meier, Major and Minor Chords in Sixteenth-Century Music, in The Modes
of Classical Vocal Polyphony, pp. 40621. See also the setting of O sacro santo sangue from
Willaerts Pianget egri mortali, discussed below in connection with Example 4.8 (pp. 22022), the
reference to Christs victory over death in Vicentinos Capitolo de la passione di Christo discussed
in connection with Example 5.4 (pp. 2357), and the setting of Re del ciel invisiblimmortale in
Zarlinos I vo piangendo discussed in connection with Example 5.12 (pp. 25862).
67
Another possible reason for the association of major quality with concepts of
strength or glory would be the natural propensity of the valveless heraldic and military
brass instruments of the time to outline the major chord of nature when accessing their
most easily produced pitches.
68
Anthony Newcomb, Marenzio and the Nuova aria e grata allorecchie, in Andreas
Giger and Thomas J. Mathiesen (eds), Music in the Mirror: Reflections on the History
of Music Theory and Literature for the 21st Century (Lincoln and London: University of
Nebraska Press, 2002), p. 67. See also Benito V. Rivera, The Two-Voice Framework and
Its Harmonization in Arcadelts First Book of Madrigals, Music Analysis 6 (1987), p. 82;
Contexts
23
affective practices in the Musica nova madrigals show him to be very cognizant
of harmonic quality, even experimenting with how it might be prolonged through
contrapuntal motion.
Theories Old and New: Hexachordal Convention and Interval Quality
Willaerts expressive techniques in the Musica nova madrigals and the theories based
upon them are much richer and more nuanced than the simple dichotomy between
happy and sad affections seen in the opening of Liete e pensose (Example 1.1). In
practice, the affective classification of intervals builds upon existing conventions
for two broad conceptual categories that we may call hard and soft that utilize
the mutable step B of medieval chant theory in either its hard or soft version:
B for concepts such as softness, sweetness, and sorrow, and B for concepts such
as hardness and harshness. The original impetus behind having two versions of B,
of course, lay in adjusting the single augmented fourth that occurs naturally in the
diatonic pitch collection; as shown in Example 1.5 at (a), B lies a tritone above F
and thus potentially creates a harder, more dissonant melodic outline that can be
softened through the addition of B, which changes the augmented fourth into a
perfect one, as at (b). These hard and soft aural characteristics of the two versions
of B shaped their visual representation and naming. The softer B was indicated
with a rounded letter that eventually became our sign for the flat () and by the
sixteenth century generally was called b molle (soft), b rotondo (round), or bfa in Italian theory and practice. The harder B was indicated with a squared letter
that eventually became our sign for the natural () and generally was called b duro
(hard), b quadro or quadrato (square), or b-mi.
Example 1.5 Hard and soft B
The hard and soft versions of B also determined the names of the hexachords
in which they appeared, as shown at (c) and (d) in Example 1.5. By the sixteenth
century the hard hexachord on G and the soft hexachord on F had gained an
expressive significance in polyphonic music that might be lost on the casual
and Howard Mayer Brown, Verso una definizione dellarmonia nel sedicesimo secolo: Sui
madrigali ariosi di Antonio Barr, Rivista italiana di musicologia 25 (1990), pp. 235.
See also the overview of several recent approaches to harmony in music of the Renaissance
in Luca Bruno, Theory and Analysis of Harmony in Adrian Willaerts Canzone villanesche
alla napolitana (15421545) (M.M. thesis, Southern Methodist University, 2007).
24
modern observer. As Lionel Pike notes: it is not so easy for us to understand

why a hexachord containing B sounded soft or sweet, whereas one with a
B sounded hardwe must simply register that this was so.69 Certainly these
associations were ingrained deeply in sixteenth-century singers, composers, and
music theorists because the hexachords provided an essential foundation for their
formal music education much as scales and key signatures do today, and remained
part of their everyday parlance. This older expressive association accounts for the
added soft flats at Dufays pleas for mercy in the Ave Regina caelorum passages
discussed above.
What is new about Willaerts affective practice and the theories of interval
affect based upon it is that the expressive categories of hard and soft become
associated with major and minor in addition to hard and soft B, and that the
terms major and minor no longer signified merely the larger and smaller of a
pair of like-numbered intervals; rather, they became categories of sonic character,
the members of which are related by a shared sounding property of majorness
or minorness that could be manipulated for expressive purposes. They became
qualities.
To illustrate this development, there is no better example than the famous
opening of Willaerts Musica nova setting of Aspro core e selvaggio e cruda voglia.
Aspro core is among Willaerts best-known compositions today, largely because
of the attention its expressive exordium has garnered in musicological writings.
Received wisdom indicates that Willaert employed contrasting musical intervals
to reflect the vivid antithesis and contrasting word-sounds of the opening lines of
Petrarchs sonnet,70 which can be appreciated best by reading the lines aloud:
Aspro core, e selvaggio, e cruda voglia
In dolce, humile, angelica figura
Harsh heart and savage, and a cruel will

In a sweet, humble, angelic figure
The foundation for this belief concerning Willaerts setting of the text rests
primarily on the superficial observation that certain intervals cluster in the vicinity
of certain words: major intervals are frequent in the setting of the harsh first
line, and minor intervals in the sweet second line. These contrasting musical
statements, marked A and B, are shown in Example 1.6, where each major or
minor melodic interval is indicated by abbreviation on the score, and any harmonic
thirds or sixths appear along with other figured-bass notation beneath the score
69
Lionel Pike, Hexachords in Late-Renaissance Music (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998),
p. 14; see especially the discussion of Hexachord Colour on pp. 3248 relative to the
hard and soft categories discussed here. See also Godt, A Systematic Classification for
Madrigalism, p. 81; and Eric Chafe, Aspects of Durus/Mollis Shift and the Two-System
Framework of Monteverdis Music, Schtz-Jahrbuch 12 (1990), pp. 171206.
70
See, for example, Donald Grout, Claude Palisca, and J. Peter Burkholders widely
used textbook A History of Western Music, seventh edn (New York and London: W. W.
Norton, 2006), pp. 2479.
Contexts
25
(upper case for major, lower case for minor).71 One can readily see that harmonic
major thirds dominate section A while harmonic minor thirds prevail in section B:
section A has a 4:1 ratio of major to minor by duration, and section B roughly 3:2
minor to major, with most of the major sonorities overlapping with the preceding
or following phrase; the heart of section B in mm. 1220 has a 4:1 ratio of minor
to major. One also may see that suspended major sixths form a prominent feature
of the harsh section, yet disappear entirely in the sweet section.
Previous scholarship has had much of importance to say about the opening
of Aspro core.72 As Claude Palisca and others have noted, the affective devices
in Aspro cores exordium attracted the stern gaze of Vincenzo Galilei, who
in his Fronimo dialogo of 1568 expressed admiration for Willaerts bending
of contrapuntal rules in order to express the harshness of the first verse by
using parallel major thirds and major sixths moving to perfect fifths.73 In 1945
Armen Carapetyan suggested that Willaert used sixths as mild dissonances or
partially dissonant harmon[ies], and commented upon the contrast between
six-three sonorities in the setting of the first verse and five-three sonorities in the
second.74 Dean Mace later used Aspro core as a touchstone for his suggestion
that the literary theory of Pietro Bembo, through its emphasis on word-sound,
influenced the emergence and development of the cinquecento madrigal.75
The voice parts will be named as in the 1559 print of Musica nova: cantus, altus,
tenor, bassus, quintus, sesta parte (sexta pars for the motets), and settima parte (septima
pars for the motets). All examples in this study are presented in their original note values
rather than in 2:1 reduction, in order to mesh with references to note values in the treatises
cited. The Willaert excerpts in Examples 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, 4.3, and 4.6, the Rore excerpts
in Examples 2.22, 5.14, and 5.15, and the Guami excerpts in Examples 5.23 and 5.24 were
published a note nere, thus their note values should be doubled in comparison to the other
examples.
72
The amount of existing discussion precludes a complete accounting here.
73
His opinion may have changed by the time of his Dialogo della musica antica, et della
moderna of 1581. See Claude Palisca, Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought,
pp. 357 and 365. See also Alfred Einstein, The Italian Madrigal, vol. 1, pp. 23032.
74
Carapetyan, The Musica Nova of Adriano Willaert, pp. 17980 and 2557. See
also the Gafori reference in n. 65 of this chapter.
75
Mace, Pietro Bembo. While Maces notion that Bembo provided the principal
impetus for the origin of the cinquecento madrigal in general has been challenged by
many scholars, the influence of Bembo on the Venetian musical and theoretical circles in
which Willaert and Zarlino moved is undeniable. On these subjects, see James Haar, The
Early Madrigal: A Re-Appraisal of Its Sources and Its Character, in Iain Fenlon (ed.),
Music in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Patronage, Sources and Texts (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 16392; Brown, Words and Music, pp. 229
31; Palisca, Humanism, pp. 35568; Fenlon and Haar, The Italian Madrigal in the Early
Sixteenth Century: Sources and Interpretation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1988), pp. 289; Stefano La Via, Madrigale e rapporto fra poesia e musica nella critica
letteraria del cinquecento, Studi musicali 19/1 (1990), pp. 3370; Feldman, City Culture;
71
26
Example 1.6 Willaert, Aspro core e selvaggio e cruda voglia, mm. 122
Contexts
27
concluded
28
Mace asserted that dissonant six-three chords reflect the harsh-sounding words
of the first line and consonant five-three chords the more pleasant-sounding words
of the second line, while a change to a triple rhythm mirrors that of the text. Palisca
scrutinized the contrasting quality of both melodic and harmonic intervals between
sections A and B, yet also suggested that Willaert surpassed the antithesis joining
the first two lines of the poem by linking them also by a common melodic thread:
the first lines EDCED becomes DCED, and its approximate transposition
BAGBA.76 Allan Atlas goes a step further toward unraveling Willaerts
reading of the opening of the poem, noting how he uses unsettled first-inversion
triads and parallel major thirds that form biting tritone cross-relationships and
then virtually melts down the same melody with root-position triads and a touch of
implied triple meter to express the sweetness in the second line.77 Taking a broader
view, Martha Feldman asserted that the frequent citation of Musica nova works
such as Aspro core gives the false impression that such vivid contrasts characterize
the collection as a whole. She finds instead that Willaert worked within a Bembist
conception of variety, in which subtlety and restraint reigned, and that as a rule
he employed bald contrasts such as those in Aspro core only when his text
embodied clear-cut oppositions that cried out for [them].78
Willaerts musical reading of the beginning of the poem runs much deeper than
the surface-level contrast for which it has become famous, and the contrasting
intervals are but a component of a more significant design, as we shall see in
the following chapter. For the present discussion of Willaerts refocusing of
conventional hard and soft expressive categories on his new concept of interval
quality, it must suffice to note that the harsh and sweet aspects of the opening
antithesis do not actually coincide with the hard and soft hexachords in Willaerts
setting, as has been implied, because B first appears in the transposed reiteration
of the opening harsh line; instead, Willaert generates contrast primarily through
harmonic quality, and this is the hallmark and most significant innovation of his
affective practice in Musica nova.
Paolo Cecchi, Il rapporto tra testo letterario e intonazione musicale nei teorici italiani di
fine cinquecento, in Claudio Monteverdi: Studi e prospettive (Firenze, Leo S. Olschki,
1998), pp. 549604; and Giuseppe Gerbino, Florentine Petrarchismo and the Early
Madrigal: Reflections on the Theory of Origins, Journal of Medieval and Early Modern
Studies 35/3 (2005), pp. 60728.
76
Palisca, Humanism, p. 363. See also Plantinga, Poetry and Music.
77
Allan W. Atlas, Renaissance Music: Music in Western Europe, 14001600 (New
York and London: W. W. Norton, 1998), p. 438. See also Paolo Emilio Carapezza,
Costituzioni musicali, strutture compositive, prassi esecutive: Il concerto di voci e
strumenti nel rinascimento, Analisi: Rivista di teoria e pedagogia musicale 9/26 (1998),
pp. 214. Carapezza uses Aspro core to support his thesis that prima prattica composers
thought of chords as shades of harmonic color emerging from the weave of individual
melodic filaments, in contradistinction to seconda prattica composers, who thought of
chords as fundamental elements.
78
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 25059.
Contexts
29
Musica nova: Reception, Scholarship, and Paradox

The importance and conceptual richness of Musica nova manifests itself not only
in the esteem that it received in the sixteenth century, where it was mentioned in
over 100 extant documents,79 but also in the wide variety of modern (and now
postmodern) scholarship it has supported. Although a detailed recounting of
existing research lies beyond my scope, my work has been informed and shaped
by it and I shall refer to it often here; those wishing to understand Musica nova
certainly should immerse themselves in it. The following brief sampling is intended
only to give some idea of the variety of issues that have been pursued in the music
itself.80
Many studies focus on Willaerts Musica nova madrigals as musical readings
of poetry and on the cultural context that shaped them; chief among these would
be Martha Feldmans vivid portrayal, in her City Culture and the Madrigal at
Venice, of the intellectual milieu in which the collection was spawned. Building
on the work of Mace, Palisca, Haar, and others, she has tied Willaerts sensitivity
to textual syntax and semantics to trends in literary theory that were resonating in
Venice, and suggests in sensitive readings of her own that the madrigals of Willaert
and his circle were shaped by Ciceronian principles of variety and decorum that
were under discussion in Venetian academies and championed by scholars such
as Bembo. She finds the Bembist concern for the sonic quality of poetry reflected
in Willaerts attention to declamatory rhythm and vowel sound in his settings as
well. The figure of Bembo also looms over Jonathan Millers study of Willaerts
polyphonic treatment of word-sound in Musica nova, which finds that Willaert and
composers under his influence manipulated rhythm and vocal texture in order to
highlight sonic aspects of the verse in its polyphonic presentation, often vertically
aligning similar sounds from different words in different voices to create assonance
or alliterative attacks; Miller concludes that the contrapuntal relationship among
the voices thus is as much a matter of language as of harmony.81 David Nutter
and Paul Christopher Schick have examined literary dialogic principles and their
79
Statistic from Michle Fromson, Themes of Exile in Willaerts Musica nova,
Journal of the American Musicological Association 47/3 (1994), p. 443. The relevant
excerpts of many of these documents are reproduced in Owens and Agee, La stampa,
pp. 240305.
80
A much more comprehensive overview of research on Musica nova in general
appears in Kidgers Adrian Willaert: A Guide to Research.
81
Jonathan Miller, Word-Sound and Musical Texture in the Mid-Sixteenth-Century
Venetian Madrigal, (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1991).
Katelijne Schiltz examines questions of declamation, syntax, and polyphonic word-sound
in relation to Willaerts Musica nova motets in Vulgari orecchie purgate orecchie:
De relatie tussen publiek en muziek in het Venetiaanse motetoeuvre van Adriaan Willaert
(Leuven: Universitaire Pers Leuven, 2003), pp. 20222.
30
musical manifestation in the four dialogues that close the collection.82 Michle
Fromson finds many melodic citations from chant and other sources in both the
madrigals and motets, claiming that these are woven into the fabric of the music as
coded political statements that would have resonated with Florentine exiles Neri
Capponi and Ruberto Strozzi, important patrons of the madrigal in Venice.83
Various aspects of melodic, contrapuntal, or modal technique have been studied
in selected Musica nova madrigals. Feldman and others have studied the ways
in which Willaerts music relates to Zarlinos concept of the musical subject, or
soggetto, the principal material against which the other voices are written.84 In his
analysis of Giunto mha Amor, Howard Mayer Brown noted that Willaerts soggetti
were not restricted to the superius and tenor voices, which traditionally carried
the structural duet governing the contrapuntal architecture of a work, but moved
about from voice to voice, often in pairs, without any a priori concept of where
the principal melodic lines ought to appear.85 Benito Rivera argued that Zarlinos
soggetto could consist of a relatively continuous melody throughout a work even
though its individual segments might be dispersed among the various voices; he
reconstructed the soggetto of O invidia, nemica di virtute by attending carefully
to mode when considering which voice in a series of imitative entries should be
taken to represent a segment of the soggetto, then tied the presence of competing
modes and modal fluctuations to expression of conflict and resolution (or at least
resolve) in the text.86 Though differing greatly in approach, Susan McClarys recent
postmodern analyses of three Musica nova madrigals also conclude that Willaerts
choice and expressive manipulations of mode (or relative lack thereof) through
melodic procedure and choice of cadence tones were governed by his interpretation
of the poetic texts.87 As our discussion of passages from Aspro core and Io amai
sempre in the following chapter might suggest, another area of investigation that
82
Nutter, The Italian Polyphonic Dialogue of the Sixteenth Century; and Paul
Christopher Schick, Concordia Discourse.
83
Fromson, Themes of Exile. She defends her thesis further in Melodic Citation
in the Sixteenth-Century Motet, in Honey Meconi (ed.), Early Musical Borrowing (New
York: Routledge, 2004), pp. 179206.
84
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 17681, 249, and 258. See also Hartmut Schick,
Musikalische Einheit im Madrigal von Rore bis Monteverdi: Phnomene, Formen und
Entwicklungslinien (Tutzing: Hans Schhneider, 1998), pp. 348; and, in relation to the
Musica nova motets, Katelijne Schiltz, Vulgari orecchie purgate orecchie, pp. 181
202; see also her Self-Citation and Self-Promotion.
85
Brown, Words and Music, p. 226.
86
Benito Rivera, Finding the Soggetto in Willaerts Free Imitative Counterpoint: A
Step in Modal Analysis, in Christopher Hatch and David W. Bernstein (eds), Music Theory
and the Exploration of the Past (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,
1993), pp. 73102.
87
Susan McClary, Modal Subjectivities: Self-Fashioning in the Italian Madrigal
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2004).
Contexts
31
would be fruitful in the Musica nova madrigals would be the subtle reworking
and recombining of motivic material that informed Joshua Rifkins concept of
motivicity and Peter Schuberts recombinant melody in their analysis of other
of Willaerts works, and which Katelijne Schiltz has examined in relation to a
Musica nova motet.88
The current study differs in its focus on harmony and the theory of interval
affect. Since these coexist and interact with the issues studied by other scholars,
my findings generally are complementary to theirs, though when I disagree with a
previous analysis I shall say so if it is pertinent to the task at hand. For example, while
McClary and I approach these madrigals from different philosophical viewpoints
and analytical methodologies and might differ on details of interpretation, we
arrive at one substantial point of accord concerning Willaerts Musica nova
madrigals: he was committed to conceptual unity within each madrigal; that is,
he read his chosen lyrics in ways that allow for a consistent point of view from
beginning to end, and although [he] may respond at times to the particularities of
succeeding lines of text, [he] subsume[s] these responses to the exigencies of [his]
larger allegorical schemata.89
The multifaceted body of existing research into Willaerts music highlights the
complexity of his creative process and the works resulting from it, a complexity
that might explain in part his legendary slowness in composing. Zarlino provides
a telling anecdote in his Sopplimenti musicali about Willaerts work habits, which
I cite here as reported by Giulio Ongaro:
The story relates how a maestro Alberto, rehearsing a composition of his in the
church of San Giovanni Elemosinario in Venice, asked Girolamo Parabosco,
then organist at St. Marks, how long it would have taken Willaert to compose
a similar piece. When Parabosco answered that the Flemish master would
have spent at least two months on it, maestro Alberto triumphantly replied that
his mass had been composed in just one evening. I believe youanswered
Paraboscoand I am surprised you have not composed ten masses of this sort
during that time; but when Adriano composes he puts all his learning and effort
88
Joshua Rifkins Miracles, Motivicity, and Mannerisim: Adrian Willaerts Videns
Dominus flentes sorores Lazari and Some Aspects of Motet Composition in the 1520s,
in Dolores Pesce (ed.), Hearing the Motet: Essays on the Motet of the Middle Ages and
Renaissance (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 24364; Peter
Schubert, Recombinant Melody: Ten Things to Love About Willaerts Music, Current
Musicology 75 (2003), pp. 91113; Katelijne Schiltz, Adrian Willaerts Beati pauperes
spiritu: A Structural Analysis of Its Motivic Organisation, Muziek & Wetenschap 7 (2001),
pp. 30517; Schiltz, Vulgari orecchie purgate orecchie, pp. 19099. See also Anne
Smiths discussion of Willaerts Ave regina caelorum in Willaert Motets and Mode,
Basler Jahrbuch fr historische Musikpraxis 16 (1992), pp. 1512.
89
McClary, Modal Subjectivities, p. 122. McClary includes Verdelot, Arcadelt, and
Rore along with Willaert in this regard.
32

into it; and he studies and ponders very carefully what must be done before he
considers a piece finished and presents it to the world 90
This complexity and richness of conception may have come with the cost, however,
of what might be called the Musica nova paradox: although often heralded as one
of the most important collections of sixteenth-century polyphony, its individual
madrigals have not been popular among performers beyond the sixteenth century,91
and few are available in professional recordings today despite the early-music
revival sparked by the digital recording revolution.92
References to this paradox are legion in the literature on Willaert; in Susan
McClarys apt turn of phrase, Musica nova languishes on its pedestal.93 Critics
have been quick to single out Willaerts melodic style as a detriment to his
music since at least 1789 when Charles Burney spoke of Willaerts total want
of melody and little air or meaning, in the single parts.94 Recently Michle
Fromson referred to perplexing questions about the aesthetic quality of his music
that still await satisfactory answers, and summarized the issue as follows:
From a modern perspective, however, the most notable feature of these late
madrigals is their unusually dense and continuous contrapuntal idiom, which
largely eschews imitative textures, clear cadential articulations, distinctive
rhythmic patterns and tuneful melodic ideas (soggetti), which are no longer
restricted to their conventional positions in the soprano and tenor parts but
now roam freely and unpredictably among diverse vocal combinations. The
result is an elusive contrapuntal idiom that has elicited a wide variety of critical
responses from 20th-century performers and audiences alike, some of whom
have found the madrigals unattractive and impenetrable even as others applaud
their sensitive and expressive treatment of Petrarchs elusive poetry.95
90
Zarlino, Sopplimenti musicali, p. 326; as summarized and partially translated in
Ongaro, The Chapel of St. Marks, pp. 889.
91
The popularity of Musica nova may have waned substantially as the sixteenth
century progressed as well, and beyond its initial context may never have equaled its
historical significance; see David Butchart, La Pecorina at Mantua, Musica Nova at
Florence, Early Music 13/3 (1985), pp. 3645; and Haar, review of Feldman, City Culture,
p. 326.
92
As this book was going to press, a recording of the complete Musica nova was
in preparation by the ensemble Singer Pur in collaboration with Katelijne Schiltz, among
others.
93
McClary, Modal Subjectivities, p. 79.
94
Charles Burney, A General History of Music, edited by Frank Mercer (2 vols,
London, 1789; reprint London: Foulis, 1935), vol. 2, p. 172; as quoted in Rivera, Finding
the Soggetto, p. 87.
95
Fromson, s.v. Willaert, New Grove Online.
Contexts
33
But to understand Musica nova and its significance, we must recognize that these
features, though perhaps less appealing to performers of later generations, were
hewn by Willaert with skillful intent. As Martha Feldman suggests, Willaerts
subtly varied soggetti, plain rhythm, modest melody, and continuous musical
fabric should be viewed as carefully marshaled participants in his musica nova,
a secular music intended to have no precedent or equal in weight and restraint.96
Recognizing that each of Willaerts Musica nova madrigals must be taken as a
reading rather than merely a setting of the poem is thus essential to an aesthetic
appreciation of the collection, as James Haar implies in his discussion of Laura
mia sacra:
there is little that is melodically striking in this madrigal, and very little
exact melodic correspondence among the voices. The musical ideas are chiefly
rhythmic, each phrase of text receiving an undemonstrative but precise setting
emphasizing both sound and meaning in the words. Each voice retains the
rhythmic shape allotted a particular textual phrase, but the lines pass in and out
of melodic resemblance to one another in a free flow of musical consciousness.
They combine into a single reading of the poem, but one marked by a collective
pondering of its meaning and of its verbal music. That Willaerts great skills in
counterpoint and vocal orchestration combine to form a tonally unified, darkly
sonorous musical fabric of great distinction is not, certainly, beside the point;
but the main purpose of it all is in how the text is read. Instead of intensifying
rhetorical drama or declamatory parlando, Willaert has chosen to intensify the
seriousness of purpose with which the words are setin an almost literal sense
set deeplyinto the music.97
Scholars have offered various rationalizations for the Musica nova style, seizing
upon different attributes to justify the overall result. Rivera finds compensation
for the lack of individual melodic interest in the voice-hopping peregrinations of
the soggetto: In Willaerts style a single voice part was never intended to carry
a continuous melody. The continuity has purposely been fragmented and hidden,
and part of the listeners pleasure lies precisely in finding it.98 Peter Schubert,
though speaking of Willaerts music in general rather than specifically of Musica
nova, excuses what he characterizes as Willaerts uniform melodic style because
of the intricacy and skill with which Willaert cuts, splices, and recombines small
melodic fragments: it is this very uniformity that permits the contrapuntal
manipulations that are the basis for an expressiveness based not on melody alone,
but on combinations of melodies.99 Jonathan Miller explained Willaerts placid
melodic lines as a result of getting out of the way for an unprecedented concern
Feldman, City Culture, p. 258.
Haar, Essays on Italian Poetry and Music, p. 120.
98
Rivera, Finding the Soggetto, p. 87.
99
Schubert, Recombinant Melody, p. 91.
96
97
34
with [word-]sounds to prevail.100 Fromson herself suggested that Willaerts

variable and at times incoherent melodic style must have resulted, at least in
part, from the many chant melodies he wove into his dense polyphony.101 Paul
Christopher Schick concluded that the strengths of Willaerts music lie precisely
in their comparative lack of musical distinctiveness, which serves to give priority
to the Petrarchan texts, themselves pregnant with musical meaning.102
Like the approaches taken by the other scholars just surveyed, my analytical
approach to the madrigals colors my view on the Musica nova paradox, which I
believe rests on the symbiotic relationship that exists between the characteristics
just described and an increase in the weight given to harmonic considerations
relative to melodic and contrapuntal ones. I believe Howard Mayer Brown was on
target when he observed the decrease in importance of the superius-tenor structural
duet in controlling the progression of the music, a seeming disinterest in writing
sharply etched and highly contrasting themes, and an increase in the importance
of harmony.103 This increased importance of harmony is not a mere byproduct of
Willaerts fascination with capturing the declamation, word-sound, and structure
of the poetic text, of shifting the soggetto from voice to voice, of recombining
melodies, or of weaving existing melodies into the contrapuntal fabric, but an
essential catalyst of the Musica nova style and a principal means for reflecting the
moods and meaning of the words. The overall emphasis on harmonic clarity and
the frequent use of repeated pitches that characterize these madrigals have been
thought to reflect a desire to articulate the words more clearly and to deliver their
constituent word-sounds more cleanly, which they certainly do, but beyond these
utilitarian functions, Willaert also sought through these characteristics to enhance
harmonys expressive power. In other words, this is music conceived harmonically
to a greater degree than typical of its time, music styled more toward the listener
and less toward the individual performer (even when those functions reside in the
same person), music whose desired overall effect may restrict the fluidity of its
individual lines, particularly of the bass.104
While the importance of harmony and a concomitant shift to a more harmonic
conception of the bass line have been acknowledged in previous studies of
Willaerts music, no one has examined in detail how Willaert used harmony to shape
100
Miller, Word-Sound and Musical Texture, p. 44. In the same sentence, however,
Miller refers to Willaerts undramatic harmonies of the Musica nova madrigals, a
characterization with which I cannot agree.
101
Fromson, Themes of Exile, p. 474.
102
Paul Christopher Schick, Concordia Discourse, p. 110.
103
Brown, Words and Music, pp. 2278.
104
On the increased importance granted to the bass voice in theoretical writings in the
sixteenth century, see Brown, Verso una definizione dellarmonia, pp. 223. On a shift in
importance from the soprano-tenor structural duet to one between soprano and bass in the
early madrigal repertoire more generally, see Rivera, The Two-Voice Framework and its
Harmonization.
Contexts
35
the expressive structure of individual madrigals and the relatively homogenous

weave of the collection as a whole, or how purely musical factors and established
stylistic conventions (such as dissonance treatment, rules of counterpoint, modal
conventions, the nature of the diatonic gamut, etc.) might have informed his
efforts. As we shall see, Willaerts madrigals provide a window into his workshop
through which we can observe him thinking through various ways the theory of
interval affect might be employed in composition.
Styles Public and Private, Sacred and Secular
As I shall show in the third and fourth chapters, there are substantial differences in
harmonic style within Willaerts surviving corpus of madrigals, and the theory of
interval affect is not evidenced clearly in all of them, particularly not those appearing
in print prior to 1548. My analysis has revealed that certain contrapuntal figures not
uncommon in Willaerts other works are rare or virtually nonexistent in the Musica
nova madrigals. These include the devices now known as the vertical six-five
(Example 4.3, m. 30, p. 204) and the consonant fourth (Example 2.1, m. 2, p. 45)
as well as the use of parallel major thirds moving by whole-step and involving the
lowest-sounding voice. Other significant features of the Musica nova madrigals that
have not been recognized or fully appreciated previously include: (1) the reduction
in the number of harmonic sixths and dissonant intervals,105 (2) the relatively static
voice-leading that prolongs harmonic sonority, and (3) the decreased frequency with
which the leaping dissonance known as the nota cambiata appears (Example 3.5,
m. 2, tenor, p. 177), even in comparison to the Musica nova motets. I suggest each of
these characteristics stems at least in part from Willaerts desire to control harmonic
quality and dissonance and to manipulate them as expressive devices.
Some of these differences may be attributable also to the intended audience for
which the works were produced. Martha Feldman suggests that two distinct styles
may be traced in Venetian circles, and particularly in Willaerts madrigalsthe
one public, the other private.106 The public style is represented by the madrigals
appearing individually or in small groups in collections devoted primarily to the
works of other composers, while the private style receives its clearest expression
in the Musica nova madrigals:
105
Armen Carapetyan noted the relative rarity of six-threes and the ubiquity of fivethrees in Willaerts Musica nova, and the frequency with which harmonic sixths were used
for expressive purposes; The Musica Nova of Adriano Willaert, pp. 16880.
106
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 200259 and passim. Katelijne Schiltz similarly
distinguished public and private styles within Willaerts motets in Vulgari orecchie
purgate orecchie; and Content and Context: On Public and Private Motet Style in
Sixteenth-Century Venice, in Anne-Emmanuelle Ceulemans and Bonnie J. Blackburn
(eds), Thorie et analyse musicales: 14501650 (Louvain-la-Neuve: Universit Catholique
de Louvain, 2001), pp. 32339.
36
On one side stood the monolithic repertory of the Musica nova, representing
so implacably a musical embodiment of the classic, authentic Petrarchism
prized by the literary elite. On the other stood the heterogeneous repertory of
anthologized works that were mostly more immediate in their appeal, with no
obvious claims for a transcendent musical poetics. Unlike the hidden state in
which the Musica nova was cultivated and preserved in manuscript, many of
Willaerts madrigals for printed anthologies probably entered the commercial
marketplace without much delay. By contrast with those of the Musica nova,
they display Willaert at his most accessible.107
While establishing a chronology for Willaerts works is difficult and well beyond
my current capability, we shall see in the fourth chapter that many of the expressive
techniques Willaert used in Musica nova continued to be used in the anthologized
madrigals bearing a publication date from 1548 onward. This suggests that some
features that may have developed as part of a private style could have been taken
over into his musical language more generally, or in some cases simply that his
musical style continued to evolve, regardless of the intended public or private
venue for a given work.
The fact that Musica nova consists of roughly equal numbers of motets (27)
and madrigals (25) naturally invites comparison of the constituents of these sacred
and secular genres, which in the present context must be limited to whether the
theory of interval affect operates in the motets as well as the madrigals. The short
answer is that it operates not nearly to the same degree, which is the primary
reason I focus on the madrigals in this study. One does not have to look far into
the details of compositional technique and musical style to determine that, while
there are many shared characteristics, there are substantial differences between the
motets and madrigals of Musica nova.108
Firstly, and perhaps most importantly, roughly half of the motets are canonic
and others are based upon a cantus firmus, while none of the madrigals use
either of these structural techniques.109 The contrapuntal rigor of canonic writing
largely precludes the sort of expressive harmonic writing found in the madrigals
because the choice of successive harmonies is severely limited by the melodic
and contrapuntal necessities of exact imitation. For this reason alone, one would
not expect the theory of interval affect to be of paramount importance in the
canonic motets. This expectation can only be strengthened when viewed in light
of the fact that both Vicentino and Zarlino discuss canon primarily in relation to
The Musica nova motets appear in modern edition in Adrian Willaert: Opera omnia.
VMusica Nova, 1559, Motetta, ed. Walter Gerstenberg, Corpus mensurabilis musicae 3
(Rome: American Institute of Musicology, 1957).
109
As noted above, Michle Fromson claims to have found many chant citations in the
madrigals, yet these consist of fairly brief quotations rather than a pervasive cantus firmus
such as found in the motet Victimae paschali laudes/Dic nobis Maria.
107
108
Contexts
37
sacred music, while they locate affective uses of harmony explicitly or implicitly
primarily in the secular realm. Vicentino specifically asserts that vernacular texts
should be set without canons and overly cunning proportions, because the words,
like those in madrigals, demand nothing but the imitation of nature by means
of the consonances [harmonic intervals] and steps [melodic intervals] applied to
them.110 In Zarlinos famous comments on accommodating harmony to words in
Chapter 32 of the fourth book of Le istitutioni harmoniche, he cites only Musica
nova madrigals by name (though specifically in regard to rhythm), and alludes to
Willaerts motets only in generic fashion (again in regard specifically to rhythm).111
In theory and practice, then, Vicentino, Zarlino, and Willaert embrace the notion
that abstract learned contrapuntal complexity suits contemplation of the divine in
sacred works, while the expression of human passions in secular works such as the
madrigal is better accomplished through simpler and more direct means.112
A related issue would be whether there might be differences in the expressive
natures of the madrigals and motets based more generally upon decorum, as
clearly implied in this famous passage from Vicentinos Lantica musica ridotta
alla moderna prattica:
Quando comporr cose Ecclesiastiche, & che quelle aspetteranno le risposte dal
Choro, dallOrgano, come saranno le Messe, Psalmi, Hymni, altri responsi
che aspetteranno la risposta. Anchora saranno alcune altre compositioni Latine
che ricercheranno mantenere il proposito del tono, & altre Volgari lequali
havranno molte diversit di trattare molte & diverse passioni, come saranno
sonetti. Madrigali, Canzoni, che nel principio, intraranno con allegrezza nel
dire le sue passioni, & poi nel fine saranno piene di mestitia, & di morte, & poi il
medesimo verr per il contrario; allhora sopra tali, il Compositore potr uscire
fuore dellordine del Modo, & intrer in unaltro, perche non havr obligo di
rispondere al tono, di nissun Choro, ma sar solamente obligato dar lanima,
quelle parole, & con lArmonia di mostrare le sue passioni, quando aspre, &
quando dolci, & quando allegre, & quando meste, & secondo il loro suggietto;
& da qui si caver la ragione, che ogni mal grado, con cattiva consonanza, sopra
le parole si potr usare, secondo i loro effetti, adunque sopra tali parole si potr
110
Vicentino, 4.26, f. 84v (2667). ( di comporre le compositioni volgari, d essere

piacevole, & intese, senza Canoni, & senza troppo sottilit di proportioni, perche tali parole,
come sono Madrigali, non ricercano, si non imitare la natura di consonanze, & de gradi
applicati quelle )
111
Zarlino, 4.32, pp. 33940 (947).
112
Interestingly, Zarlino states in 2.9 of the Istitutioni that the most effective medium
for moving the passions is the solo voice accompanied by lute or other instrument rather
than the polyphonic madrigal; the passage is translated and analyzed in Palisca, Humanism,
pp. 3713; see also his Music and Ideas in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Urbana
and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006), pp. 17988.
38
comporre ogni sorte de gradi, & di armonia, & andar fuore di Tono & reggersi
secondo il suggietto delle parole Volgari, secondo che di sopra sha detto
Composers must always sustain the mode carefully whenever they write sacred
works that anticipate the response of choir or organ, such as masses, psalms,
hymns, or other responses expecting a reply. There are, moreover, a few other
Latin compositions that seek to maintain the design of the mode, whereas other
vernacular compositions enjoy great latitude in treating many and diverse
passions; for example, sonnets, madrigals, and canzoni, which begin cheerfully
and then at the end are full of sadness and death, or vice versa. On such words,
a composer may forsake the modal order in favor of another mode, for no choir
needs to respond to the mode. On the contrary, the composers sole obligation
is to animate the words and, with harmony, to represent their passionsnow
harsh, now sweet, now cheerful, now sadin accordance with their subject
matter. This is why every bad leap and every poor consonance, depending on
their effects, may be used to set the words. As a consequence, on such words you
may write any sort of step or harmony, abandon the mode, and govern yourself
by the subject matter of the vernacular words, as was said above.113
Although approaching the matter from the standpoint of the relative importance
of adhering to modal regularity in certain liturgical situations, Vicentino grants
far greater freedom in the expressive use of melodic and harmonic intervals in
vernacular (i.e., secular) compositions such as madrigals than in Latin (i.e., sacred)
compositions. He does not explicitly condone expressive uses of intervals in sacred
works, yet conversely considers the composer to be obliged to employ them in
secular works. In his pioneering study of Musica nova, Carapetyan asserted that
in the madrigals Willaert resorts to specific harmonic devices more than he does
with the motets, an observation my work with the collection confirms.114
Finally, motet and madrigal texts often differ in their essential character as
well as in their sacred or secular subject matter in ways that might inform the
expressive use of intervals. The Petrarch sonnets forming all but one of the Musica
nova madrigal texts exhibit a marked emphasis on the surface-level antithetical
juxtapositions typical of his style: harsh and sweet, hard and soft, happy and
sad, hot and cold, light and dark, and so forth. They also reflect the underlying
conflict between Petrarchs love for Laura and his inability to obtain her that
provided not only the primary rationale for the genesis of his Rerum vulgarium
fragmenta, the body of poetry from which Willaert drew nearly all of his Musica
nova madrigal texts, but also its principal unifying factor. These surface-level and
deeper oppositions render these texts prime vehicles for deploying an affective
dichotomy based upon interval quality. The sacred texts of the motet may exhibit
similar surface antitheses and analogous larger-scale conflicts between God and
113
Vicentino, 3.15, fol. 48r (150).

Carapetyan, The Musica Nova, p. 255.
114
Contexts
39
humanity, good and evil, and so forth, yet as a body they lack the unified focus
on such things seen in the Petrarch texts, and on the whole, therefore, are less
congenial to extensive and consistent deployment of a theory of interval affect.
Nonetheless, to show that the theory of interval affect operates to some degree
in the sacred side of Musica nova, I offer the excerpt from Confitebor tibi Domine/
In quacumque die/Si ambulavero in Example 1.7. The text comes from Psalm
138, and in the King James translation reads Though the Lord be high, yet hath
he respect unto the lowly. Willaert paints the contrast between Lord and lowly
through harmonic means as well as the obvious manipulation of register. At
Quoniam excelsus Dominus, the harmony consists primarily of major sonorities
that project strength, the two upper voices hover in the upper part of their range,
and the phrase concludes with a cadential motion to C. At et humilia respicit
the harmony turns predominantly minor, the upper voices plummet an octave, and
the cadential gesture introduces the softer B in a Phrygian motion to A.115 My
citation of this passage should not be taken to mean that such obvious harmonic
contrasts are pervasive in the Musica nova motets, however, for they are not.
Example 1.7 Willaert, Confitebor tibi Domine, mm. 13440
115
By Phrygian motion I mean a major sixth expanding to an octave by descending

minor second and ascending major second. Katelijne Schiltz discusses Willaerts textsetting practices more generally in the secunda pars of this motet, noting the plunge in
register here; Vulgari orecchie purgate orecchie, pp. 2029.
Chapter 2
Definition, Evaluation, and Validation of the

What is the connexion of all these theories [of the expressive value of intervals]
with the music of this period? To what extent are they a priori constructions, or,
on the contrary, derived by induction from the practice of great composers? [I]n
the vast field of Renaissance vocal music, to give adequate answers would require
years of research and the space of several books.
D.P. Walker
In this chapter I shall probe more deeply into the technical details of the relationship
between musical structure and expressive writing in Aspro core, and do so within
the context of the stylistic norms Willaert established in the 25 madrigals of the
Musica nova collection in which it appears. I shall also document the influence
of certain expressive musical devices that Willaert employs in Musica nova on
the sudden emergence of theories of interval affect in the treatises of Vicentino
and Zarlino. To first lay the groundwork for a more detailed analysis of Aspro
core and related works, I shall begin with an overview of the theories of interval
affect presented by Vicentino and Zarlino, and then examine features of the gamut
that shaped both Willaerts practice and the theories supporting it or subsequently
based upon it.
Zarlino and Vicentino on Interval Affect
The theoretical notion that the affective power of music resides in the specific
melodic and harmonic intervals from which it is constructed surfaces in Vicentinos
and Zarlinos writings of the 1550s. Their theories of interval affect differ in
important respects, especially regarding melodic intervals, but, more significantly,
they agree that major harmonic consonances should be used to express affects
such as happiness or harshness, while minor harmonic consonances should be
used to express affects such as sadness or sweetness. Neither theorist describes the
affective use of intervals in specific musical works, though Zarlino does construct
an example to illustrate how a text calling for hard, harsh harmony might be set

D.P. Walker, Studies in Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London: The
Warburg Institute, 1978), p. 76.
42
(see Example 2.1). Both claim to be disciples of Adrian Willaert, however, and
immediately following a passage discussing how rhythm should be accommodated
to the meaning of the words in the same chapter in which his principal statement
on interval affect appears, Zarlino cites five madrigals from Willaerts Musica
nova, including Aspro core (see below).
Although Vicentinos treatise was published some three years before Zarlinos
and adopts a more systematic approach to interval affect, I shall begin with the
latter because of its closer self-proclaimed alliance with Willaerts practice;
codifying Willaerts practice was a major objective for Zarlino and a lesser one for
Vicentino, whose principal objectives were to build his theoretical system and to
codify his own more experimental practice. Zarlino does not classify the affect of
each melodic and harmonic interval, yet he does associate several intervals with
certain affects in various passages of his treatise, most famously in his discussion
in Book 4 of how to accommodate music to the words being set (immediately
preceding his citation of Aspro core). When discussing harmonic intervals, he
makes it clear that only those intervals measured from the lowest-sounding voice
count toward determining the affect of a sonority. In so doing, he places special
emphasis on the affective powers of the harmonic sixths:
Et debbe avertire di accompagnare in tal maniera ogni parola, che dove ella
dinoti asprezza, durezza, crudelt, amaritudine, & altre cose simili, l harmonia
sia simile a lei, cio alquanto dura, & aspra; di maniera per, che non offendi.
Simigliantemente quando alcuna delle parole dimostrar pianto, dolore,
cordoglio, sospiri, lagrime, & altre cose simili; che l harmonia sia piena di
mestitia. Il che far ottimamente, volendo esprimere li primi effetti, quando
usar di porre le parti della cantilena, che procedino per alcuni movimenti senza

Gioseffo Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558; facs. edn New York:
Broude Brothers, 1965); Book 3 trans. Guy Marco and Claude Palisca as The Art of
Counterpoint (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1968); 3.66, p. 264 (234).

Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche; Book 4 trans. Vered Cohen as On the Modes
(New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983); 4.32, p. 340 (96); the passage
is quoted below. Although Zarlino does not discuss Willaerts affective use of intervals
in Aspro core, elsewhere he quotes the first line of the poem, without any reference to
Willaerts setting, in a discussion of proper performance practice, and scolds singers who
go too far in trying to act out the text; 3.45, p. 204 (111).

Vicentino makes his claim to be a disciple of Willaert and an emulator of his style on
the title page to his first madrigal book of 1546. He does not mention Willaert in his treatise.

In Book 2 of his treatise (especially Chapters 7 and 8), Zarlino presents the
Neoplatonic view that music may act upon the humors of the body to create a response in
listeners, but does not return to this topic in his discussions of interval affect in Books 3
and 4. A summary of his views on this subject appears in Ann E. Moyer, Musica Scientia:
Musical Scholarship in the Italian Renaissance (Ithaca and London: Cornell University
Press, 1992), pp. 20913. See also Michael Fends commentary to his German translation
of Books 1 and 2.
43
il Semituono, come sono quelli del Tuono, & quelli del Ditono, facendo udire
la Sesta, overo la Terzadecima maggiore, che per loro natura sono alquanto
aspre, sopra la chorda pi grave del concento; accompagnandole anco con la
sincopa di Quarta, o con quella della Undecima sopra tal parte, con movimenti
alquanto tardi, tra i quali si potr usare etiandio la sincopa della Settima. Ma
quando vorr esprimere li secondi effetti, allora usar (secondo l osservanza
delle Regole date) li movimenti, che procedeno per il Semituono: & per quelli
del Semiditono, & gli altri simili; usando spesso le Seste, overo le Terzedecime
minori sopra la chorda pi grave della cantilena, che sono per natura loro dolci,
et soavi; massimamente quando sono accompagnate con i debiti modi, & con
discrettione, & giuditio.
[The composer] should take care to accompany each word in such a manner that,
when the word denotes harshness, hardness, cruelty, bitterness, and other things
of this sort, the harmony will be similar to these qualities, namely, somewhat
hard and harsh, but not to the degree that it would offend. Similarly, when any of
the words express complaint, sorrow, grief, sighs, tears, and other things of this
sort, the harmony should be full of sadness. When a composer wishes to express
the former effects, he will do best to arrange the parts of the composition so
that they proceed with movements that are without the semitone, such as those
of the whole tone and major third. He should allow the major sixth and major
thirteenth, which by nature are somewhat harsh, to be heard above the lowest
note of the concento, and should use the suspension of the fourth or the eleventh
above the lowest part, along with somewhat slow movements, among which the
suspension of the seventh may also be used. But when a composer wishes to
express the latter effects, he should (observing the rules given) use movements
which proceed through the semitone, the minor third, and similar intervals, often
using minor sixths or minor thirteenths above the lowest note of the composition,
these being by nature sweet and soft, especially when combined in the right way
and with discretion and judgment.
In this passage Zarlino establishes a dichotomy between harshness and sorrow,

finding major intervals more suitable for the former and minor for the latter. He
takes a slightly different approach in a passage of his counterpoint book:
Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche, 4.32, p. 339 (95). Edward Lowinsky took this
passage to indicate that Zarlino actually defines sad harmony as one which combines
slow movement with the use of syncopated dissonances and minor chords Music in the
Culture of the Renaissance, Journal of the History of Ideas 15/4 (1954), p. 537; reprinted
in Bonnie J. Blackburn (ed.), Music in the Culture of the Renaissance and Other Essays
(Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1989), p. 32. Lowinskys conflation
subsequently has been transmitted in other sources, such as Winn, Unsuspected Eloquence,
p. 145.
44
che vorr fare il Contrapunto alquanto languido, o mesto; simigliantemente

dolce, o soave, debbe procedere anco per movimenti dolci, & soavi; come sono
quelli, che procedeno per il Semituono, per il Semiditono, & per altri simili;
usando le Consonanze imperfette minori, che sono il Semiditono, l Essachordo
minore, & le altre Replicate; le quali consonanze per sua natura sono (come h
detto nel cap. 10.) atte a tali cose. Per il contrario, volendolo fare allegro, usar il
movimento del Tuono, quello del Ditono, & di altri simili, con li suoi intervalli.
Et volendolo fare, che qualche volta habbia dellaspro, potr usare le Maggiori,
che sono il Ditono, l Essachordo maggiore, & le Replicate, nelle parti gravi della
cantilena. Et tanto pi sar aspro, quanto maggiormente haver in se il detto
Essachordo, nelle figure di alquanto valore, nella parte grave del concento.
when we wish the counterpoint to be languid or sad, or perhaps sweet and
soft, we must proceed with sweet, soft progressions. Among such steps are the
semitone, minor third, and similar intervals, and the best consonances are the
minor imperfect consonances: minor third, minor sixth, and their compounds.
By their nature, as I have said in Chapter 10, these consonances are apt for such
effects. On the other hand, to make the counterpoint cheerful, write the tone,
major third, and similar intervals. For an occasional harsh expression use the
major intervals: major third and major sixth and their compounds placed in the
low parts of the composition. The harshness will be the more pronounced when
the sixths are given longer note values and are written in the low voices of the
harmony.
Here the dichotomy becomes twofold, now including sweetness with sadness
and cheerfulness with harshness. Notice in this latter passage Zarlinos continued
emphasis on the harmonic sixths, which he now couples with the harmonic thirds,
and especially his careful placement of the major sixth with harshness but not
cheerfulness, while the minor sixth may serve both sweetness and sadness. Of
special interest in both passages is his use of the word aspro to describe the
affect for which the major sixth is the interval of choice.
The harmonic major sixth figures prominently in Zarlinos exemplar of harsh
harmony, about which he says the following:
Et perche accader alle volte, di comporre sopra le parole, le quali ricercano
la harmonia alquanto dura, & aspra; acci si venga con gli effetti ad imitare il
Soggetto contenuto nella Oratione; per quando bisognar usar simili durezze,
allora si potranno porre le Seste, nelle quali siano le figure di alquanto valore;
come de Brevi, & di Semibrevi mescolate; overamente si porranno le Dissonanze
tra loro, che siano ordinate secondo le Regole, & modi mostrati di sopra; & si
haver il proposito; si come averrebbe ponendo la Quarta, over la Undecima
nella Sincopa; come nelli sottoposti essempi [Example 2.1] si pu vedere.
Zarlino, 3.57, p. 238 (177).
45
At times a text may call for hard, harsh harmony. Then the musical effect
should imitate the subject contained in the text. For this purpose one may
write sixths, and these should be of large value, such as mixed breves and
semibreves. Dissonances may be introduced among these and treated according
to the rules, for example a fourth or eleventh in syncopation, as [Example 2.1]
will show.
Example 2.1 Zarlinos exemplar of harsh harmony
Double suspensions combining major sixths with perfect fourths in long note
values occur in mm. 4 and 6. Although a suspension and other sixths occur
elsewhere in the example, in light of his commentary the long double suspensions
seem to be his focal point. The typical duration of a suspended tone is only a
minim (perhaps shortened by an anticipated resolution, as in m. 120 of Example
2.2), thus the extended note values serve to make the sixths stand out and, as he
said earlier, make the harshness more pronounced. Zarlinos exemplar of harsh
harmony suggests that the presence of elongated note values will be helpful for
distinguishing affective use of the harmonic major sixth from other common roles
it may play, such as the precadential and cadential uses shown in Example 2.2,
although these uses need not be mutually exclusive.

Zarlino, 3.66, pp. 2634 (234). See also the use of similar techniques by Vicentino
in his exemplar of the diatonic genus that he described as harsh, as analyzed in McKinney,
Point/Counterpoint, pp. 395401; and the vastly different exemplar of harmonic harshness
that utilizes accidental major five-three sonorities and false relations by Vincenzo Galilei,
transcribed in D.P. Walker, Studies in Musical Science, p. 77.

See Zarlinos use of a very similar progression with the word amara (bitter) in his
madrigal Amor mentre dormia in Example 5.7 below, p. 248.
46
Example 2.2 Willaert, Lasso, chi ardo, mm. 11721
Zarlinos recommendation to use longer note values for harshness in the

passages cited above rests on a different basis from his later suggestion that slow
motion be used to depict sadness and fast motion for cheerfulness; it is in this
context that he cited five Musica nova madrigals:
Quanto poi alla osservanza de i Numeri, considerata primieramente la materia
contenuta nella Oratione; se sar allegra, si d procedere con movimenti gagliardi,
& veloci; cio con figure, che portano seco velocit di tempo; come sono le
Minime, & le Semiminime: Ma quando la materia sar flebile, si d procedere
con movimenti tardi, et lenti come ne h insegnato Adriano ad esprimere l uno,
& l altro modo in pi cantilene, tra le quali si trova queste, I vidi in terra angeli
costumi; Aspro core e selvaggio; Ove chi posi gli occhi; tutte composte a sei
voci; & Quando fra laltre donne; Giunto mha Amor, a cinque voci; & infiniti
altri, con infiniti motetti, li quali non nomino, per non andare in lungo. Et questo
non solamente si de osservare intorno li Numeri
As for the observance of rhythms, the primary consideration should be the
subject matter contained in the words. If it is cheerful, one should proceed with
powerful and fast movements, namely, with note values that convey swiftness
of tempo, such as the minim and the semiminim. But when the subject matter
is plaintive, one should proceed with tardy and slow movements. Adrian has
shown both manners in many compositions, among them I vidi in terra angeli
costumi, Aspro core e selvaggio, and Ove chi posi gli occhi, all composed for
six voices, Quando fra laltre donne and Guinto mha Amor, for fives voices,
and innumerable others, together with innumerable motets which I do not name
in order to be brief. This is not the only consideration concerning rhythm 10
10
Zarlino, 4.32, p. 340 (96). The madrigal titles Zarlino cites have been left as he
presented them.
47
On the one hand, slow movement may be appropriate to sorrow and fast motion
to cheerfulness in a mimetic sense. On the other, the slower harmonic rhythm
generally associated with longer note values also may facilitate the expression of
disparate affects such as harshness or sorrow in a purely temporal sense by giving
the listener more time to register the affective quality of each simultaneity.11
Zarlino does link the major sixth with cheerfulness in a famous, though
problematic, passage of Book 3 of Le istitutioni harmoniche, which discusses the
impact of the imperfect consonances on the affect of a given mode, but he does
not actually recommend using the major sixth to express cheerful affects. In this
passage he says that those modes bearing major imperfect consonances above their
finals or medians are very cheerful and lively (molto allegri, e vivi) because these
major consonances are frequently heard, and implies that those modes bearing
minor imperfect consonances in the same positions are sad or languid, based
upon similar reasoning.12 As Joel Lester notes, Zarlino makes this distinction on
harmonic rather than melodic grounds;13 the major sixth, after all, was generally
avoided as a melodic interval. Thus far Zarlinos discussion is compatible with his
theory of interval affect.14 He changes horses in midstream, however, dropping all
mention of the sixths and stating that the harmonic division of the fifth (producing,
in modern terms, the root-position major triad) is more natural and pleasing to the
senses because it is arranged according to the sonorous number (numero sonoro),
thus the modes in which this division is heard frequently are more cheerful. The
arithmetic division of the fifth (producing the root-position minor triad), on the
other hand, is not natural because the intervals do not occur in the order Zarlino
finds in the sonorous number. The arithmetic division therefore creates an effect
that he describes as sad or languid (mesto, o languido). Most importantly for our
purposes, in the continuation of the passage Zarlino indicates that he does not
believe a given mode as used in polyphony to be universally happy or sad: The
[happy or sad] effect is heard only as often as the particular arrangement [i.e.,
11
Each of these three uses of motion (slow for harshness, slow for sadness, and fast
for happiness) is operative in Example 2.16, pp. 812.
12
Zarlino, 3.10, pp. 1567 (212). The median pitch as used in this context lies a fifth
above the final.
13
Joel Lester, Major-Minor Concepts and Modal Theory in Germany, 15921680,
Journal of the American Musicological Society 30/2 (1977), p. 217. Lester also observes
that the quality of third and sixth above the final match in all modes except Dorian, and
above the median in all modes except Mixolydian. Both non-conforming instances involve
the consonances above the pitch D, as discussed under Properties of the Gamut and Their
Implications for the Affective Use of Intervals later in this chapter.
14
Zarlino, however, often contradicts this principle in Book 4 of his treatise, where he
gives more traditional descriptions of modal affection. See Claude Palisca, Mode Ethos in
the Renaissance, in Lewis Lockwood and Edward Roesner (eds), Essays in Musicology: A
Tribute to Alvin Johnson (Philadelphia: American Musicological Society, 1990), pp. 1313.
48
harmonic or arithmetic division] is sounded, to suit the nature and property of the
mode in which the composition is written.15
As shown in Tables 2.1a and b, support for both of Zarlinos assertions can
be found in Willaerts Musica nova madrigals: (1) a definite correlation exists
between tonal type and the overall percentage of major and minor sonorities that
appear,16 measured by duration,17 and (2) as one can see from comparing the G
and G tonal types18 (the former being a major mode and the latter minor), the
percentages are flexible and the difference between major modes (Table 2.1a)
and minor modes (Table 2.1b) may not be substantial.19 The analyses presented
15
Zarlino, 3.10, p. 156 (22). ([I]l che tanto pi spesso si ode, quanto pi spesso in
esse sono poste a tal modo; per seguir la natura, & la propiet [sic] del Modo, nel quale
composta la cantilena.) For an explanation of the sonorous number and the harmonic and
arithmetic divisions, see the translators notes 2 and 3 on p. 22 of The Art of Counterpoint.
In 1595 Pietro Pontio claimed that music may be rendered sad or happy regardless of the
mode by introducing the minor third or major tenth respectively, thus echoing Zarlinos
mutable view of modal affect based upon the harmonic consonances; Dialogo del R. M.
Don Pietro Pontio Parmigiano, ove si tratta della theorica, e prattica di musica (Parma:
Erasmo Viotto, 1595), p. 58. See also Bernhard Meier, The Modes, pp. 4089.
16
See also the statistical study of scale-type and percentage of major and minor
triads in selected Vicentino madrigals in Charles Nick, A Stylistic Analysis of the
Music of Nicola Vicentino (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1967), pp. 1279;
and Horst Leuchtmanns similar observations on Lassos music in Die musikalischen
Wortausdeutungen in den Motetten des Magnum Opus Musicum von Orlando di Lasso
(Strasbourg: Heits, 1959), pp. 223.
17
The unit of duration used in this study for calculating the percentage of major and
minor sonorities is the minim in the common alla breve signature or its equivalent in other
signatures, which constitutes the standard minimal unit of harmonic rhythm in Willaerts
style. Passages of semiminims in the lowest-sounding voice generally do not indicate a
faster harmonic rhythm; rather, the ones on the minim pulse in groups of three or more
semiminims will represent the essential bass tone of the underlying sonority, as will the
second of an isolated pair of semiminims in the case of the accented passing tone. Zarlino
refers to the latter as the diminution of an essential third leap from one minim to another,
noting that the quickness of the semiminim prevents the dissonance from being easily
heard; 3.42, p. 199 (1012).
18
The tonal category of individual madrigals will be indicated by key signature and
modal final; thus G or G cantus mollis indicates a G mode with B, G or G cantus
durus a G mode with B. My use of the term tonal type herein encompasses only two
of the three criteria Harold Powers used as markers of tonal type in his study Tonal Types
and Modal Categories in Renaissance Polyphony, Journal of the American Musicological
Society 34/3 (1981), pp. 42870.
19
O invidia presents a special case, seeming to begin with procedures appropriate to
a D-centered mode and concluding on a D sonority, yet much of the madrigal seems Gcentered, and it is specifically identified by Zarlino as being Hypodorian transposed to G
and ending on the median; 4.30, 336 (90). The issue of mode in this madrigal is examined
extensively in Rivera, Finding the Soggetto.
49
below and in the following chapter will show how the two aspects of affect that
Zarlino presents in this discussion, the first being a fixed natural property of mode
based upon its intervallic structure, and the second a mutable property dependent
upon the harmonic quality actually sounding at a given moment, interact in
Willaerts choice of mode and manipulation of major or minor sonorities.
Table 2.1a
Major modes and harmonic quality in Musica nova madrigals
Final
System
Ratio Major/Minor
C
G
74/26
65/35
64/36
63/37
57/43
61/39
64/36
64/36
64/36
62/38
56/44
53/47
Table 2.1b
Madrigal
Pien dun vago pensier
Quando nascesti, Amor?
I vidi in terra
Laura mia sacra
Quando fra laltre donne
Amor, Fortuna
Onde tolse Amor
Aspro core
Liete e pensose
I piansi, hor canto
Questanima gentil
Pi volte gi
Minor modes and harmonic quality in Musica nova madrigals
Final
System
Ratio Major/Minor
D
G/D
60/40
58/42
51/49
50/50
50/50
60/40
52/48
52/48
52/48
57/43
46/54
45/55
44/56
Madrigal
Che fai, alma?
Giunto mha Amor
I begli occhi
Io amai sempre
Passa la nave
Lasso, chi ardo
Io mi rivolgo
Cantai: hor piango
In qual parte del ciel
Mentre chel cor
Occhi piangete
Ove chi posi gli occhi
O invidia
Zarlino does not attempt to straighten out the impending conflict between his
musing over the sonorous number and his theory of interval affect, a conflict brought
about because his theorizing concerning the natural order of the consonances has
started him down a path that diverges from that of the practical discussion of
50
compositional use of affective intervals. While he asserts that certain modes are
cheerful because in them one frequently hears the major third and sixth above the
final or median, he does not mention in this passage that the chord formed by the
third and sixth above the final in such a case would not be arranged according to the
natural order. Such chords create an effetto tristo as he claims in a later chapter, with
tristo better read as wretched rather than sad, in contrast to the buoni effetti
(good effects) of chords that are arranged in accordance to the natural order.20 He
states in this later chapter that such is the power of the consonances, when they are
naturally arranged according to the harmonic numbers, that not only are they more
pleasing than unnaturally arranged sounds, but they actually make a composition
happier [pi allegra] and more sonorous [pi sonora].21 This statement contradicts
his theory of interval affect; because the vertical combination ACF is arranged
according to the harmonic numbers, its presence makes the composition happier, yet
according to the theory of interval affect it must be considered sad (consisting of a
minor third and minor sixth above the lowest voice). Once again, this conflict stems
from the tension between describing compositional practice on the one hand and
speculating about the mathematical foundations of music theory on the other. It also
highlights the tension between the theoretical tradition of interpreting polyphonic
chords as the sum of individual intervals measured from the bass and the nascent
triadic thinking in which Zarlino was engaged.22
The practical bent of Zarlinos theory of interval affect leads him to concentrate
on the twofold division of seconds, thirds, and sixths into major and minor camps.
Vicentino, conversely, assigns affects to each melodic interval larger than the comma
in the experimental microtonal tuning system he uses to adapt the ancient Greek
genera to modern practice.23 Those intervals not found in practical tuning systems
20
Zarlino, 3.60, pp. 2456 (19093). Zarlinos harmonic numbers include the series
of ratios 2:1, 3:2, 4:3, 5:4, 6:5, and 8:6, corresponding to the intervals of the perfect octave,
perfect fifth, perfect fourth, major third, minor third, and perfect fourth. Those combinations
of vertical intervals that can be formed by adjacent ratios in the series follow the natural order,
and are thus superior to those that do not. In modern terms, the major triad and its inversions
follow the natural order, whereas the minor triad and its inversions do not. Zarlinos examples
in 3.60 bear this out: ACF is better than CEA because the former follows the natural
order of the consonances, while CFA is better than ADF for the same reason.
21
Zarlino, 3.60, p. 246 (193). (Veramente tanta la possanza delle consonanze,
quando sono poste ne i loro propij luoghi naturali, che non solamente quelle, che sono
tramezate in cotal maniera secondo la natura de gli harmonici numeri, sono pi grate all
udito di quelle, che sono poste al contrario: ma anche fanno pi allegra, & pi sonora ogni
compositione, nella quale sono poste.)
22
Nascent triadic thinking means only that Zarlinos one-on-one comparisons of
five-three, six-three, and six-four sonorities consistently designate what modern theory
calls the major triad to be superior to the minor triad in each arrangement, thus in effect
creating two classes. It does not imply that he had a theory of chord roots or inversion. See
also n. 20 above.
23
Vicentino, Lantica musica, 1.1541, fols 17v26r (5983).
51
would have no bearing on Willaerts Musica nova nor most coeval compositional
practice, and they will not factor into the analyses presented in this study. Although
there is some variety in his descriptions and terminology, Vicentino has two basic
affections for melodic intervals: incitato and molle, which are rendered as tense
and slack in Maniatess translation.24 For Vicentino, the direction of a melodic
interval usually controls its affect; in fact, a change in direction generally changes
an intervals affect entirely into the other camp. In this regard, Vicentinos theory
of melodic affect differs substantially from both Willaerts compositional practice
and Zarlinos theory, in which quality is the principal factor. Here we see Vicentino
working in a system-building mode rather than a practical one, a task of which even
he apparently tires because he groups all intervals larger than the perfect fifth and
calls them incitato in ascent and molle in descent (which is the case for most of the
smaller intervals as well).25 Interestingly, however, as shown in Table 2.2, the only
intervals to reverse this rule completely are his major semitone, minor third, and
minimal third;26 i.e., those that come closest in sound to the semitones and minor
thirds Zarlino suggests for sweetness or sorrow.
Table 2.2
Melodic interval affect as defined by Vicentino
Basically Incitato in Ascent

and Molle in Descent
Basically Molle in Ascent

and Incitato in Descent
Same or Mixed
in Ascent or Descent
major enharmonic diesis

minor semitone
tone
major tone
third more than minor
major third
third more than major
fourth
more than fourth
tritone
perfect fifth and all larger
intervals
major semitone
minimal third
minor third
minor enharmonic diesis

minor tone
imperfect fifth
more than imperfect fifth
See also Kaufmann, Life and Works pp. 14850.

Vicentino, 1.41, fols 25v26r (823).
26
The other exceptions to the incitato-in-ascent and molle-in-descent tendencies again
seem to bear little relation to musical practice, other than perhaps Vicentinos experimental
works: the minor enharmonic diesis is slack and smooth (molle & soave) in both ascent and
descent, his minor tone may go either way depending upon the surrounding consonances,
the diminished fifth is molle in ascent but partly molle and partly incitato in descent, and the
leap larger than the diminished fifth is both molle and incitato because it falls between the
diminished and perfect fifths.
24
25
52
Vicentinos remarks on the melodic major and minor thirds are not entirely
consistent, however, and in one telling comment he specifically contrasts them and
allows them to retain their respective affective allegiance in ascent and descent,
with direction influencing only the degree of affective quality (major stronger in
ascent, minor stronger in descent): This leap [the natural major third] has a nature
different from that of the natural minor third: in ascent the minor third is slack,
whereas the major is tense and imperious; and when the minor third descends it is
very slack and sad, whereas the descending major third is somewhat tense. Thus
the two intervals have diverse effects, as I said.27 On the other hand, Vicentino
conflates the affect of the major and minor melodic sixths in direct opposition to
his own discussion of harmonic intervals (as well as Zarlinos).
Vicentinos lumping together of the melodic major and minor sixths is less
problematic than his directional theory of interval affect in general because the
melodic sixths do not obtain the degree of affective significance granted to the
harmonic sixths in theory or practice. The ascending minor sixth proves to be a
frequent player in sad passages in the madrigal repertoire, yet may be found on
occasion in harsh passages as well. The major sixth, on the other hand, continued
to be avoided as a melodic leap by most composers, just as it continues to be
discouraged in present-day textbooks devoted to sixteenth-century counterpoint.
As Zarlino said, the composer should use expressive devices with discretion and
judgment. Willaerts younger contemporary Cipriano de Rore was not deterred,
however, as evidenced by the famous major sixth leaps with the appropriate words
(Cruel, bitter) opening the second part of his madrigal Mia benigna fortuna el
viver lieto/Crudele acerba inesorabil morte, from his second book of four-voice
madrigals of 1557.28 In his treatise Vicentino illustrates ascending and descending
major sixths for times when it is necessary to write very bad leaps for tenseness
or slackness,29 and a descending major sixth leap appears in the bass voice of
Donna sio miro, from his fifth book of five-voice madrigals of 1572, yet it is not
27
Vicentino, 1.29, fol. 22r (72). (che h diversa, natural dal grado della Terza minore
naturale, perche il grado minore ascendente molle, & questo della maggiore incitato &
superbo; & quando discende molto molle & mesto: & il grado della minore participa de
incitatione discendente, si che fanno diversi effetti, secondo chio ho detto )
28
Modern edition in Cipriano de Rore: Opera omnia, ed. B. Meier, Corpus
mensurabilis musicae 14 (American Institute of Musicology, 195977), vol. 4. Other major
sixth leaps occur just prior to the end of the first part with the words doglia and odiar,
and in other of Rores madrigals as well. Costanzo Porta, another student of Willaert, also
used major sixth leaps with crudele in his setting of Io pensai dolce e grato that appeared
in Il Lauro secco, libro primo di madrigali a cinque voci di diversi autori (Ferrara: Vittorio
Baldini, 1582); modern edn in Costanzo Porta, Opera omnia, vol. 24, Madrigali sparsi in
raccolte e manoscritti dellepoca, ed. Siro Cisilino (Padua: Biblioteca Antoniana, 1970).
29
Vicentino, 4.11, fol. 77r77v (242).
53
associated with a harsh text.30 He generally follows common practice and steers
clear of the major sixth as a melodic interval.31
Vicentino is less specific about the affect of harmonic intervals than melodic
intervals, yet notes When a composer is writing something sad, slow motion
and minor consonances help him. When he is writing something joyful, major
consonances and rapid motion are appropriate.32 He does not assign affects to
the harmonic unison, octave, or perfect fifth. Though he does not explain this
omission, we may assume that these intervals must remain affectively neutral so
that they can be accompanied by either the major or minor third or tenth above
the lowest voice. He restricts his classification of the affect of harmonic intervals
to the imperfect consonances: the minor third is very weak and sad and willingly
descends (molto debole, et ha del mesto, et volentiera discende) and will serve
well for sad words because it is somewhat stagnant (servir bene alle parole
meste stando alquanto ferma); the major third is lively and cheerful and willingly
ascends on account of its vivacity (vivace et allegra, et volentiera ascende per
cagione della sua vivacit); the minor sixth is somewhat sonorous and sad and
willingly fancies the fifth (alquanto sonora, & ha del mesto; ama volentiera la
Quinta); while the major sixth partakes more of dissonance than consonance
(participa pi, di dissonanza che di consonanza), and when it moves to the perfect
fifth, it is good for harshness (asprezza), though it is not unpleasant when it moves
to an octave.33 In each case, except the harsh resolution of the major sixth to
the perfect fifth, these motions adhere to the traditional contrapuntal guideline
calling for an imperfect consonance to move to the nearest appropriate perfect
consonance.
Vicentinos twofold classification of the affects of the harmonic imperfect
consonances closely resembles Zarlinos, and I believe that this similarity can be
traced to Willaerts influence on both. I have shown elsewhere that the compositions
of Vicentinos first madrigal book of 1546, whose title page proclaims them to
be written in the new manner discovered by Willaert, mesh quite well with both
Zarlinos theory and Willaerts practice in this regard.34 Vicentinos taxonomy of
Modern edition in Nicola Vicentino: Opera omnia, ed. Henry Kaufmann, Corpus
mensurabilis musicae 26 (American Institute of Musicology, 1963), p. 79, m. 25.
31
A statistical study of melodic intervals in selected madrigals appears in Nick, A
Stylistic Analysis of the Music of Nicola Vicentino, pp. 8891. Kaufmann (Life and Works,
p. 59, n. 19) mentions an ascending major sixth leap in In quel ben nato aventuroso giorno
from the 1546 madrigal book and includes it in his edition (m. 46, soprano), yet context
strongly suggests the upper note would be sung as B-fa, resulting in a minor sixth instead.
32
Vicentino, 4.29, fol. 86r (270). ( e quando il Compositore vorr comporre mesto
il moto tardo, et le consonanze minori serviranno quello; et quando allegro, le consonanze
maggiori et il moto veloce saranno in proposito molto )
33
Vicentino, 2.1521, fols 34r36v (10817); 4.21, fol. 82r (255).
34
Timothy R. McKinney, Rhetorical Functions of Harmony and Counterpoint in the
Theory and Practice of Nicola Vicentino, in Anne-Emmanuelle Ceulemans and Bonnie J.
30
54
melodic interval affect may owe its original spark to Willaert as well, but it differs
sharply from Zarlinos (and the practice of Willaerts Musica nova and Vicentinos
first madrigal book) in two principal ways: (1) Vicentinos genera theory requires
many more melodic intervals than used in the common practice, and (2) in most
cases, the direction of an interval, rather than quality alone, governs its affect.35 At
any rate, and far more significantly, Vicentino asserts that the harmonic intervals
are more important for determining musical affect.36 He agrees with Zarlino that
the major sixth is suitable for harsh affections, especially when it moves to a fifth,
an idea that bears directly on the opening of Aspro core.37
Finally, both theorists observe a distinction between natural motion and
accidental motion, though they differ on the effect of accidentals. When
speaking of melody, Zarlino calls natural motions (movimenti naturali) virile and
better for harshness and bitterness, and considers accidental motions (movimenti
accidentali) sweet and better for grief and sorrow.38 Elsewhere, however, he
detaches affect from the accidental itself when he says that chromatic steps may
be introduced to create the major or minor imperfect consonances (i.e., harmonic
intervals) appropriate to the happy or sad nature of the words (allegra, o mesta
alla natura delle parole) at points in the mode where they are not ordinarily
available.39 Vicentino, on the other hand, finds flats lend melancholy (malenconia)
to a composition, while B-quadro and the diesis will make it cheerful (allegra).40
Vicentinos view receives indirect support from Spanish theorist Juan Bermudo,
also writing in 1555, who indicates that a sad word should be set with B.41 As
we shall see in the examples presented below, support for each of the positions
presented by Zarlino and Vicentino can be found in the coeval repertoire because
the affective use of accidentals was a fluid practice employed in response to a wide
variety of textual ideas.
Blackburn (eds), Thorie et analyse musicales: 14501650 (Louvain-laNeuve: Universit

Catholique de Louvain, 2001), pp. 293322.
35
Whether or not these aspects of Vicentinos theory of melodic affect are applicable
to his more radical, post-Willaertian style must be determined by further study.
36
Vicentino, 4.21, fol. 81v (254).
37
While Vincenzo Galilei ties the major sixths in Aspro core directly to its harsh text,
Pietro Pontio echoes Vicentinos and Zarlinos comments on the harshness of the major sixth
more generally in his Ragionamento di musica (Parma: Erasmo Viotto, 1588), pp. 5863 and
148. I am grateful to Anne Smith for pointing me toward the latter of these passages.
38
Zarlino, 4.32, pp. 33940 (95).
39
Zarlino, 3.77, p. 286 (278).
40
Vicentino, 4.19, fol. 81r (252).
41
Juan Bermudo, Declaracion de instrumentos musicales (Osuna: Juan de Lon,
1555; facs. ed. Kassel and Basel: Brenreiter, 1957), 5.9, fol. 125r. (Tambien si fuere una
palabra triste deve poner un bmol.)
55
The Efficacy of the Theory of Interval Affect

The notion of interval affect is not without its problems. Not only are the theorists
not in agreement on several details, as we have just seen, but there are also purely
practical complications as well: (1) conflict between the horizontal and vertical
planes of music, as when, for example, an added accidental that creates a sad or
sweet melodic minor second changes an existing minor harmonic interval into a
happy or harsh major one; (2) a device used for affect on one occasion might
appear for simple melodic or contrapuntal reasons on other occasions, perhaps with
a text of contrasting affection; (3) the pitch system employed in mid-cinquecento
polyphony naturally favors a mixture of major and minor intervals, and exclusive
use of one or the other would be melodically cumbersome or harmonically stagnant;
and (4) as discussed in the first chapter, there is more than one method a composer
might choose to represent a certain idea through musical means, the contrasted
use of major and minor intervals is but one option on the composers palette of
affective devices, and a composer might apply different devices to passages of
similar affective content, thereby creating inconsistencies that undermine the
broader efficacy of the practice (and that might lead one to discount the existence
or significance of the practice). Yet we must keep in mind that a composer is not
obligated to introduce a certain affective device each time it might be appropriate,
nor to use the same means always to represent a particular concept, nor to reserve
a particular device for a particular affective situation only. As James Haar has said,
a turn of melody or harmony that could effectively underscore the meaning of a
word or phrase could elsewhere be used for purely musical reasons. Music as the
servant of the text, in other words, had its days off.42
To this list of problems we may add the potential introduction of accidental
inflections by the performers in response to melodic or contrapuntal conventions.
Vicentinos comments on the notation of accidentals at the cadence address this
issue obliquely: The rule for cadences is that when a note has to be raised, it
should be marked with a signsharp, flat, or naturalto prevent the many errors
made by singers. When such mistakes occur in performance, they can even ruin the
intent of the composer who wanted to represent harshness on a particular cadential
note, which singers have raised, making the music sweet.43
The sorts of problems just outlined make heavy sledding for the modern
interpreter of affective uses of intervals, and few have ventured very far into this
terrain. Karol Berger discusses Vicentinos theory of intervals and briefly cites
42
James Haar, False Relations and Chromaticism in Sixteenth-Century Music,
Journal of the American Musicological Society 30/3 (1977), pp. 4045.
43
Vicentino, 3.27, fol. 53r (168). (Si da regola alle cadentie, che tutte quelle che hanno
da essere sustentate, si debbono signare con i loro segni de Diesis Cromatici, di .molli,
di .incitati per schiffare molti errori fatti dalli Cantanti, che possono occorrere nelle
compositioni, si per rompere il disegno del Compositore che in tal nota di cadentia volesse
dimostrare una durezza, & chil Cantante la susten tassi, & far la Musica dolce )
56
some of Zarlinos comments, yet these are peripheral to his study of polemics over
chromatic and enharmonic theories in the sixteenth century, and consideration
of practical application of affective theories in coeval repertoire lies beyond his
scope.44 Drawing upon a selection of treatises, beginning with Vicentino and Zarlino
and continuing into the succeeding centuries, D.P. Walker finds that commentaries
on the expressive value of intervals, when they occur, always group intervals
into two categories that he characterizes as vigorous and weak (though these
may differ in some particulars).45 While discussing comments made by Vincenzo
Galilei in 1581, Walker makes the significant observation that:
[Galilei] draws the conclusion that it is truly the bass part that in polyphony
gives a song its character. It is a pity that Galilei did not pursue this line further;
for it is only if the harmony were taken into account that all these theories of the
expressive value of melodic intervals could have any validity.46
Vicentino previously had said much the same thing as Galilei, though indirectly,
in his assertion that of the three factors governing musical affectharmonic
intervals, melodic intervals, and rhythmic motionharmonic intervals were the
most important.47 Each of these statements squares with what I have found through
analysis of the madrigals of Willaert and his followers: while both melodic and
harmonic intervals may serve expressive functions, harmonic intervals generally
bear more weight. After examining a few relevant musical passages, though,
Walker concludes that if this enquiry [into expressive intervals] were taken
further in Ciprianos works, and those of other great madrigalists, I think that it
would be found that all these theories of intervals are too simple and crude to be of
much help in interpreting the music of this period.48 Yet Walker does not address
the work of Bernhard Meier, whose examination of the expressive use of major
and minor chords in sixteenth-century musical sources reveals him to be a firm
believer in the practice,49 nor does he address the issue of why such theories should
suddenly pop up in Vicentinos and Zarlinos writings. In the present study, we
shall see that the closer we move toward locating the seminal source of these
theories, the more useful they will become for interpreting musical practice.
Karol Berger, Theories of Chromatic and Enharmonic Music, pp. 2530 and 60.
Walker, Studies in Musical Science, pp. 6380. See also the discussion of Walker in
connection with Table 5.1 in Chapter 5, pp. 2912.
46
Ibid., p. 66.
47
Vicentino, 4.21, fol. 81v (254).
48
Walker, Studies in Musical Science, p. 80.
49
Bernhard Meier, Major and Minor Chords in Sixteenth-Century Music, in The
Modes, pp. 40621. As noted in the first chapter of this study, most of Meiers examples
that antedate Willaerts Musica nova come from Josquins works and result more from
rhetorical or mimetic concerns than truly affective ones.
44
45
57
Nevertheless, the problems associated with the practical implementation of a

theory of interval affect remain, and they caused difficulties for observers much
closer to the origin of the practice as well, evidenced in Galileis discussion of
Aspro core that was published within a decade of Musica nova.50 Galilei says that
Willaert broke two contrapuntal rules in the passage:
nell imitare delle parole come bene lha espresso fra li altri eccellenti
compositori in piu luoghi il famoso Adriano, & particolarmente nel principio
di quella sua dotta Musica che gia compose a sei voci, sopra quel sonetto del
Petrarcha che comincia Aspro core, e selvaggio, & cruda voglia, dove passa piu
volte (per esprimer con gratia tal concetto) non solo dalla sesta maggiore alla
quinta, ma da una terza maggiore a laltra con il movimento congiunto.
in imitating the words, as the famous Adriano did (among other composers)
in the beginning of that learned music he composed for six voices on the sonnet
of Petrarch which begins Aspro core, e selvaggio, & cruda voglia. There several
times, in order to express the subject with grace, he passes not only from a major
sixth to a fifth [as between altus and bassus in m. 2], but from a major third to
another by conjunct movement [as between quintus and bassus in mm. 23].51
More precisely, in both instances, Willaert broke the rule stating that an imperfect
consonance should move to the nearest perfect consonance, and in the second
instance he also broke the rule stating that two imperfect consonances of the same
size should not follow one another. This latter rule first surfaced in Willaerts
circle: both Vicentino and Zarlino discourage parallel imperfect consonances of
the same size for the sake of variety, and Zarlino also points out the harsh false
relation formed between the extreme notes of parallel major thirds (as between
the quintus B and bassus F in mm. 23 of Example 1.6). Karol Berger notes that
the rule is attributed to Adriano in Jerome Cardans De musica of c. 1546, and
suggests that in presenting such a rule Vicentino and Zarlino were influenced by
their teachers concern over the cross relation that arises in certain situations.52
Berger bases his hypothesis solely on evidence drawn from the theoretical sources
he cites, yet the practical sources examined in the present study suggest he is
correct. My analyses also suggest that such a rule was not meant to be followed
50
Vincenzo Galilei, Fronimo, Dialogo (Venice: G. Scotto, 1568), p. 13; and Dialogo
della musica antica, et della moderna (Florence: G. Marescotti, 1581), pp. 889. In the
second instance, Willaert is not named.
51
Galilei, Fronimo (1584 edn), p. 13; translation from Palisca, Humanism, p. 357.
52
Karol Berger, Musica ficta: Theories of Accidental Inflections in Vocal Polyphony
from Marchetto da Padova to Gioseffo Zarlino (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1987), pp. 11112. The rule is also mentioned by Juan Bermudo at roughly the same time
as Vicentino; Declaracion de instrumentos musicales, fols 131v132r.
58
strictly, and that in some cases, it was broken specifically for expressive purposes,
as Galilei claimed.53
The 25 Musica nova madrigals provide compelling evidence substantiating
Galileis claim that the major sixths moving to perfect fifths and the parallel major
thirds in Aspro core were intended to convey harshness. In these madrigals, the vast
majority of major sixths above the bass resolve to octaves by stepwise expansion
in both voices or, less commonly, by leap of a third in one voice. Of the remainder,
most are 65 suspensions, and most of these are used in a precadential or other
contrapuntal role rather than an affective one (see Example 2.2). I have found six
passages in which the major sixth moves to a perfect fifth in connection with texts
containing harsh images. Of the 12 instances I have found of parallel major thirds
or tenths above the lowest-sounding voice, half occur with texts containing the
harsh keywords aspro or duro.54
It is ironic that I have found one case in which parallel major thirds bear no
obvious connection to harsh affection in the very work Galilei cites as proof of
the practice: they occur between the altus and bassus in m. 14 of Example 1.6,
right in the middle of sweet section B, a fact not mentioned by Galilei or any
subsequent commentator on the parallel thirds in the first phrase. My first reaction
to this discovery, given the consistency with which Willaert used or avoided
parallel major thirds in Musica nova, was to try to explain these away. But the
inescapable fact remains that Willaert could easily have avoided them by moving
the bass from C to G rather than B and adjusting the tenor accordingly, as he
does in the repetition of this figure in m. 19. I shall suggest a reason why he might
not wish to change the upper voice in a moment, but for now the essential point
remains the rarity and irony of these parallel major thirds, given how seldom they
occur in the Musica nova madrigals in general, given how frequently they are
associated with harshness when they do appear, and given Galileis commentary
on Aspro core.
As the use of parallel major thirds in Aspro core demonstrates, those looking for
absolute consistency in the deployment of a theory of interval affect in the works of
Willaert and his followers will be disappointed in most cases. This is particularly
true of the search for strict segregation of major and minor intervals for affective
purposes within a given passage. In addition to the above-mentioned practical
53
See also my forthcoming study A Rule Made to be Broken: On Zarlino, Vicentino,

Willaert, and Parallel Congruent Imperfect Consonances.
54
A thirteenth instance, which also occurs in Aspro core (mm. 978) with a hard
concept, pietre (stone), could be added, but I do not include it in the tally because the
bass voice drops out after the first sonority and the parallel thirds are completed in a
higher octave. By way of comparison, parallel major thirds above the lowest voice occur
well over 100 times in the compositions published in Arcadelts first book of four-voice
madrigals. Willaert introduces them more freely in the Musica nova motets, even allowing
them to appear in two-voice writing as in the opening of the quarta pars of O admirabile
commercium.
59
concerns about the stilted composition that would result from it, such segregation
would be in violation of the Bembist concept of varietas that Martha Feldman
has shown permeated Venetian literary culture and left its mark on Willaert and
Zarlino.55 This concept calls for a mixture of disparate elements and thus would
not favor privileging one quality to the complete exclusion of the other. The same
essential principle lies behind Zarlinos and Vicentinos bans on parallel perfect
or imperfect consonances because they lack variety.56 Speaking broadly from my
study of affective contrasts in the works of Willaert and his followers, the goal
seems to be to introduce enough of the appropriate quality, generally emphasized
through rhythmic or contrapuntal means, to get the point across without worrying
about total consistency.
Despite its inherently elusive and inconsistent nature, however, certain aspects
of the affective use of intervals, such as the harshness of the false relation in parallel
major thirds that bothered Zarlino, can be tied directly to intrinsic characteristics
of the coeval pitch gamut and its contrapuntal deployment, as we shall see in the
following section.
Properties of the Gamut and Their Implications for the Affective
Use of Intervals
Although most mid-sixteenth-century polyphony uses a pitch system that
encompasses alternate versions of B ( and ) and cadential inflections that might
require B, E, F, G, or C, this music remains proximately diatonic and generally
was presented in one of two common signatures: natural (cantus durus) or one flat
(cantus mollis).57 When placed in the lowest-sounding voice, each pitch-class of
the gamut bears above it a certain quality or qualities of third and sixth, as shown
for the cantus durus signature in Example 2.3 at (a); the familiar triad qualities
found above each step of the cantus durus signature appear at (b). To capture these
relationships between interval quality and position in the gamut and to simplify
the analyses presented here, I shall use the Roman numerals from one to seven to
designate more-or-less fixed locations within each common signature, beginning
on C in cantus durus and on F in cantus mollis. The numbering is arbitrary and
See Feldman, City Culture, pp. 14550, 229, and passim.
Zarlino, 3.29, p. 177 (62); Vicentino, 2.17, fol. 34v (111).
57
Examination of the complex issues lying behind the development of this pitch gamut
lies far beyond the scope of the current study. For various perspectives, see Charles M.
Atkinson, The Critical Nexus: ToneSystem, Mode, and Notation in Early Medieval Music
(Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Margaret Bent, Counterpoint,
Composition, and Musica Ficta (New York and London: Routledge, 2002); Berger, Musica
ficta: Theories of Accidental Inflections in Vocal Polyphony; and Henry Burnett and Roy
Nitzberg, Composition, Chromaticism and the Developmental Process: A New Theory of
Tonality (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007).
55
56
60
implies no functional or tonal significance; the numerals represent positions within

the key signature rather than scale degrees or pitch-classes, and will be referred
to simply as positions in the remainder of this study. This notation facilitates
both identification of harmonic quality and analysis of the succession of vertical
sonorities by using upper-case Roman numerals to represent major harmonic
quality, and lower-case minor, as defined below.
Example 2.3 shows an extensive correspondence between position in the key
signature and interval quality. Positions I, IV, and V are clearly major because
they bear a major five-three and both the third and sixth are major in the six-three.
Positions iii and vi are clearly minor because they bear a minor five-three, and both
the third and sixth are minor in the six-three. Position vii is largely minor because
both the third and sixth are minor in the six-three, yet the dissonant diminished
fifth in the five-three limits its usefulness (true also should B appear over iii).
Position ii/II may fall in either category, with a minor five-three and a mixed sixthree (minor third, major sixth). The substitution of B molle for B duro for melodic,
contrapuntal, or affective reasons frequently transforms the quality associated with
this and other positions, and a corresponding change in Roman-numeral quality will
be shown in the analyses. The effect of cadential inflections or other accidentals on
harmonic quality also will be shown by a change in Roman-numeral quality. To
keep things simple and to facilitate comparison between examples, an accidental
consistently applied in the course of a passage may cause a change of signature in
the analyses presented here.
Example 2.3 Interval qualities above each pitch-class of the basic gamut
I shall use the term major sonority to refer to those chords shown in
Example 2.4 at (a), the term minor sonority to refer to those chords shown
at (b), and the term dubious sonority to refer to those chords shown at (c).
These classifications treat each chord as a collection of intervals measured from
the lowest tone in the manner employed by Zarlino and Vicentino rather than as
a collection of pitch-classes, and therefore result in obvious discrepancies with
modern categories of chord quality and nomenclature for harmonic analysis. To
illustrate, the symbol I would indicate the major sonority CEG in cantus
durus (regardless of the modal final). If the Arabic numeral 6 were added to
the Roman I, the indicated sonority would still be considered major, but now
comprised of the pitches CEA. Modern theory would consider the quality of
61
this latter sonority to be minor, and would assign a Roman numeral based upon
the scale-degree function of the theoretical root of the sonority (A) in relationship
to a tonal center (e.g., vi if C were I). While the analytical notation used here may
be a bit disconcerting initially to those accustomed to modern Roman numeral
analyses, the benefits of its versatility and simplicity will soon become apparent
for recognizing common features among musical examples below.58 The notation
also highlights a profound aspect of Willaerts affective use of intervals, this
being the rudimentary concept of prolongation inherent in using contrapuntal
motions above a sustained or reiterated bass pitch in order to maintain a specific
harmonic quality.
Example 2.4 Major, minor, and dubious sonorities
As shown most clearly in Example 2.3 at (a), six of the seven natural positions
bear the same quality of sixth as of third. This doubling of affective quality (in
comparison to the five-three), and its implications for voice-leading, informed
both practical and theoretical emphasis on the harmonic sixth as an expressive
device: over the same bass tone and third, one may create melodic motion by
stepping from the fifth to the sixth or from the sixth to the fifth while the appropriate
major or minor harmonic quality sustains. The step engenders further affinity
by matching the quality of melodic and harmonic intervals: the major sixth steps
by major second, as shown in Example 2.5 at (a), while the minor sixth steps by
minor second, as shown at (b). Exceptions occur only in positions ii and vii, both
of which involve dubious sonorities and their inherent mi-contra-fa clashes, as
shown in Example 2.5 at (c).
The distribution of major and minor positions within the pitch system has
ramifications for voice-leading and contrapuntal structure when these positions are
deployed for affective purposes. The juxtaposition of IV and V presents a special
opportunity for dwelling on major sonorities over a span of time without rapidly cycling
through the major five-threes. Example 2.6 demonstrates successive 65 motions over
positions V and IV at (a) and successive 56 motions over positions IV and V at (b).
58
The clarity with which quality may be expressed with Roman numerals in
comparison with Arabic numerals and accidental signs, such as those used by Howard
Mayer Brown in Verso una definizione dellarmonia and, following Brown, Luca Bruno,
Theory and Analysis of Harmony, justifies their use despite the understandable concern
about their association with harmonic function of the common-practice era.
62
Example 2.5 65 or 56 motions
Example 2.6 56 or 65 motions over adjacent positions of similar quality
In addition to their practical benefit of avoiding parallel fifths, these figures are
attractive for affective purposes because in both cases every voice moves by
major second and four successive major sonorities appear, making them ideal
for expressions of harshness as described by Zarlino. Where B in cantus durus
and E in cantus mollis appear in the bass, these voice-leading models may occur
over VII and I as well (analogous, of course, to IV and V in other signatures).
Although adjacent minor five-threes exist on positions ii and iii, and adjacent
minor six-threes on positions vi and vii, they do not serve as well for affective
purposes for two reasons: (1) the adjacent minor sonorities are a whole-step apart,
thus each voice may not match melodic quality with harmonic quality by moving
by minor second, and (2) in each instance a dubious sonority would be formed
above either ii or vii, as shown in Example 2.6 at (c) through (f). In addition, the
major sixths above II at (c) and (e) contradict the prevailing minor quality. The
addition of B cannot effectively fix any of the problems at (c) through (f) because
it merely creates others by forming either major or dubious sonorities, with the
latter involving E and B rather than B and F.
Finally, one could dwell further on individual major or minor sonorities
by using the sixth as a neighbor (565) over a sustained bass tone. Vicentino
illustrates this figure in his treatise (despite his earlier claim that the direction of
a melodic interval may control its affect), and also employs it affectively over
a major position with the word duro in Inudita piet from his first madrigal
63
book (as will be discussed further in Chapter 5 in connection with Example 5.1).59
In a similar vein, Parabosco prolongs a minor position with a 565 motion in
mm. 1516 of Example 2.17 (p. 87) below with the words angelica figura.60
Analysis of the Exordium of Aspro core
Having examined the theories of interval affect presented by Zarlino and Vicentino,
and having examined the intervallic properties of the pitch gamut, we now have
a better framework for interpreting the affective structure and significance of the
exordium of Aspro core. The analytical symbols placed beneath the figured bass
in Example 2.7 demonstrate a clear contrast between major and minor harmonic
sonorities. More importantly, they also reveal that the chain-suspension figure over
V and IV, which was identified as a prime potential means of emphasizing major
intervals in Example 2.6, lies at the heart of the first phrase of Aspro core. Although
both sections contain both major and minor positions, there is an obvious emphasis
on the major positions in harsh section A and the minor positions in sweet
section B. Measured by duration, section A contains 75% major harmonic sonorities
and 25% minor, while section B contains 40% major and 60% minor. Furthermore,
section A contains six major and two minor sixths, while section B contains no
major sixths and two minor sixths. Each of the major sixths in section A is treated
as a suspension, as advocated by Vicentino for the expression of harshness (and,
through example, by Zarlino as well). Willaert also gives each of the major sixths a
semibreve duration, just as Zarlino later recommended for making their harshness
more pronounced. Each major position bearing a 65 suspension therefore lasts for a
breve. By way of contrast, the minor sixths in section A are not treated as suspensions,
and the minor positions over which they occur are relatively brief in duration. On the
other hand, the minor sixths in section B are treated as suspensions, albeit of normal
rather than extended duration. This suggests that the affect of the sixth is tied more
closely to its quality than its mode of entrance, and that the suspension serves to call
attention to the sixth and the step or half-step involved in its subsequent resolution.
As the preponderance of evidence in this and other examples presented below
demonstrates, the presence of 56 or 65 motions over the appropriate positions
in the signature (often accompanied by slowing of the harmonic rhythm) proves to
be a good indicator that a particular harmonic association was intended rather than
coincidental, significant rather than incidental.
59
Vicentino, 2.6, fol. 30v (978). The passage in question occurs in mm. 1012 of
Example 5.1, p. 228, clearly maintaining a single affection even though the melodic direction
of the returning neighbor tone changes. In the treatise there is no mention of a change of affect
associated with the returning neighbor. See also the discussion of Example 2.12.
60
See also the sustained neighboring minor sixths at lagrime s belle in mm. 11516
of Ove chi posi gli occhi and at dogliose in mm. 423 of Liete e pensose from Musica
nova.
64
Example 2.7 Willaert, Aspro core e selvaggio e cruda voglia, mm. 122
65
concluded
66
In addition to the principle of varietas discussed above, purely musical reasons

exist for the mixture of major and minor sonorities in the opening section of Aspro
core. The minor sonority over position iii that pops up in the middle of the first
phrase results from motivic factors. The chain suspension over positions V and
IV (mm. 23) requires descending stepwise motion involving three pitches in an
upper voice. If this voice is the lead voice in an imitative texture, therefore, each
voice participating in the imitation will exhibit a descending stepwise contour. The
requisite number of successive diatonic descending steps in the lowest-sounding
voice necessarily introduces at least one minor position, and in Aspro core Willaert
touches position iii briefly in the bass before executing a voice exchange with the
altus. It is important to understand that the minor sixth in m. 4 runs contrary to
the prevailing affection of the passage rather than being integral to it. Although
the two sonorities in m. 4 both contain the pitch-classes C, E, and G, it is the
specific vertical arrangement of the pitch-classes that determines whether each
sonority is major or minor according to the theory of interval affect: the first
is minor, and the second major. The other minor sonority in the passage, the one
on D that connects the first phrase with its transposed repetition, has a different
origin. Willaert could have moved the bass to F rather than D in m. 6, and thereby
have concluded with a major sonority and a repetition of the harsh parallel major
thirds with the quintus. His decision not to do so most likely resulted from larger
structural considerations: ending on the stable five-three on D provides a greater
sense of completion for the first phrase and better support for the G mode than
would ending on an unstable six-three over F, or resolving that to a five-three over
F in the second half of the bar (he could not move directly to the five-three on F
because doing so would create parallel fifths with the bass).
The affective use of melodic intervals in the opening of Aspro core seems to me
less decisive than that of harmonic intervals. In both sections the first entry of the
imitated motive begins with a wrong-sized second: as shown in Example 2.8, the
quintus is the leading voice in both instances, and begins harsh section A with
a minor second in mm. 12, as shown at (a), and sweet section B with a major
second in mm. 1112, as shown at (b). These theoretically errant melodic steps
set up the more significant harmonic and contrapuntal effects to follow (discussed
below), allowing the motive to arrive on tones conducive to the commencement of
these contrapuntal and harmonic effects while maintaining the contour needed to
produce them when the motive appears in other voices. Another point that merits
notice is that sections A and B share nearly identical motivic contours, seen most
clearly by comparing the quintus lines in mm. 16 at (a) and 1115 at (b): other
than the rhythmic differences, the only distinguishing feature is the addition of
B in section B. Yet the addition of the flat to the melodic motive does not in
itself account for the affective contrast (as a sign of softness or sweetness)
because the flat first enters in the transposition of the opening phrase of section A.
This may be seen by comparing the tenor in mm. 79 at (c) with the quintus in
mm. 1112 at (b): here we find the pitch succession CBA being used in passages
of opposing affections. Furthermore, when one takes into account all voices of
67
each section, major melodic intervals outnumber minor melodic intervals in both
sections. Nonetheless, earlier observers are correct in noting that fewer minor
melodic intervals occur in section A than in section B (7% minor and 20% minor,
respectively). Due to frequent repeated notes and a few perfect fourths and fifths,
however, less than half of adjacent pitches form major or minor melodic intervals
in each section. The repeated pitches allow Willaert to dwell on certain harmonic
sonorities, and herein beats the heart of the matter, as will be shown presently.
Example 2.8 Melodic lines from harsh and sweet sections of Aspro core
The essential contrast between sections A and B lies not so much in the
arrangement of the major and minor intervals in the melodic lines as it does in
a fourfold tonal and harmonic contrast: (1) a change in modal quality between
section A and section B; (2) the emphasis in the composite bass on major positions
in section A and minor positions in section B; (3) the frequent presence of major
sixths in section A and their complete absence in section B; and (4) the contrast
between frequent six-threes in section A and the predominant use of five-threes
in section B. While the latter two aspects of contrast have been mentioned in
earlier discussions of Aspro core, the changes in modal quality and the compositebass line in section B are arguably more important and have more far-reaching
implications.
The final pitch and vocal ranges of Aspro core indicate the modal category
most coeval theorists would have identified as Mode 8 on G. The initial entry of
B in m. 8 originates in the transposition of the material in mm. 16 up a fourth
in mm. 612. The transposition moves Mode 8 from G to C, and thus does not
indicate an actual change of modal quality. The situation is different beginning in
m. 12, where the consistent application of B to a G tonality results in a shift from
Mode 8 to Mode 2. The change of modal quality allows the same basic material to
be used, but with different affective meaning.
Willaert often worked with compositional modules comprised of individual
melodic strands that could be rearranged or reworked as desired when the module
reappeared.61 In order to support my reconstruction of Willaerts compositional
61
For studies of Willaerts motivic procedures in selected motets, see Joshua Rifkin,
Miracles, Motivicity, and Mannerism; and Katelijne Schiltz, Adrian Willaerts Beati
68
procedure in the opening of Aspro core given below, it will be helpful to see this
modular process in operation in another work.62 Example 2.9 contains a passage
drawn from near the beginning of Io amai sempre, the madrigal placed first
in the Musica nova collection. The module occurs with the repeated text ove
piangendo torno Spesse fiate, quando Amor maccora. At first glance, the music
accompanying the repetition of the text (mm. 2432) seems very similar to the
first statement of the module (mm. 1725), although the ending of the second
statement has been rearranged to accommodate a smoother coupling with the
following phrase. The cantus line (strand a) is nearly identical in both statements
of the text, except for minor changes in rhythm, until the cadence. The bass (strand
d) also is nearly identical, although one can see that Willaert altered the first three
pitches of the repetition in order to dovetail the cadence ending the first statement.
Having entered a semibreve later in relation to the bass, the rhythmic acceleration
in the cantuss repetition of its strand allows it to catch up with the bass at the end
of m. 26.
A closer look at the repeated module reveals more substantial changes taking
place in the alto and tenor voices, however, which essentially retain their own
strands in mm. 1723 and 2530, but trade openings. The first five notes of the
tenors ove piangendo (strand c) in mm. 1819 appear in slightly altered form
in the alto in mm. 256, which then takes up its former strand (b) on the B at
torno. The tenor bridges the ending of the first statement and the beginning of
the second in m. 256 with an altered version of the altos strand b in mm. 1719
before resuming its strand, again midstream, on the two Gs at -gendo that split
in half the earlier G at torno in m. 19. Willaert frequently used this modular
approach with repeated lines of text, varying the individual strands or even cutting
and splicing them such that they migrate from one voice part to another in order
to create seamless connections between phrases. In this process, rhythms and
individual pitches might change, and the alignment of the text with the pitches
of the melodic strand might be different, as may be seen by comparing the tenor
strand in mm. 1921 with its restatement in mm. 268.
Willaert wove the opening of Aspro core using a similar modular approach, yet
extending it to incorporate the following line of text and its contrasting affection.
pauperes spiritu. See also Peter Schuberts analysis of melodic reworkings in a ricercar
by Willaert in Recombinant Melody. I use the term module here in a slightly different
sense than Jessie Ann Owens in her Composers at Work: The Craft of Musical Composition
14501600 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 251, and Peter
Schubert in his Hidden Forms in Palestrinas First Book of Four-Voice Motets, Journal
of the American Musicological Society 60/3 (2007), pp. 484513. These scholars refer to
reused duo segments embedded within a point of imitation, whereas I use the term to refer
to a set of returning voice-leading strands more generally.
62
See also the discussion of Willaerts manipulation of the opening module in I piansi,
hor canto in connection with Example 3.4, p. 120.
Example 2.9 Willaert, Io amai sempre, mm. 1732
69
70
As shown in Example 2.10, sections A and B share three basic melodic strands,
designated x, y, and z. We have already seen the similarity in each section of
the quintus motive (as also suggested by Atlas), here called strand x: except for
the change from B to B, the contour of the motive remains exactly the same,
even down to the number of times each pitch appears. Strand z, presented in the
bassus in section A (mm. 24), migrates to the tenor in altered form in section B
(mm. 1214). The alterations to the motive (marked with a bracket) allow for its
realignment with strand x and permit emphasis of the descending melodic minor
second between F and E, which is more appropriate for the sweet affection of
the text it accompanies. Strand y remains in the altus, although its first pitchclass (E) is either missing or appears in the sesta parte; this is Paliscas common
melodic thread. The only entirely new melodic line appears in the bassus, a line,
I shall show, necessitated by Willaerts desire to emphasize the minor positions in
section B rather than the major positions found in the bass line of section A.
Example 2.10 Shared voice-leading strands in opening of Aspro core
71
The transposition of mm. 16 in mm. 612 and the doubling of the length of
the E in the sesta parte in mm. 1011 (in relationship to the B in the quintus in
m. 5) permit the dovetailing of sections A and B (Example 2.7). The first phrase of
section A ends with a D sonority in m. 6; its exact transposition would end with a G
sonority in m. 11. This latter sonority would not support the entrance of the quintus
on C (the first pitch of strand x), thus Willaert doubles the length of the E in the
sesta parte, prolonging the C sonority and delaying the arrival of the G sonority
until m. 12. Although the C beginning strand x could have been placed in m. 10,
it would then have overlapped with the harsh major sixth suspension in that
measure, and the desired transition from harshness to sweetness would have
been less clearly delineated. Because of the overlapping of section A with section
B, and because of the length of the penultimate E of the sesta partes statement
of strand x to accommodate this overlapping, Willaert elects to leave off the first
pitch-class of strand y in the altus (which would have created parallel octaves if
present). Important here also is Willaerts aforementioned shift in musical rhythm
to reflect the shifting textual rhythm.
The analytical sketches in Example 2.11 illustrate the need in section B for
the new bass line and for the alterations to the upper voices. A reduction of
Willaerts opening phrase in section A appears at (a), while a hypothetical B phrase
constructed by applying B to Willaerts first phrase appears at (b). There are two
primary problems with this hypothetical B phrase in relation to Willaerts finished
version: (1) the suspended E and D still form major sixths, and (2) the suspended
E occurs within the harshness of a dubious sonority. A reduction of Willaerts
actual B phrase with its added bass line shown in square noteheads appears at
(c). We now can see clearly in the top line that Willaert drops the first E from the
altus strand because there is no convenient place to put it. He does not suspend
the second E of the original altus over G and B in m. 14 in order to avoid an
augmented-fourth dissonance (not appropriate for sweetness), and considerably
shortens the total duration of this E in comparison to that of mm. 4 and 5.
Example 2.11 Analytical reductions of sections A and B in opening of Aspro
core
72
I believe Willaerts desire to preserve melodic contour led him to retain this second
E, even though it forms parallel major tenths with the bass (which, according to
Zarlino, are more suitable for harshness, as noted above).63
As for the new bass line, its first and last pairs of tones primarily double the
former composite-bass line in a lower register, yet several significant changes
occur between these pairs. The D and A (m. 13) transform the original major 65
suspension in the altus into a pair of minor sonorities, and convert the original
bass line, now in the tenor, into a minor 65 suspension. The following C in the
bass line creates a major sonority, yet no minor sonority could accommodate the E
and G of strands x and z without using B, and thereby spoiling the minor affect of
the passage as a whole, or placing E in the bass, which would form a tritone with
the following B, or form parallel octaves with the altus if the bass moved to D
rather than B. The B in the bass presents a much greater problem for contrapuntal
exegesis of the passage because Willaert could have moved by leap to G instead
(as he will in m. 19) and thus have avoided the harsh parallel major thirds.
The answer to this conundrum likely lies in providing variety in the redundant
bass line, which otherwise would have been comprised of the series of reiterated
fourths CG, DA, CG, DA, CG in mm. 1117, and in obtaining movement by
step rather than leap in both bass and tenor (including the tenors sweet semitone
EF, not found in the earlier bassus version of strand x).
The opening of Aspro core thus represents more than a superficial reaction to
a vivid textual contrast with affective intervals, and close reading reveals instead
a larger and more subtle purpose on the part of the composer. Both sections were
built from the same basic musical theme (strand x), the soggetto in Zarlinos
terminology, yet with substantial differences in musical and affective quality.64
In order to alter the soggetto while retaining its basic shape, Willaert temporarily
changes the mode and the prevailing harmonic quality, thus creating a musical
contrast to match the contrasts of the words. However, his musical reading of the
poem runs deeper than this. By forging the contrasting section B from the same
basic stuff as section A, Willaert captures the essence of Petrarchs opening lines:
that harshness and sweetness coexist in the same person, Petrarchs Laura.65
63
Standing against this hypothesis is the fact that the contour of the original bass
line could have been preserved in the tenor in mm. 1216 as well, although the prominent
melodic semitone of the altered version would have been lost.
64
Zarlino indicates that a soggetto is not necessarily the first voice to sound but that
which sets and maintains the mode and to which the other voices are adapted (Io non
dico quella, che prima di ogn altra incomincia a cantare; ma quella dico, che osserva, &
mantiene il Modo sopra laquale sono accommodate le altre ); 3.28, p. 175 (58).
65
Hartmut Schick independently makes a similar observation, noting that the opening
lines are built on the same subject, yet does not identify the subject specifically nor examine the
steps Willaert took to alter it and its setting to render the affective contrast: Im sechsstimmigen
Aspro core e selvaggio schliesslich ist die Musik der zweiten Zeile unverkennbar aus dem
Anfansgssoggetto gewonnen, trotz des schroffen affektiven Gegensatzes. Doch der Mangel an
73
When we recognize that Willaert retained the same basic subject and trace
the steps he took to transform it and its settingparticularly the use of the chainsuspension figure in section A in the only diatonic locus allowing exclusive
emphasis of major entities, and the addition of a new bass line in section B to
convert the harshness of this figure into sweetnesswe find evidence of (1)
Willaerts theoretical engagement with the inherent intervallic structure of the
diatonic gamut and how it might be utilized for affective purposes, (2) a greater
concern for and manipulation of harmonic quality than thought typical up until
his time, and (3) a clear set of footprints leading from Willaerts practice toward
the theories of interval affect presented by Zarlino and Vicentino. In the change
of the soggetto from G durus to G mollis, we also find evidence suggesting that
Zarlinos attribution of modal affect to the quality of the third above the final may
have derived from Willaerts influence as well.66
Per motum contrarium: The 56 Motion as an Affective Device
Several other passages in the Musica nova madrigals provide further proof that
Willaert intentionally employed certain intervals and contrapuntal models for
affective purposes, and thus further proof of the existence and nature of his own
theory of interval affect. Another instance of contrasted major and minor harmonic
sonorities occurs in the second part of Aspro core (Example 2.12). Here the text
is Non s duro cor; che lagrimando, Pregando, amando talhor non si smova
(There is no heart so hard that weeping, praying, loving cannot move it). Willaert
carefully separates Non s duro cor for affective contrast from the remainder
of the paired lines, and sets this second reference to Lauras hard heart with nine
successive major sonorities encompassing two 56 motions over positions IV and
V (complete with parallel major thirds) that resemble the voice-leading model given
above in Example 2.6 at (b).67 He sets up the entry of the harsh text and major
intervals through the cross relation between F and F in m. 103, and I have placed the
analysis in a one-sharp system in order to facilitate comparison with other examples.
varietas gerade am exponierten Anfang des Madrigals hat seinen Grund. Wie der Text, zwingt
auch die Musik das scheinbar Unvereinbareein grausames Herz in engelsgleicher, sanfter
Gestaltdurch analoge Motivik zusammen; Musikalische Einheit im Madrigal, p. 38.
66
Vicentino, 3.20, fol. 50r (157) and passim, anticipates Zarlinos attribution of modal
ethos to the quality of the third above the final, but does not go so far toward making it a
uniform principle as does Zarlino. Further evidence of Willaert tinkering with the third above
the modal final for affective purposes appears in I vidi in terra angelici costumi. As discussed
in the next chapter, Willaert introduces an A into the F tonal type to portray a reference to
sweetness greater than the world has seen by altering the quality of the mode itself.
67
In 1588 Pontio observed that a 568 motion over the same bass and involving
a major sixth could be used to render a passage somewhat harsh (per esser il passagio
alquanto duro); Ragionamento, pp. 5960.
74
Example 2.12 Willaert, Aspro core, mm. 10316
75
The harmonic rhythm is again slow, roughly twice as slow as that of the surrounding
passages. The major sixths in m. 105 and 108 sound for a semibreve, as did those
in the exordium. At the entrance of lagrimando (weeping), the emphasis
changes to minor seconds and minor harmonies with the introduction of B in the
cantus in m. 110.
This passage highlights the conflict between the melodic and harmonic planes
of music that may arise in the practical application of a theory of interval affect.
For example, the F in m. 103 that creates a major sonority from a minor one also
introduces an accidental minor second, which Zarlino associated with sweetness.68
Vicentinos association of sharps with cheerfulness and flats with melancholy
might seem more appropriate to this passage given the dramatic entrance of B at
lagrimando. On the other hand, the C that creates the melodic minor second in
the altus in the following measure defies Vicentinos classification of sharps as
cheerful while supporting Zarlinos classification of accidental motion as languid.
Furthermore, this sharp makes a major harmony out of a minor one. I have no
doubt that Willaert puns the meaning of duro by setting it with B (B duro) in
the cantus in mm. 104 and 107, and then placing B (B molle) in the same voice
68
Compare the very similar inverted motivic use of B and F with soavemente in
mm. 924 of Willaerts setting of In qual parte del ciel in Musica nova.
76
in m. 110 for lagrimando.69 In the next measure one might expect E rather than
C in the altus for the same reason, yet E would not fit against the sustained A,
so the C and resulting major harmony appear instead. These conflicts underscore
problems inherent in the affective use of intervals, but in no way disprove that the
practice exists. As Zarlino says: It is a difficult matter to teach just when and how
to use such things.70 In Willaerts practice, however, 56 and 65 voice-leading
motions over the appropriate positions in the gamut, coupled with a slowing of the
harmonic rhythm, often represent the how, and clearly point toward the when.
Such incontrovertible instances of affective writing provide a valuable touchstone
for validating affective passages based upon exclusive or predominant use of
major or minor five-three sonorities, no matter how fleeting they may be, such as
the opening of Liete e pensose discussed in the preceding chapter.
The two passages cited from Aspro core also demonstrate that, for Willaert
and pace Vicentino, interval quality was a more significant factor in determining
affect than was interval direction (although Example 2.16 below suggests that
direction may be a contributing factor at times). The settings of both references
to Lauras hard heart feature major harmonic intervals and melodic motion by
major second, yet one with a descending contour and the other in ascent (i.e., the
difference between the 65 or 56 voice-leading motions forming the core of each
passage). The prominent semitonal neighbors in the cantus and altus accompanying
lagrimando in Example 2.12 also underscore this point, comprising as they do
both ascending and descending motion in the service of the same affect.
Another instantiation of the 56 motion coming very close to the model at (b)
in Example 2.6 occurs at the text e romprognaspro scoglio (and break each
harsh rock) in Giunto mha Amor, a second Musica nova madrigal from Zarlinos
list of five in Book 4, Chapter 32.71 As shown in Example 2.13, the sixth over IV
enters by leap in the quintus and is followed by the 56 motion over V. Once again
parallel major thirds (here tenths) accompany the move from IV to V, and once
again the major sixths are sustained (this madrigal is notated in black-note style,
thus the semiminims here are equal to the minims of Aspro core). The individual
major positions sound for as long as seven note nere semiminims while the words
unfold, giving the listener ample time to recognize the special expressive devices.
Also noted by Atlas, Renaissance Music, p. 438.
Zarlino, p. 3.57, p. 238 (178). (E cosa difficile veramente il volere insegnare
particolarmente, in qual maniera, & a che tempo si habbiano da usar tal cose )
71
Giunto mha Amor is discussed in Brown, Words and Music, pp. 22531. See also
Michle Fromson, Themes of Exile, especially pp. 44253; Bernhard Meier, The Modes,
pp. 1446 and 414; Timothy R. McKinney, Hearing in the Sixth Sense, Musical Quarterly
82/34 (1998), pp. 5226; Leeman Perkins, Music in the Age of the Renaissance (New
York and London: W. W. Norton, 1999), pp. 6769; and McClary, Modal Subjectivities,
pp. 818. Jonathan Miller compares treatment of word-sound in numerous settings of Giunto
mha Amor in his Word-Sound and Musical Texture, pp. 181237; see also Feldman, City
Culture, pp. 31419.
69
70
Example 2.13 Willaert, Giunto mha Amor, mm. 519
77
78
A later passage near the beginning of the seconda parte of the same madrigal
provides another example of concentrated major sonorities, here with still another
reference to Lauras hard heart at ondellha il cor s duro (Example 2.14).
Again the harmonic rhythm slows, with both syllables of duro lasting at least a
measure apiece in each of their three appearances in mm. 9097, and three major
sixths appear in stressed metric positions. McClary notes the deliciously searing
parallel thirds and sixths in this passage; 72 these move over the elongated bass
notes within the sustained major sonorities. Compare both of these hard passages
with the ending of the madrigal and the dramatic turn toward minor sonorities in
the setting of the softer affection of the final line: le mie speranze e i miei dolci
sospiri (my hopes and my sweet sighs), as shown in Example 2.15. As always
in the Musica nova madrigals, though, Willaert concludes with a major sonority
regardless of the affection of the text.
Our next example contains another instance of contrasted major and minor
sonorities in the setting of adjacent verses, this time drawn from the beginning
of the second part of Willaerts O invidia, nemica di virtute (Example 2.16).73
Here Willaert emphasizes major sonorities in the setting of Ne per che con
atti acerbi, et rei (but with acts bitter and cruel), marked A in the example.
He includes three independent 56 motions, one over each of the three tones
capable of bearing the major sixth in the cantus mollis signatureC in m. 72,
B in m. 74, and F in m. 77and sustains each for a semibreve except for the
neighboring dotted minim in the tenor in m. 74. Notice also the slow harmonic
rhythm that results, and the stretching of the major sonority over C to two full
measures (mm. 756) in order to allow the harmonic effect time to register.
The second verse, marked B in the example, presented a special challenge
because of its double opposition of contrasting ideas: Del mio ben pianga, et
del mio pianger rida ([she] at my good weep and at my weeping laugh).
Willaert chose to set primarily the actions of the lady rather than the state of the
protagonist. He shades his setting of the first part of the second verse toward
pianga and thus obtains a more vivid contrast with the previous verse. The
emphasis shifts from major to minor sonorities and the cantus states a prominent
semitonal motive using E in m. 80 (compare Example 2.12). The major sixths
are replaced by a minor sixth, also suspended for a semibreve. For the setting
of the second opposition of the second verse, Willaert opted to paint Lauras
laughter with semiminim melismas at rida, but this does not prevent him from
introducing the drooping semitone and minor sixth with pianger in the vagans
in m. 90.
McClary, Modal Subjectivities, p. 88.

A detailed analysis of O invidia, nemica di virtute appears in Rivera, Finding the
Soggetto, pp. 8198.
72
73
79
80
81
Example 2.16 Willaert, O invidia, nemica di virtute, mm. 7093
continued
82
Example 2.16 concluded
83
This example provides compelling evidence of Willaerts rumination over

the intervallic structure of the pitch gamut and the harmonic, voice-leading,
and rhythmic techniques that use that structure to good advantage for affective
purposes. Particularly convincing is his introduction of the ascending major 56
motion over three different tones in the first verse, and the contrasting descending
minor 65 motions in the setting of the second verse. In each case, the affective
sixth occurs in a voice-part actually intoning the appropriate word: acerbi or
rei with the major sixths (the tenor in mm. 72 and 74, and the alto in m. 77), and
pianga and pianger with the minor sixths (the tenor in m. 84 and the quintus
in m. 90). These are the only sixths of at least minim length in the passage, thus
their association with their respective affects is unmuddled. Finally, this example
displays all three affective uses of rhythm that Zarlino proposed in the passages
from Le istitutioni cited above (though O invidia is not among the five Musica
nova madrigals he listed as exemplars of affective writing): (1) the harshness of
the major sixths for acerbi, et rei is emphasized predominantly by mixed breves
and semibreves; (2) the sadness of pianga is depicted by slow and lingering
movements, again involving breves and semibreves; and (3) the cheerfulness of
rida is captured through note values that convey swiftness of movement, such
as the minim and semiminim.
Musica nova and Zarlinos Discussion of Musical Affect: A Closer Look
As noted above, Zarlinos citation of five Musica nova madrigals in his discussion
of accommodating music to the words actually occurs in the immediate context
of rhythm rather than intervals. Though he does not mention specific passages,
it is not difficult to find ones that he may have had in mind. In I vidi in terra
angelici costumi, the most striking use of rhythm occurs in the extended passage
of semiminim syncopations at sospirando (sighing), followed a few measures
later by reiterated minims leading to semibreves and breves at et stare i fiumi
(and the rivers stand still), as may be seen in Example 3.2 in the following chapter.
In Ove chi posi gli occhi, one finds frequent semiminim runs with words implying
movement, such as spinge (impels) and sospiri (sighs), and even the flowing
of tears, which stand in strong contrast to the sustained semibreves at Alta piet
(deep pity). In Quando fra laltre donne semiminim runs ascend at al sommo
ben tinvia (sends to the highest good), and in Giunto mha Amor quick notes
appear at mova et spiri (moves and breathes) and sospiri (sighs), the latter of
which may be seen in Example 2.15. In Aspro core, Zarlino likely was thinking
about the passage at Non s duro cor; che lagrimando, Pregando, amando
talhor non si smova (Example 2.12). Lagrimando is set primarily with minims,
semibreves, and not a few breves, while smova (move) is set with numerous
semiminims and even a pair of fusas. More significantly original about this passage
is the slow harmonic rhythm that better projects the contrast of major sonorities at
duro cor with minor sonorities at lagrimando, as discussed above. The same
84
is true of the sustained major sonorities underlying the faster surface rhythm at e
romprognaspro scoglio in Giunto mha Amor (Example 2.13).
Although Zarlino does not cite directly any musical works, other than his
exemplar of harsh harmony, when discussing interval affect, the lists of descriptive
terms he employs in his two principal commentaries on interval affect in Book
3, Chapter 57 and Book 4, Chapter 32 of the Istitutioni (cited above) bear an
overwhelming resemblance to the keywords that triggered Willaerts most overt
affective uses of harmonic intervals in Musica nova, as shown in Table 2.3.74 Three
caveats must be understood relative to this table. First, the table by no means
encompasses every affective use of interval quality in the Musica nova madrigals
nor conveys the variety and subtlety with which Willaert uses interval quality in
association with hard and soft concepts other than those listed, as we shall see
in the following chapter. Second, the table should not be taken to mean that Willaert
reacts only to individual keywords rather than the sense of a passage of text, nor
that each time a keyword appears it will be set with the listed intervals; he is not
an automaton. Third, other aspects of affective writing such as expressive melodic
intervals or accidental inflections also operate in many of the passages from which
the table was constructed. With these caveats in mind, the table serves to show
that Zarlinos discussion of interval affect can be tied directly to the Musica nova
madrigals even though he does not explicitly make this connection himself.
Table 2.3
Affective associations for the imperfect consonances
Intervals
Zarlinos descriptors
Willaerts keywords
major third or major sixth
aspro/asprezza
duro/durezza
crudelt
amaritudine
aspro/asprezza
duro
cruda
acerbi
selvaggio
rei
pietre
major third
allegro
liete
vita
The passages used to construct Table 2.3 include O invidia nemica di virtute, mm.
7086 (Example 2.16); Laura mia sacra, mm. 726 and 95106 (Example 3.1); Mentre
chel cor, mm. 99106 (Example 3.3); Giunto mha Amor, mm. 518, 9098, and 12432
(Examples 2.13, 2.14, and 2.15); Io mi rivolgo, mm. 3041; Aspro core, mm. 121 (Example
2.7) and 10316 (Example 2.12); I piansi, hor canto, mm. 3542 (Example 3.4); Cantai,
hor piango, mm. 95101 (Example 3.5); In qual parte del ciel, mm. 928 and 10813; I
vidi in terra angelici costumi, mm. 8492 (Example 3.2); Ove chi posi gli occhi, mm. 469
and 11317; Liete e pensose, mm. 15 (Example 1.1), 1525, 3744, and 778; and Occhi
piangete, accompagnate il core, mm. 14.
74

Intervals
Zarlinos descriptors
Willaerts keywords
minor third or minor sixth
pianto
dolore
cordoglio
sospiri
lagrime
languido
mesto
dolci
soavi
piangere
dolermi
dogliose
sospira
lagrimare
languisca
tristi
dolce
soavemente
pensose
lasso
humile
morte
piet
85
Excursus: A Tale of Two Tropes and Aspro cores Exordium

As Helga Meier, Jerome Roche, and Martha Feldman have discussed, other settings
of Aspro core by Girolamo Parabosco and Giaches de Wert open with a similar
descending motive and emphasis on six-three sonorities (see Examples 2.17 and
2.18, respectively).75 Both composers would have been familiar with Willaerts
well-known setting, thus the similarities and differences between their later settings
and Willaerts are especially noteworthy. Parabosco, a member of Willaerts circle,
adheres more closely to Willaerts emphasis of major sixths in section A, coming
very close to duplicating the chain-suspension figure over positions V and IV.
Wert, less directly connected to Willaert, uses the sixth more generically in parallel
movement.76 Neither Parabosco nor Wert maintains Willaerts contrast between
major sonorities in section A and minor sonorities in section B, though Parabosco
uses the minor sixth in both melody and harmony of the penultimate measure of
the excerpt.77
75
Helga Meier, foreword to Fnf Madrigale venezianischer Komponisten um Adrian
Willaert, Das Chorwerk 50 (Wolfenbttel: Mseler, 1967); Jerome Roche, The Madrigal
(New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1972), pp. 37 and 66; and Feldman, City Culture,
pp. 32834.
76
On Werts use of parallel six-three sonorities as an expressive device, with a
specific reference to Aspro cor, see Carol MacClintock, The 5-Part Madrigals of Giaches
de Wert (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1955), pp. 1068. Werts own imitation
of the opening of Willaerts Aspro core occurs in his Dura legge dAmor; see discussion of
Example 2.24.
77
The Parabosco example illustrates the issue of performer-added accidentals relative
to affective writing. In m. 5, the tenor has a suspension figure that might have prompted
a performer to sing B rather than B, and Helga Meier placed an editorial natural over
86
Example 2.17 Girolamo Parabosco, Aspro cor, mm. 117
87
While both Parabosco and Wert change from a predominantly stepwise bass in
section A to a bass moving predominantly by leap in section B, just as did Willaert,
they emphasize major five-three sonorities in section B in conjunction with added
flats and sharps (in line with Zarlinos interpretation of accidental sweetness even
if not with his theory of interval affect). In all three cases, the stepwise bass of
the first section facilitates parallel sixths or the chain-suspension figure, thus the
change to the more normal procedure of a leaping bass simply means the stepwise
bass is no longer needed to support the affective devices occurring above it,
and I would not argue that any of the three composers thought of the change in
the motion of the bass as a direct reflection of the contrast in the text. Neither
Parabosco nor Wert quotes Willaerts motive exactly, nor links sections A and
B through a common motive (though, intriguingly, after the first pitch of Werts
cantus line in section B, it uses the same pitch classes as in section A, yet with
an inverted contour). Finally, the emphasis on three-voice texture and a repetition
of the opening line of text in both later settings may be a tribute to Willaert as
the B in her edition cited above. The use of B here would introduce a melodic semitone
inappropriate to the text, especially given Zarlinos classification of accidental semitones
as sweet, and would also convert the notated major sixth into a minor one, again contrary
to the affection of the passage. The use of B would avoid this problem, and also would
retain in reverse order the parallel major thirds between altus and tenor that were featured
in m. 2, again likely in imitation of Willaerts setting. The Antonio Gardano print preserving
Paraboscos five-voice madrigals does not specify either pitch beyond the signature.
88
Example 2.18 Giaches de Wert, Aspro cor, mm. 114
89
Feldman suggests (and particularly so in Paraboscos case).78 I would add that a

three-voice texture facilitates the voice-leading involved in parallel thirds, sixths,
or the chain-suspension figure, and avoids obscuring the parallelism with a denser
texture and contrary motion (see Examples 2.13, 2.22, and 2.23 for other instances
of reduced texture in related contexts), while the repetition of the opening line
allows all voices to enter before the contrasting line is sung.
Feldman finds Willaerts Aspro core to be a founding member of a group of
works that share a common feature:
Both passages [from Rores and Paraboscos settings of Cantai mentre chi
arsi del mio foco] resemble Willaerts exposition of the incipit Aspro core e
selvaggio, e cruda voglia which Parabosco himself imitated in a later setting
as well as Rores own apparent imitation of Willaerts exposition in setting
the line Sgombrino laltre voglie aspre selvaggie from Sfrondate, o sacre
dive Parabosco made similar use of parallel six-three chords in setting v.
12 from Solo e pensoso, Ma pur s aspre vie n s selvaggie The entire
complex of passages thus participates in a single musical topos that Venetian
composers cultivated for expressions of harshness and wildnessa topos whose
roots probably lie in Willaerts Aspro core and possibly in Rores Cantai mentre
chi arsi as well.79
By widening our chronological and geographical viewpoint, we can locate

Willaerts Aspro core within a broader spectrum of madrigal history while at the
same time situating its emphasis of certain interval qualities within a more generic
use of six-threes as a trope for expressing harshness. For example, the passage
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 32021. For a comparison of Paraboscos setting of
Solo e pensoso with Vicentinos, see McKinney, Hearing, pp. 52631. Further evidence
of a specialized trope within a more general one can be found by comparing these two
settings with Werts (Il settimo libro de madrigali, 1581; modern edition in Giaches de
Wert: Collected Works, ed. Carol MacClintock and Melvin Bernstein, Corpus mensurabilis
musicae 24 [American Institute of Musicology, 1967], vol. 7, p. 36). At the line Ma pur
s vie n s selvaggie both Vicentino and Parabosco, with their close ties to Willaert, take
care to emphasize major sixths, while Wert uses generic parallel six-threes as he did in his
setting of Aspro cor (although here moving by leap rather than step). Settings of Solo e
pensoso by 17 composers are listed in Judith Cohen, Reading Petrarch: The Renaissance
Composers View, in Hermann Danuser and Tobias Plebuch (eds), Musik als Text: Bericht
ber den Internationalen Kongress der Gesellschaft fr Musikforschung, Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1993 (2 vols, Kassel, Basel, London, New York, and Prague: Brenreiter, 1998).
vol. 2, pp. 1818. See also Daniele Sabaino, Solo e pensose i pi deserti campi :
Musica e poesia nelle intonazioni di un sonetto petrarchesco tra Cinquecento e Seicento, in
Maria Teresa Rosa Barezzani and Mariella Sala (eds), Luca Marenzio, musicista europeo:
Atti della Giornata di studi marenziani, Brescia, 6 marzo 1988 (Brescia: Edizioni di storia
bresciana, 1990), pp. 4990.
78
79
90
Feldman cites from Rores Sfrondate, o sacre dive (mm. 5761) contains generic
parallel thirds and sixths, but not the emphasis on major sixths and parallel major
thirds that Willaerts Aspro core (and other works by Willaert, Vicentino, Zarlino,
and Parabosco) would suggest would be more appropriate to the text aspre
silvagge [sic]. As shown in Example 2.19, the setting of the first statement of the
text (mm. 589) clearly emphasizes minor sonorities. The second statement is set
with minor sonorities as well; while it ostensibly resembles the Aspro core model,
the entrance of the quinto in m. 60 lessens the affective significance of the parallel
major thirds and sixths that otherwise would have occurred over V and IV by
introducing a new composite-bass tone. This is, of course, the crux of the matter
for the theory of harmonic interval affect: only those intervals measured from the
lowest tone of the concento count toward determining the affect of a sonority.
Example 2.19 Cipriano de Rore, Sfrondate, o sacre dive, mm. 5761
Furthermore, other madrigalists of Willaerts generation use harmonic sixths

in connection with texts expressing harshness, hardness, or bitterness, as the
passage from Arcadelts Perch non date voi, donna crudele given in Example
2.20 demonstrates. This work was contained in Arcadelts first madrigal book of
1538, which also contained his famous setting of Il bianco e dolce cigno and
was reprinted many times and widely disseminated. Here Arcadelt sets the phrase
containing the words acerba e dura (bitter and hard) with numerous sixths
(mostly major), suspensions, and parallel thirds (including parallel major thirds).
Yet in this madrigal book he does not restrict the use of such devices to similar
textual situations, and major sixths are likely to break out even in sweet passages,
91
such as that in Example 2.21. Willaerts practice in Musica nova is much more
systematic and consistent, and represents a significant feature of what is new
about the Musica nova style.80
Example 2.20 Jacques Arcadelt, Perch non date voi, donna crudele, mm. 812
Example 2.21 Arcadelt, Benedetti martiri, mm. 1924
Willaert is not entirely consistent, however. The only passage in Musica nova that
would seem blatantly to disregard the theory of interval affects prescription for the proper
affective use of major sixths occurs at the opening of I piansi, hor canto (I wept, now sing),
yet not without reason, as we shall see in the following chapter.
80
92
Willaerts Aspro core and other works in his Musica nova thus simultaneously
participate in two related yet distinct practices, the one using sixths as mild
dissonances81 and the other taking pains to emphasize a certain quality of sixth
and third. In reference to the latter practice, we can pinpoint very precisely the
influence of Aspro cores exordium on the exordia of works by composers already
under discussion.
Examples 2.22 and 2.23 show the openings of Rores Strane ruppi, aspri monti
and Werts Dura legge dAmor, respectively, both of which begin with a descending
stepwise melodic motive and contain chain suspensions over positions V and
IV in their first few measures in conjunction with a text expressing harshness.82
Example 2.22 Rore, Strane ruppi, mm. 17
Carapetyan, The Musica Nova of Adriano Willaert, pp. 17980 and 2557.
Strane ruppi is discussed in detail in Martha Feldman, Rores selva selvaggia:
The Primo Libro of 1542, Journal of the American Musicological Society 42 (1989),
pp. 547603. In City Culture, p. 321, n. 19, she links the parallel-third filled exordium of
Strane ruppi to Willaerts Aspro core. James Haar also notes that Strane ruppi alludes in
its opening gesture to Willaerts much-discussed Aspro core e selvaggio e cruda voglia,
then wonders if it might be the other way around; review of Martha Feldman, City Culture
and the Madrigal at Venice, Early Music History 16 (1997), pp. 3267. Dura legge is
discussed in Howard Mayer Brown, Petrarch in Naples: Notes on the Formation of
Giaches de Werts Style, in Richard Charteris (ed.), Altro Polo: Essays on Italian Music in
the Cinquecento (Sydney, Australia: Frederick May Foundation for Italian Studies, 1990),
pp. 3944. Numerous other uses of Aspro cores harsh voice-leading models will be seen
in the remainder of this study.
81
82
Example 2.23 Wert, Dura legge, mm. 110
93
94
Strane ruppi is written in black-note style, thus its suspensions are longer than
they may appear in comparison to the other examples. Strane ruppi opens with
a text that translates as Strange cliffs, harsh mountains, while the text opening
Dura legge translates as Harsh is the law of love yet still binding. The analytical
reductions shown in Example 2.24 summarize the relationship between the
affective chain suspension and motivic and tonal structure in each work. Lending
support to Zarlinos contention that the imperfect consonances govern the affect
of the modes as used in polyphony, the exordium of each madrigal traverses the
requisite affective harmonic positions within a different tonal type: G durus at (a),
E durus at (b), and C durus at (c).
Example 2.24 Analytical reductions for Examples 2.7, 2.22, and 2.23
The opening of Rores version at (b) is structurally identical to that of Willaerts

at (a), other than beginning on A in the bass to accommodate imitative entries
appropriate to the tonal type. While Willaert moved quickly off position iii to
shorten the minor sixth, Rore toughens up the minor sixth by adding a 43
suspension. Rores emphasis of the AE Phrygian modal axis in the remainder of
the excerpt (Example 2.22) results in numerous minor positions less appropriate to
the text, according to the theory of interval affect at any rate, and beginning in m.
5 he paints the harsh mountains through ascending leaps of perfect intervals rather
than with major sonorities.
Werts bass line, as shown at (c) in Example 2.24, cycles through the major
positions and emphasizes a CG modal axis rather than participating in the
descending tetrachord of the imitated motive, thus he does not touch position iii
as did Willaert and Rore, yet the essential three-voice framework of the chain
suspension remains intact. Through the independent bass line and the tight
imitation, Wert gets all five voices involved quickly, though the cantus entrance
on an unprepared dissonant fourth in the second measure is decidedly irregular.
This unruly F becomes a suspension, and both its initial harshness and its
subsequent resolution serve to depict the harsh law of love that must be obeyed.
At the repetition of the opening phrase in m. 5, the F enters in the tenor as a more
conventional consonant fourth. The 43 suspensions join with the eight major
95
sixths in the first seven measures to establish the affective quality of the passage.
There seems little room for doubt that Wert intended the suspensions and exclusive
use of major sonorities as harmonic special effects illustrating the words.83
Conclusion
My goals in this chapter have been to examine the means by which Willaert
introduced affective harmonic and melodic intervals in Aspro core and related
works, to demonstrate how these means were shaped by the pitch system and
stylistic conventions within which Willaert worked, and to show how they in turn
influenced Vicentinos and Zarlinos theories of interval affect. I have identified
aspects of the pitch gamut and diatonic counterpoint that might assist or hinder
both the theory and practice of affective intervals. The gamut particularly
supports use of 56 and 65 motions in both major and minor versions, matching
melodic major seconds with major sonorities and melodic minor seconds with
minor sonorities (as defined in the sixteenth century). These motions can be
extended to adjacent positions while retaining the same quality only in the case
of the major 56 or 65 sequence over positions IV and V (or the equivalent VII
and I), and we have seen several examples in which Willaert and others used this
voice-leading paradigm in both ascending and descending versions with words
of harsh affection. We have also seen another practice, in which composers use
parallel sixths to accompany harsh texts without particular emphasis on major
quality. Because of this more generic practice, one might conclude that the
major sixths of Aspro core and other works were coincidental, that if parallel
sixths or 56 or 65 motions were used affectively, they would sometimes fall
on the major positions, and sometimes not. The sixteenth-century testimonials
provided by Zarlinos exemplar of harsh harmony (Example 2.1) and Galileis
comments on Aspro core, however, coupled with the way composers tended to
employ longer note values such as the breve and semibreve in order to make
the affective harmonic sonorities more pronounced, should dispel doubt that the
practice existed, as should also the analyses presented in the remainder of this
book. We also have seen how Vicentinos and Zarlinos guidelines for expressing
harshness by emphasis of the harmonic major sixth, particularly when resolving
to the fifth, fit the opening of Aspro core like a glove. Perhaps of most farreaching significance, we have seen that Willaert went beyond simple contrast of
major and minor intervals in Aspro cores exordium by creating a harmonic and
modal contrast within the same basic melodic material. Identifying the measures
he took to counteract the original harsh affect of this material provides more
than superficial evidence that Willaert utilized affective distinction of major and
83
Notice also that each voice other than the bass begins with a half-step while
stating the word dura, again privileging the expressive effect of harmonic over melodic
intervals.
96
minor sonorities, and that, although his self-acknowledged disciples theories

of interval affect do not agree in every respect either with each other or with
Willaerts practice, he was the inspirational source for those theories and their
sudden emergence.
Chapter 3
Expressive Functions of Harmony in the

Musica nova Madrigals
Only the deaf or the unredeemably musicological could fail to be impressed

by Willaerts control of harmonic progressions, not only to give life to musical
structure but also to create stunning expressive effects
Howard Mayer Brown
The previous chapter examined the theory of interval affect and its practical
application, identifying various features of the modal system, pitch gamut, and
diatonic counterpoint that might influence the affective use of major or minor
sonorities, and scrutinized those most incontrovertible passages of the Musica
nova madrigals in which Willaert emphasized or contrasted major and minor
sonorities for affective purposes. The current chapter examines selected Musica
nova madrigals in their entirety to show the richness and variety of Willaerts
more subtle manipulations of harmonic quality and modal/centric focus in order
to project his readings of the poetic texts. These manipulations go well beyond the
simplified prescriptions Zarlino and Vicentino gave for applying affective intervals
that were cited in the previous chapter. Rather than focusing solely on individual
words, a text-setting practice for which madrigalists were taken to task by later
commentators such as Vincenzo Galilei, Willaert often uses shifts in harmonic
quality to set the sense of a passage of the text, to project a meaning or motivation
that must be read into the words, or to emphasize a certain critical moment or
moments as the text unfolds and thereby shape the overall expressive structure of
a madrigal. It is not my intent in the analyses presented here to cover every aspect
of Willaerts music nor of his treatment of the poetic text, and certainly not those
that have been addressed in detail by others, thus I shall leave much unsaid that
could be said. My focus will be upon the specific techniques used to emphasize
major or minor sonorities, and how these emphases interact with the prevailing
modal and centric focus of the passage and the overall design of the work in which
they appear.
All musical examples have been placed at the end of this chapter, beginning p. 124.
Brown, Words and Music, p. 227.

See his famous remarks from the Dialogo della musica antica, et della moderna of
1581, as translated in Strunk, Source Readings in Music History, pp. 4637.

Discussions of the relationships between mode, cadence structure, and text more
generally in various of Willaerts works appear in numerous sources; see, for example, Rivera,
98
Laura mia sacra

Of the 24 sonnets Willaert selected from Petrarchs Rime sparse for his Musica
nova madrigals, Laura mia sacra is one of only two chosen from the in morto
sonnets. In the poem, Petrarch dreams of the now-dead Laura, who is referenced
by one of Petrarchs frequent puns on her name (Laura = the breeze):
Laura mia sacra al mio stanco riposo
Spira s spesso; chi prendo ardimento
Di dirle il mal, chi h sentito, et sento;
Che vivendo ella non sarei stato oso.
My sacred breeze on my weary repose

breathes so often, that I take courage
to tell her of the ill I have felt and feel,
which while she lived I would not have dared.
Io incomincio da quel guardo amoroso;

Che fu principio a s lungo tormento:
Poi seguo, come misero, et
contento
Di d in d, dhora in hor Amor mha
roso.
I begin with that loving glance

that was the beginning of such long torment:
afterwards I follow with how, miserable and
content,
day by day, hour by hour, Love has gnawed
me.
Ella si tace; et di piet dipinta

Fiso mira pur me; parte sospira,
Et di lagrime honeste il viso adorna:
She is silent; and colored with pity

fixedly stares yet at me; in part sighs,
and with chaste tears adorns her face.
Onde lanima mia dal dolor vinta,

Mentre piangendo allhor seco sadira,
Sciolta dal sonno se stessa ritorna.
Whence my soul, by sorrow conquered,

while weeping then becomes angry with itself,
loosened from sleep returns to itself.
Petrarch sets the scene in the quatrains: Laura has come to him as a breeze as he
sleeps, and he feels emboldened to tell her of his torment that he concealed while
she lived. In the first tercet he imagines her weeping in sympathetic response to
his revelation, and in the second describes his own agitation at the sight of her
weeping, which causes him to awaken and return to reality.
As was his habit in the Musica nova madrigals, Willaert divided his setting,
in motet-like fashion, into two parts which correspond to the sonnets octave
and sestet. Within this two-part frame, he projects the narrative progression of
the poem through manipulation of modal focus and harmonic quality, which he
carefully crafted to capture the essential moods of the poem rather than to depict
every nuance of the words, though several nuances are brought out through these
Finding the Soggetto; Bernhard Meier, The Modes; Feldman, City Culture; McClary,
Modal Subjectivities; Paul Schick, Concordia Discourse; and Anne Smith, Willaerts
Motets and Mode. On theses issues and bipolar tonal focus in the late madrigals of Rore,
see La Via, Natura delle cadenze e Natura contraria delli modi: Punti di convergenza fra
teoria e prassi nel madrigale cinquecentesco, Il saggiatore musicale 4/1 (1997), pp. 551.
99
means as well. The introduction to the dream and Petrarchs expression of his
feelings for Laura in the octave are set placidly in the F cantus mollis tonal type
with hardly a ripple in the diatonic surface; Willaert avoids even cadential ficta
before the signed C of the cadence ending the prima parte in mm. 678 (see
Example 3.1, p. 124). The harmonic vocabulary of the prima parte is equally
placid, consisting primarily in consonant five-three sonorities; only two harmonic
major sixths occur, both serving a cadential role, and minor sixths and suspensions
are not frequent. There is, nonetheless, some degree of modal tension created
almost from the onset. Though the motive presented by the altus in the opening
measures unambiguously outlines the CAF triad appropriate to the tonal type,
it is answered at the lower fifth and in altered form by the tenor beginning in
the second measure, leading to an early melodic and harmonic emphasis of D.
According to the theory of interval affect presented by Zarlino and Vicentino,
the prevalence of melodic minor thirds and semitones would lend the opening a
melancholy air.
Willaert articulates his reading of the poem through a cadential design that
supports both syntactic and semantic aspects of the text. Most of the cadences
utilize the two-voice contrapuntal framework of a major sixth expanding to
an octave or a minor third contracting to a unison, generally preceded by the
appropriate suspended dissonance, though the rhythmic and melodic treatment
of these cadential gestures creates a characteristically seamless Willaertian
texture. He sets the enjambments that carry the thought of the first line into the
second and the continuation of the second line into the third. The first significant
cadential gesture thus occurs midway through the second line with a very weak
and dovetailed Phrygian motion to A in m. 15. A stronger cadential motion to F
follows at the conclusion of the third line in m. 22, and again in m. 29 with its
repetition. Willaert punctuates the end of the first quatrain with an even stronger
cadence to F in m. 33 and again in m. 36 with the repetition of its final line,
marking the strongest syntactical and formal point of division in the text thus far
with the strongest cadential gestures.
Again following the sense of the poem rather than its line structure, Willaert
joins the first and second lines of the second quatrain, marking the end of the
thought at lungo tormento with a broken cadential motion to F in m. 49: while
the bass cadences strongly, the suspended cantizans pattern in the cantus is
abandoned before reaching F. He does not unleash a string of dissonances or sixthree sonorities at tormento as one often finds in the madrigal repertoire, but
maintains the relatively sedate harmonic demeanor that characterizes the first part
See also the discussion of Laura mia sacra in Martha Feldman, Venice and the
Madrigal in the Mid-Sixteenth-Century, (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania,
1987), pp. 23845.

Cadence types in Willaerts music are surveyed in Michle Fromson, Cadential
Structure in the Mid-Sixteenth Century: The Analytical Approaches of Bernhard Meier and
Karol Berger Compared, Theory and Practice 16 (1991), pp. 179213.
100
of this madrigal. The final two lines of the second quatrain also form a syntactic
unit that Willaert keeps intact, and no further significant cadential gestures occur
before the close of the prima parte. He does not respond overtly to the antithesis
misero et contento as he often does to antitheses in other madrigals, nor does
he introduce a contrapuntal or harmonic sequence of some sort at day by day,
hour by hour as he often does at references to the passage of time. In lieu of
such localized gestures, Willaert returns to the subtle conflict between D and F in
both melodic procedure and harmonic succession, culminating in the half-cadence
on A. Though this cadence falls on the dominant of the Hypolydian mode, as
James Haar notes, in this context it in effect heightens the tension between F and
D because it could point to either center. Most importantly, it serves as a bridge to,
and launching point for, the peregrination that follows.
Willaert shatters the relative diatonic stability of the madrigal thus far at the
beginning of the seconda parte, where the A major sonority reappears and initiates
a circle-of-fifths-related succession of major sonorities: ADGCF(d6)E.
Haar describes this as a kind of developmental tonal passage leading through
the final of the mode to an area on its flat side and a bit of tonal architecture
appropriate to the close of the octet, Amore [sic] mha roso, and the opening of
the sestet (e di piet dipinta) that also gives musical impetus and variety
to an otherwise tonally static piece. This progression is indeed unusual, not for
the individual accidentals introduced, which do not go beyond the set of those
normally encountered, but for the concentrated and systematic introduction of all
of the accidentals that typically arise in the cantus mollis system (these being C,
F, B, and E), and in a coloristic role rather than in their normal cadential or faultcorrecting ones.10 I have located only three such chromatic cycles moving from A
to E in the Musica nova madrigals.11
Here I need to point out that short diatonic successions of fifth-related sonorities
are very common in Willaerts writing, and that there is little correlation between
these short successions and extramusical concepts. On the other hand, when such
successions stretch to five or more consecutive fifth-related sonorities, whether
diatonic or chromatic, very clear extramusical associations often emerge. These
Numerous such antitheses were discussed in Chapter 2; for sequences imitating the
passage of time or similar concepts of change, see Figure 3.1 and the 56 pattern at allhor
seco sadira in Example 3.1, m. 104.

Haar, Essays on Italian Poetry and Music, p. 119.

Ibid.
10
See Burnett and Nitzberg, Composition, Chromaticism and the Developmental
Process for a thesis concerning the rationale behind this eleven-tone pitch-space.
11
Armen Carapetyan described those in I vidi in terra and Mentre chel cor as being
as modern in [their] significance as any chromaticism of the time and as showing an
entirely new sense of harmonic organization, later practiced by composers like Lasso, and
passing into the usage of subsequent centuries; The Musica Nova of Adriano Willaert,
pp. 22931.
101
usually involve some poetic reference to temporality, motion, or change, or a list

of some sort in the poetic text; in the latter case, the fifth succession serves a more
rhetorical function by pairing the sequence of elements in the list with a sequential
musical structure. Some representative samples of both situations are shown in
Table 3.1. The AE chromatic cycle in Mentre chel cor accompanies the text che
se col tempo fosse ito avanzando (if it had gone on growing with time), while the
one in I vidi in terra appears with the list of attributes Amor, senno, valor, pietate,
et doglia. Cantai: hor piango contains the briefer chromatic succession setting the
similar list Amor, Madonna, il mondo, et mia fortuna. The next three examples
are less chromatic and accompany texts translating, respectively, as and if my
tongue is fond of pursuing, thinking back on the sweet good I leave behind, and
my ship passes. At other times, the fifth succession appears with a text in which
change does not take place but is desired, in these cases perhaps representing the
effort expended in vain or the desire for change itself. The last three examples
in Table 3.1 are representative, with texts translating, respectively, as with my
wit I can take away none, dead among the waves, and so that I begin to
despair of the port. The significance of these expressive uses of fifth successions
taken as a whole lies in the degree of harmonic thinking they reflect; that is, in a
compositional style lacking a concept of root progression in the modern sense, a
sequential harmonic succession of fifth-related sonorities becomes a metaphor for
motion. As Martha Feldman observes in a related context, the strong harmonic
directedness of fifth progressions allows Willaert to convey the text in a way that
appeals directly to the senses, instead of simply matching the poets flight in a
purely formal or iconic way.12
Table 3.1
Representative fifth successions from Musica nova madrigals
Succession
Words
Madrigal
ADGCFBE
ADGCFBE
EADGC
che se col tempo fosse ito avanzando

Amor, senno, valor, pietate, et doglia
Amor, Madonna, il mondo, et mia
fortuna
E se la lingua di seguirlo vaga
ripensando al dolce ben chio lasso
Passa la nave mia
Nulla posso levar io per miongegno
morta fra londe
Tal chincomincio a desperar del porto
Mentre chel cor

I vidi in terra
Cantai: hor piango
ADgCFB
aDGCF
dgcFB
dgcFB
dgcFB
AdgcF
I begli occhi
Io mi rivolgo
Passa la nave mia
Giunto mha Amor
Passa la nave mia
Passa la nave mia
Feldman, City Culture, p. 246. Feldman speaks of Willaerts Pien dun vago pensier
from Musica nova. See also the comments comparing Lassuss setting to that of Willaert
in Sarah M. Stoycos, Making an Initial Impression: Lassuss First Book of Five-Part
Madrigals, Music & Letters 86/4 (2005), pp. 54852.
12
102
The particular instance in Laura mia sacra is especially interesting because

of the way in which Willaert manipulates the cycle in the service of expressing
the words it accompanies. Given Willaerts frequent association of longer fifth
cycles such as this one with extramusical concepts of change, time, and motion, its
placement here, with a text that describes Laura as silent, might seem incongruous.
Yet it is the arrival of the word piet that represents the crux of the matter in
Willaerts reading. Petrarch has made his case to Laura in the octave, and in the
fifth cycle opening the seconda parte of Willaerts madrigal we hear the imagined
effect of his words on her as his confession moves her to the point of pity. The
chromatic fifth cycle reaches the softer flat side at the precise moment the word
piet enters simultaneously in three voices in m. 72. Willaert further marks the
importance of the word by moving the bassus to D rather than B and thus breaking
the strict fifth cycle in the composite bass line. The interruption of the cycle of
fifths provides evidence of the mixture of intervallic and chordal thinking in which
he was engaged. The chromatic fifth cycle of major sonorities suggests chordal
thinking, especially to the modern observer who would see the second sonority in
m. 72 as an inverted B major triad. On the other hand, Willaerts substitution of
D for B in the bass shows that, when classifying the affect of sonorities, he thinks
of them in terms of their interval structure as measured from the lowest-sounding
voice more than as collections of pitch classes in a modern sense. According to the
theory of interval affect codified by Vicentino and Zarlino, the sonority over D at
piet is a minor one because it consists of a minor third and minor sixth above
the bass. Willaert thus breaks the strict cycle in order to obtain a soft minor sonority
to paint the soft concept of Laura being colored with pity, which he further
emphasizes by dwelling on E and making a general shift toward minor sonorities
for the next several measures. On a deeper level, I believe Willaerts disruption
of tonal stability through the chromatic fifth cycle also serves on the scale of the
madrigal as a whole to represent the lack of any true communication between Laura
and Petrarch because the two now inhabit different planes of existence. Viewed in
this light, the fifth cycle is like those cited above that accompany poetic references
to desired change or motion that does not actually occur.
The centric focus disrupted by the fifth cycle attempts to settle on F with a
weak cadential motion in m. 78, yet is immediately clouded by the return of E;
Willaert again places his cadence to accommodate an enjambment in the poem.
The melodic procedure and harmonic succession tend back toward D beginning
at the repetition of parte sospira and carrying through the Phrygian motion to
A ending the first statement of Et di lagrime honeste il viso adorna. The latter
text is reiterated immediately, however, now firmly focused in F as the setting of
the first tercet ends with a strong authentic cadence in m. 92. Yet modal tension
continues as the cadential F is undercut by D in the next bar and, for the first two
lines of the final tercet, melodic procedure and harmonic succession emphasize D,
with an intervening move toward G as Petrarch describes his own weeping and his
subsequent growing ire. These latter concepts are enhanced by Phrygian motions
to D in m. 106 and A in m. 110 and the contrapuntal 56 sequence in m. 104.
103
The weak cadential motions toward G in m. 101 and D in m. 106 are the
only cadences in this madrigal occurring on a tone other than F or A, which,
along with C, represent the three pitch-classes Zarlino lists in the Istitutioni as
most appropriate for this tonal type.13 In fact, Laura mia sacra is among the
Musica nova madrigals that Zarlino cites as exemplars of one of the 12 modes,
yet he clearly does so in error, as he lists it under Mode 4, as is well known.14
I agree with Frans Wierings suggestion that Zarlino may have meant to cite
another Musica nova madrigal, Mentre chel cor, in this context.15 Mentre chel
cor follows immediately after Laura mia sacra in the collection and exhibits
characteristics that would make a Mode 4 designation appropriate. Wiering notes
that both madrigals conclude their first part with a cadence on A and suggests that
this fact caused Zarlino to confuse them. I would add that Mentre chel cor also
contains one of the three AE fifth cycles that I have located in the Musica nova
madrigals, and also is the only other in morto sonnet in the collection, and that
these other factors might have contributed to Zarlino potentially having confused
them as well.16 For our purposes here, however, the most significant feature of the
exceptional cadences in mm. 101 and 106 is the role they play in the unfolding
musical plot that Willaert spins to trace the emotional progression of the poem.
This out-of-mode experience accompanies the emotional climax of the poem
as sorrow conquers the protagonist, who weeps and then grows angry. From the
entire madrigal, this passage shows the highest percentage of minor sonorities,
beginning in earnest with the first appearance of dolor and concluding with the
weak Phrygian motion to A in m. 110 (in terms of duration, mm. 95110 contain
41 minims of minor sonorities, 22 minims of major, and one of dubious). This
penultimate arrival on A is doubly significant because it serves to bridge the two
modal centers that have been placed in opposition in this madrigal, and potentially
could lead toward a continuation of D or a return to F. The cadence scheme in the
madrigal overall also reflects this modal tension by focusing almost exclusively
on F and A, cadential pitches appropriate to either a D or F mode according to
Zarlino, and by avoiding cadences on C entirely, usually a frequent cadential goal
in F cantus mollis. It is not until the final line describes Petrarchs awakening and
return to reality that Willaert settles the issue by shifting the centric focus and
melodic procedure back to F.
For his setting of Laura mia sacra, Willaert selected a tonal type ( F) that
provides natural emphasis of major sonorities throughout much of the madrigal,
thereby underscoring the relatively serene mood evoked by the imagery of the
13
Zarlino, 4.23, pp. 3267 (70).

Zarlino, 4.21, p. 324 (64).
15
Wiering, The Language of the Modes, p. 169.
16
It is all the more interesting, then, that in the 1573 revision of Le istitutioni
harmoniche Zarlino replaced Laura mia sacra with In qual parte del ciel, another Musica
nova madrigal of the appropriate tonal type. See Judd, Reading Renaissance Music Theory,
pp. 2378.
14
104
poems opening: gentle breezes, weary slumber and visions of the beloved within
a wish-fulfilling dream. Gentle yet persistent pushes toward D and the unexpected
half-cadence on its upper fifth at the close of the prima parte suggest a conflict
between Petrarchs dream and the reality of Lauras death. As Petrarch imagines
Lauras weeping in response to his confession, the movements toward D, hinted at
since the opening of the madrigal, become more pronounced. They become even
stronger as Petrarch reacts to her sympathetic weeping with stronger emotions
of his own at Onde lanima mia dal dolor vinta, Mentre piangendo allhor seco
sadira. While there is a lesser increase in the number of minor sonorities
accompanying Lauras chaste tears and sighs of pity in the first tercet, the setting
of the second tercet is much more striking. By using the F tonal type, with its
inherent privileging of major sonorities, Willaert set up a dramatic shift to minor
sonorities at Petrarchs description of his own weeping in the second tercet. Many
of these minor sonorities are created by shunting the lowest-sounding voice away
from its more common pitches for this tonal typeF, B, and Cand on to D,
A, and G, and through a concomitant shift in modal focus underscored by the
introduction of E and Phrygian cadential motions to D and A. As Petrarchs soul
awakens and returns to itself in the final line, the music settles back onto an F
center and a natural concomitant emphasis of major sonorities. Willaert uses the
shift to minor harmonies and accompanying shifts in centric focus not merely to
paint a surface-level portrayal of weeping, but more importantly to project the
distress the protagonist feels upon seeing his beloved weep, and at the same time
to mold the expressive structure of the madrigal to reflect the dramatic progression
of the poem: sleep/dream (major)emotional agitation and awakening (minor)
return to awareness of actual time and place (major).17
I vidi in terra angelici costumi
Many of the harmonic and tonal strategies that Willaert employed in Laura
mia sacra reappear in his six-voice setting of I vidi in terra angelici costumi,
the nineteenth madrigal of the collection and one of the five on Zarlinos list
17
See the similar, though more daring, manipulation of pitch-space to project the sense
of the text in Cipriano de Rores Da le belle contrade, as analyzed in Burnett and Nitzberg,
pp. 637 and Stefano La Via, Cipriano de Rore as Reader and Read: A Literary-Musical
Study of Madrigals from Rores Later Collections (15571566) (Ph.D. dissertation,
Princeton University, 1991), pp. 35670; the madrigal is read quite differently by McClary,
Modal Subjectivities, pp. 10413. Da le belle contrade is one of the Rore madrigals that
Giulio Cesare Monteverdi cites as a harbinger of the seconda pratticas emphasis on the
text; translation of Dichiaratione della lettera stampata nel quinto libro de suoi madregali
in Strunk, Source Readings in Music History, p. 538.
105
in Book 4, Chapter 32.18 The attributes shared by Laura mia sacra and I vidi
in terra angelici costumi include (1) the F cantus mollis tonal type; (2) tonal
stability in the prima parte followed by fluctuation in the seconda parte, both in
terms of cadence tones and accidental inflections; (3) similar cadential schemes,
including a half-cadence on A ending the prima parte; (4) a fifth cycle of major
sonorities spanning the unlikely tonal space from A to E at the beginning of the
seconda parte; (5) an eventual return of modal regularity and centric stability;
and (6) predominant emphasis on major harmonic sonorities, yet with significant
shifts to minor sonorities to highlight aspects of the poems. In both madrigals,
these six shared attributes serve to shape and project Willaerts musical reading
of the meaning of the poems despite the fact that these meanings share few overt
similarities. Petrarch again describes a vision of Laura, yet because this poem
ostensibly was written before her death, its emotional tenor is less tightly wound
than that of Laura mia sacra:
I vidi in terra angelici costumi,
Et celesti bellezze al mondo sole:
Tal che; di rimembrar mi giova et
dole
Ch quantio miro, par sogni, ombre,
et fumi.
I saw on earth angelic manners

and heavenly beauties unique in the world,
such that remembering them benefits and
hurts me
for all I see seems dreams, shadows, and
smoke.
Et vidi lagrimar que duo bei lumi

Chan fatto mille volte invidia al sole:
Et udi sospirando dir parole;
Che farian gire i monti, et stare i fiumi.
And saw weeping those two beautiful lights

that a thousand times have made envious the sun,
and heard sighing words spoken
that would make mountains spin and rivers stop.
Amor, senno, valor, pietate, et doglia

Facean piangendo un pi dolce concento
Dogni altro, che nel mondo udir si
soglia:
Love, wisdom, valor, piety, and pain

made of weeping a sweeter concert
than any other, that in the world may be
heard:
Et eral cielo lharmonia sntento;

and heaven was on the harmony so intent
Che non se vedea in ramo mover foglia; that no leaf was seen to move on any branch;
Tanta dolcezza havea pien laere, el
so much sweetness filled the air and the
vento.
wind.
The shared musical design does differ in some details between the two madrigals.
While Laura mia sacra avoids accidental inflections of any type until the final
sonority of the prima parte, I vidi in terra introduces E as early as the third bar
18
I vidi in terra is discussed by Susan McClary, Modal Subjectivities, pp. 8895. In
pursuit of her subject, McClary tracks Willaerts treatment of mode rather harmony, and her
reading of expressive meaning in Willaerts setting differs from that presented here.
106
and brings it back often, most persistently at the text translating for all I see
seems dreams, shadows, and smoke, in this latter case drawing on a common
association of the soft hexachord with textual references to darkness or obscurity
(see Example 3.2, p. 138).19 I vidi in terra also requires a cadential B as early as
m. 13 and brandishes a non-cadential cross relation between B and B in m. 18.
The cross relation introduces the line Tal che; di rimembrar mi giova et dole and
anticipates the antithesis at its end, underscoring the notion that remembering is
both pleasant and painful.
Though its diatonic surface is not as placid as that of Laura mia sacra, the
prima parte of I vidi in terra exhibits similar regularity in cadential pitches,
coupled with a degree of tension between F and D as potential centric pitches.
The cadential motions in the setting of the first quatrain fall upon Zarlinos triad of
preferred cadence tones (F, A, and C), with F receiving the most emphasis. Each
of these cadential gestures, save the first and last, marks the ending of a significant
segment of text in at least one voice participating in the two-voice framework of
the contrapuntal cadence, yet the overall texture remains predominantly seamless
due to dovetailing of line endings and beginnings. Willaert avoids the normal
cadence formula at the end of the first quatrain, intentionally blurring structural
clarity in order to reflect the obscure imagery of its final line (sogni, ombre, et
fumi).20
As in Laura mia sacra, Willaert again introduces minor sonorities and a shift in
modal focus toward D at a reference to weeping, here occurring near the beginning
of the second quatrain at Et vidi lagrimar que duo bei lumi (and saw weeping
those two beautiful lights) in m. 35. The affective intent behind the introduction
of six harmonic minor sixths in mm. 3641 at Et vidi lagrimar, following 11
measures of five-three sonorities, is unmistakable. The only major sixth in this
passage (m. 39) serves a cadential role in the Phrygian motion to A between bassus
and sesta parte in m. 40. The Phrygian motions to A in mm. 40 and 45 join with the
heavy emphasis of minor sonorities to underscore the soft affection engendered by
Lauras weeping.21 From the introduction of Et vidi lagrimar on the last minim
of m. 34 until the conclusion of this text midway through m. 47, one hears only
See the use of E at oscuro in Giunto mha Amor and B at oscura in Aspro core.
McClary makes a similar observation in Modal Subjectivities, p. 93.
21
Bernhard Meier asserts that Phrygian cadences to A in Mode 6 tend to be reserved
for expressing certain words because of the emphasis on the half-step in the bass, often in
references to sorrow; The Modes, pp. 1623 and 41718. See also the discussion of the affect
of Willaerts Phrygian cadences in Ignace Bossuyt, Het zevenstemmige madrigal Occhi
piangete van Adriaan Willaert, Muziek & Wetenschap 2 (1992), pp. 612; the discussion
of Galileis description of the Phrygian cadence as sad, and Rores affective use of it in
his late madrigals in La Via, Natura delle cadenze, pp. 2830; Ringhardts discussion
of the plorant semiton and the clausula in mi; Sunt lacrimae rerum, pp. 258, 4750, and
5867; and McClarys discussion of the effect of the second degree on the Phrygian modes
expressive nature; Modal Subjectivities, p. 97.
19
20
107
13 minims of major sonority and 38 minims of minor, a percentage ratio of 25/75

as compared to the overall 64/36 ratio for this madrigal. Incidentally, this passage
also shows that Willaert is not above standard madrigal puns, as evidenced through
literal Augenmusik that sets lumi, a reference to Lauras eyes, with the two
semibreves on D in the quintus in mm. 434.
The mood brightens in the second line of the second quatrain, Chan fatto
mille volte invidia al sole, and in this line and the one that follows, the focus
shifts back to F through cadential motions to C and F. Harmonic sonority brightens
toward the major side of the spectrum as well, to create sharp contrast with the
minor-dominated weeping in the preceding line.22 Brighter harmony continues
into the following line, where Willaert uses major sonorities almost exclusively
at and heard sighing words spoken. He depicts the concept of sighing through
syncopated rhythm rather than a return to minor sonority.
Willaert does hold one striking harmonic effect in reserve to set the antithesis
ending the octave. The text of mm. 6071 describes Lauras words that can both
move mountains and cause rivers to stand still. The hemistich Che farian gire i
monti, referencing the hard image of mountains, is set almost exclusively with
major sonorities, some of which require notated Bs and Fs, hard accidentals.
The following et stare i fiumi, on the other hand, references the soft image of
the river and is set almost exclusively with minor sonorities and a notated E, a
soft accidental. Though the concepts painted here are more subtle, the harmonic
contrast is as sharp as that seen in the exordium of Willaerts Aspro core. In the
current passage, melodic contour enters into play as well: more angular shapes
depict the spinning mountains, most obviously in mm. 6061 in the bassus and
sesta parte, while repeated notes characterize the river standing still in mm. 6671.
Finally, the antithetical concept of motion versus stasis is reflected through the
fast-moving descending fifth cycle GCFB that launches Che farian giri in
mm. 6061, as opposed to the much slower ascending fifth cycle cgdA with et
stare i fiumi. Here Willaert uses slower harmonic rhythm and harmonic movement
in the opposite direction to represent frozen motion, not by literally standing still,
but by creating a musical antithesis with which to frame the poetic one.
Susan McClary suggests that the chromatic fifth succession opening the seconda
parte accompanies a list of Platonic essenceslove, wisdom, valor, piety, and
painand thus may be intended to provide a glimpse of Eternal Truth by stepping
outside the common bounds of mode and harmonic succession.23 This would
square in some respects with my suggestion that the similar succession in Laura
mia sacra symbolizes in part the distance separating the physical realm from the
spiritual one Laura now inhabits, though we have also seen that Willaert associates
fifth successions with poetic lists more generally. In both madrigals, Willaerts
treatment of the fifth cycle reveals another, perhaps more traditional, purpose as
22
A rare instance of parallel major tenths appears in mm. 512, in this case without a
textual association with harshness.
23
McClary, Modal Subjectivities, pp. 934.
108
well. A commonality between the first line of the first tercet of the madrigals is the
appearance of the related words piet (pity) and pietate (piety). Willaert crafts his
fifth cycle in both madrigals so that that this similar soft concept is associated with
E, which enters on the second syllable of the respective words. Furthermore, in
Laura mia sacra he broke the strict fifth cycle just prior to this point, thus making
Lauras pity the focus of the passage. In I vidi in terra he carries the fifth cycle
directly to E, and breaks it thereafter in order to underscore the introduction of the
contrasting affection of doglia (pain) with harmonic sixths in mm. 8083: ADG
CFBE(d6). Both major and minor sixths occur, and in this instance Willaert
clearly was less concerned with the quality of the sixth than with the sonic contrast
between consonance and dissonance and between the six-three and five-three: the
disruption of consonant harmonic stability created by the sixths and suspensions
disrupts the otherwise inexorable flow of the fifth cycle just as the emotionally
unstable attribute pain interrupts the flow of positive attributes.
A change to minor sonorities, sixths, and a series of suspensions follows at
Facean piangendo un pi dolce concento (made of weeping a sweeter concert)
in mm. 8492.24 As in Laura mia sacra, the darker sound and greater emphasis
on minor sonorities are accomplished by adding E and shifting the melodic and
cadential focus to a GD axis. The zenith of Willaerts manipulation of mode in this
madrigal occurs with the continuation of the thought: Dogni altro, che nel mondo
udir si soglia (than any other, that in the world may be heard). Willaert introduces
the remote tone A in the cantus in m. 94 and in the tenor in the following measure,
thereby signaling a radical departure from the F modality by altering the third
above the modal final and thus canceling its major character. Anthony Newcomb
indicates that this deep plunge into distant flat harmonic realms (F minor chords,
a violently contradicted leading tone in a cadential set-up to F) in mm. 85100
project[s] a deep sense of uneasiness and modal instability.25 Indeed, these are the
only As to be found among the 25 madrigals of Musica nova.26 This is a much
24
The double suspension (98, 43) combined with an accented passing minor sixth
at dolce concento in m. 86 appears in almost identical fashion at dolci parole in m. 112
of Ove chi posi gli occhi, the next madrigal in the collection.
25
Anthony Newcomb, review of Susan McClary, Modal Subjectivities: SelfFashioning in the Italian Madrigal, Journal of the American Musicological Society 60/1
(2007), pp. 213. Alfred Einstein also noted that seldom does Willaerts harmony in Musica
nova become as chromatic as this progression toward F minor; vol. 1, p. 338. McClary
suggests that I vidi in terra serenely accepts F-Ionian as its home base (p. 92) without
mentioning the presence of the As and the resulting minor five-three sonorities on F. This
is a curious omission because she bases her analyses in Modal Subjectivities upon reading
meaning into a composers choice or manipulation of mode.
26
A occurs with greater frequency in the motets of Musica nova, some of which
exhibit two-flat signatures. The introduction of A in these latter instances is equivalent to
the introduction of B in cantus durus and E in cantus mollis. Armen Carapetyan discusses
the use of A in Musica nova, and mentions another affective use in the motet Aspice Domine
at Plorans ploravit in nocte (she weepeth sore in the night): This is clearly a search
109
more daring modal fluctuation than those found in other madrigals such as Aspro
core, where Willaert merely shifts back and forth between two common tonal types
(G cantus durus and G cantus mollis) by adding or removing B. In I vidi in terra,
Willaert shifts into a fictive tonal region and thus vividly represents the text by
introducing sweetness (i.e., A and the minor quality) greater than may be heard
in the world (with the world represented locally by the F tonal type, and ultimately
by the musica recta gamut as realized in the common cantus durus and cantus mollis
signatures, which reaches only E). In both instances, the extraordinarily sweet A
appears in a voice intoning the verb udire (to hear), which solidifies the intended
association between hearing otherworldly sweet sound and the accidental inflection
that momentarily alters the basic essence of modal quality.27 The F major focus
returns for the cadence ending the first tercet and remains throughout the second
tercet, though cross relations in mm. 111 (BB) and 116 (EE) continue to
underscore the sweetness of the harmony described in the poem.
More than superficial paintings of affective words such as lagrimando or
dolce, the manipulations of harmonic quality and modal/centric stability on a grand
scale found in I vidi in terra angelici costumi and Laura mia sacra suggest a higher
degree of precompositional large-scale musical planning in the service of rendering
a sophisticated reading of a poetic text than commonly assumed for the time. In both
madrigals I believe Willaerts choice of tonal type was governed by its suitability as
an affective backdrop against which salient poetic moments might be cast in sharp
musical relief. The manipulations of harmonic quality and modal stability in Laura
mia sacra and I vidi in terra reveal the depth of Willaerts theoretical thinking
concerning the expressive possibilities of the pitch system he employed along the
very lines Zarlino later codified in his assertion that musical affect resides in the
harmonic imperfect consonances rather than the mode itself, and that it is mutable
along with them. The shared basic musical design in these madrigals provides a
unique opportunity to observe how Willaert goes beyond the localized reactions to
individual words or phrases commonly thought to be the norm for compositional
practice in the first half of the sixteenth century, and how he sought to communicate
a deeper reading of the text through the expressive structure of its musical setting.
after a tonality (F minor) pathetic enough to suit the words and not an incidental use of A
flat by musica ficta because there happened to be B flat and E flat in the signature; The
Musica Nova of Adriano Willaert, pp. 2278. Theodor Kroyer also remarked on the rarity
of A in Musica nova and on its relationship to the text in I vidi in terra; Die Anfnge der
Chromatik im italienischen Madrigal des XVI Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hrtel,
1902), pp. 367. Henry Burnett and Roy Nitzberg discuss the rarity of this pitch (among
others) in the sixteenth century in general, and offer the specific example that no As appear
in Giaches de Werts seventh, tenth, and eleventh five-voice madrigal books; Composition,
Chromaticism and the Developmental Process, pp. 489.
27
Thus I cannot share McClarys opinion that, in I vidi in terra, No question ever
arises concerning its modal identity, which explains why Willaert selected this type. Modal
Subjectivities, p. 92.
110
Willaert, Bembo, and Mentre chel cor

Venetian-born poet and literary theorist Pietro Bembo (14701547) was in the
vanguard of those championing the works of Petrarch in the wave of Petrarchism
that swept Italy in the early decades of the sixteenth century. Bembo based much
of his vernacular literary theory on the Tuscan dialect of Petrarchs Italian works.
He produced an edition of Petrarchs Rerum vulgarium fragmenta, which was
published in 1501, and in 1525 published the principal statement of his theory
of the vernacular in his Prose della volgar lingua.28 Of particular interest to the
present discussion is his notion that words could convey meaning through their
sound, rhythm, and context as well as their literal meaning. Bembo derived this
idea from his study of Petrarchs drafts, finding that Petrarchs revisions often
changed the sound of a line rather than its literal meaning.29 Although far from a
precise taxonomic tool, Bembos theory suggested two basic categories of affective
word-sound, which he called gravit (gravity) and piacevolezza (pleasingness).
Gravit encompasses concepts such as onest (honesty), dignit (dignity),
magnificenza (magnificence), maest (majesty), grandezza (grandeur), and the
like, while piacevolezza includes grazia (grace), soavit (softness or smoothness),
vaghezza (beauty), dolcezza (sweetness), scherzi (playfulness), giuochi (jesting),
and the like.30 Bembo frequently cited lines from Petrarch as exemplifying gravit
or piacevolezza, yet quoted only one sonnet in its entirety, this being Mentre chel
cor, the 304th poem (of 366) of his Rerum vulgarium fragmenta (also known as
the Canzoniere or the Rime sparse). Modern scholars have suggested that Bembos
theory of affective word-sound influenced the way composers set words to music,
thus it is particularly interesting that Mentre chel cor is among the Petrarch
sonnets that Bembos younger contemporary Adrian Willaert set in Musica nova.31
We shall examine the readings of Petrarchs poem preserved in Bembos prose and
Willaerts music and discuss what they tell us about each readers approach to the
notion of quality.32
Examining Petrarchs words in light of Bembos theories of word-sound
proves challenging because his notion of quality is a very fluid one that defies
easy classification; gravit and piacevolezza are not exclusive categories so much
as they are opposite ends of a spectrum.33 For Bembo, affective quality in poetry
Pietro Bembo (ed.), Le cose volgari di Messer Francesco Petrarcha (Venice, Aldo
Romano [Manuzio], 1501); Pietro Bembo, Prose della volgar lingua, (Venice, 1525).
29
Palisca, Humanism, p. 355.
30
Bembo, Prose, Marti edn, p. 63.
31
See nn. 3 and 75 in Chapter 1.
32
See also the discussion of Mentre chel cor and Willaerts setting of it in Feldman,
Venice and the Madrigal, pp. 22438; and her Rores selva selvaggia, pp. 55362.
33
For broader overviews of Bembos ideas and their context, see Mace, Pietro
Bembo; Gary Tomlinson, Rinuccini, Peri, Monteverdi, and the Humanist Heritage of
Opera (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1979), pp. 3755; Palisca,
28
111
involved three aspects: numero, suono, and variazione (number, sound, and
variation). The principle of variazione does not create the qualities of gravit and
piacevolezza so much as it calls for a mixture of the two. Numero is controlled by
long and short syllables, both in the sense of vowel length and accent.34 Numero
leans toward gravit when syllables are long and accents fall on the end of
words, toward piacevolezza when syllables are short and the accent falls on the
antepenultimate syllable.
Suono is governed by the individual letters and their combination within a
syllable, and in poetry also by the arrangement of the rhymes; rhymes spaced further
apart create gravit, those closer together and internal rhymes create piacevolezza.35
Gravit may be imparted when words are full of letters, especially consonantal
clusters, vowels, and diphthongs suitable to it, while piacevolezza may be imparted
when words have few vowels and consonants, or are sufficiently dressed (as
Bembo says) with those that serve piacevolezza.36 The overall sound of a word is
thus determined by the mixture of its constituent letters, and the overall quality of a
passage determined by the mixture of its constituent words and their arrangement.
The similarities between Bembos dichotomous categories of affective wordsound and Willaerts dichotomous classification of affective interval sound
certainly suggest a connection between the two, and I have no doubt that Willaert
was influenced by Bembos theory as Dean Mace and others have contended. I
am not convinced that this influence works in the way Mace thought, however. In
Willaerts madrigals I have found little evidence that he responded affectively to
the sound of Petrarchs words as Mace posits; rather, his affective responses were
Humanism, pp. 35568; Feldman, Venice and the Madrigal, pp. 4857; Feldman, City
Culture, pp. 1459 and passim; and the various essays in Silvia Morgana, Mario Piotti, and
Massimo Prada (eds), Prose della volgar lingua di Pietro Bembo: Gargnano del Garda (47
ottobre 2000) (Milan: Cisalpino Istituto Editoriale Universitario, 2000).
34
Bembo, Prose, p. 73. ( numero altro non che il tempo che alle sillabe si d, o
lungo o brieve, ora per opera delle lettere che fanno le sillabe, ora per cagione degli accenti
che si danno alle parole, e tale volta e per lun conto e per laltro.)
35
Bembo, Prose, pp. 6371. Bembo ranks the quality of the letters according to their
spoken characteristics along a continuous spectrum, without assigning each one to a specific
category (gravit or piacevolezza). For example, the vowels are ranked in descending order
according to the amount of breath expelled in producing them: A, E, and O are all of good
breath and thus good sound; I is of weaker yet sweet breath, and its sound is therefore less
good yet somewhat soft and sweet; and U is last because the restricted circle of the lips
necessary to generate it deprives the mouth and breath of dignity. Bembos passage on
the strength of letters (Prose, p. 66) is quoted in full in Feldman, City Culture, 1489, n.
112. The translation there omits H and assigns its attributes to Q; the complete translation
appears in her dissertation, p. 53, n. 91.
36
Bembo, Prose, p. 74. ( gravit dona alle voci, quando elle di vocali e di consonanti,
a ci fare acconce, sono ripiene; e talora piacevolezza, quando e di consonanti e di vocali o
sono ignude e povere molto, o di quelle di loro, che alla piacevolezza servono, abbastanza
coperte e vestite.)
112
tied to the literal meaning of the words. Interestingly, the fact that Mentre chel
cor is one of the 24 Petrarch sonnets that Willaert set to music in Musica nova, and
also the only one cited in full in Bembos Prose della volgar lingua, seldom gets
mentioned in discussions of connections between Willaerts music and Bembos
theories. This relative silence results at least in part from the fact that this madrigal
is not particularly helpful for demonstrating a link between Bembos theory of
word-sound and Willaerts affective use of intervals. Willaert does introduce sonic
effects in his setting for affective purposes, as we shall see; however, these do
not indicate that he was reading Petrarch only through a Bembist lens. I suggest
Bembos influence is more generic and basic, that his rumination about how wordsound might convey meaning led Willaert to think about how musical sounds
could do the same, not to capture word-sound and its inherent meaning as Bembo
might have it, but to express the literal or symbolic meaning of the words.
Bembos discussion of Mentre chel cor is rather brief, certainly not
proportionate to the amount of quoted material. He cites the poem in its entirety
in order to illustrate the gravit that can be created by rhyme words full of
consonants.37 The poem, as it appears in Bembos 1501 edition of Petrarchs Rerum
vulgarium fragmenta, is given below, along with an English transliteration:
Mentre chel cor da gli amorosi vermi
Fu consumato, en fiamma amorosa
arse;
Di vaga fera le vestigia
sparse
Cercai per poggi solitari, et hermi:
While my heart by amorous worms

was consumed, and in an amorous flame
burned,
of a wandering wild creature the scattered
vestiges
I sought on hills solitary and wild;
Et hebbi ardir cantando di dolermi

DAmor, di lei, che s dura
mapparse:
Ma lingegno et le rime erano scarse
In quella etate pensier novi enfermi.
and I dared, singing, to complain

of Love, and of her, who so hard to me
appeared;
but skill and rhymes were scarce
in that age to my thoughts new and infirm.
Quel foco morto, el copre un picciol

marmo:
Che se col tempo fosse ito avanzando,
Come gia in altri infino la vechiezza;
That fire is dead, and is covered by a small

marble:
if with time it had gone on progressing,
as indeed in others, until old age,
Di rime armato, ondhoggi mi

disarmo,
with rhymes armed, of which today I am

disarmed,
Bembo, Prose, p. 81. (E per dire ancora di questo medesimo acquisto di gravit pi
innanzi, dico che come che egli molto adoperi e nelle prose e nelle altre parti del verso, pure
egli molto pi adopera e pu nelle rime; le quali maravigliosa gravit accrescono al poema,
quando hanno la prima sillaba di pi consonanti ripiena, come hanno in questi versi ).
37

Con stil canuto, havrei fatto
parlando
Romper le pietre, et pianger di dolcezza.
113
with a mature style I would have made,

speaking,
the stones break and weep with sweetness.
Petrarch wrote Mentre chel cor after Lauras death, and in it the poet selfconsciously compared the expressive power of his early and mature styles. In the
quatrains of the sonnet he speaks of how his heart was consumed by the worms
and flames of love when he was smitten by Laura as a much younger man, and
how inadequate his youthful style was to the expression of his feelings and, by
implication, to the moving of her feelings. The first tercet wrenches us back into
Petrarchs present, however, with the terse announcement that this fire is now dead
and covered by a small marble, just as Laura herself is now dead and entombed. If
the fire had continued growing into old age, as did Petrarch himself and his poetic
prowess, it would have fueled his mature style such that he would have been able
to break the very stones and cause them to weep with the sweetness of his verse,
including those encasing Lauras harsh heart.
The rhyme words upon which Bembo focuses his attention in this poem stem
in part from the intertextual link Petrarch forges between his early and mature
styles by choosing line-endings in the quatrains that make sonic and visual play
on the phrase rime sparse referenced in the first verse of the first sonnet of the
collection, and by which title the collection has since come to be known. The
opening quatrain of the first poem, Voi chascoltate in rime sparse il suono, is
as follows:
Voi chascoltate in rime sparse il suono
di quei sospiri ondio nudrival core
in sul mio primo giovenile errore,
quandera in parte altruom da quell chi sono:
If one examines the first and last rhyme words in both quatrains of Mentre chel
cor, one can see how the four letters of the word rime appear in scrambled order
in the ending of each rhyme word: vermi, hermi, dolermi, and infermi.
The word rime also makes two literal, unscrambled appearances in interior
positions of the sonnet: one in the middle of line 7 and the other near the beginning
of line 12. The word sparse of Voi chascoltate, on the other hand, makes a
literal appearance as a rhyme word in Mentre chel cor, at the end of the third
line in the first quatrain, and its final four letters stand alone as arse at the end
of the second line of the first quatrain. These four letters then conclude apparse
and scarse in the second quatrain, with both of these words coming very close in
overall sound to the sparse of the first poem.
The order of the rhyme words in the quatrains of Mentre chel cor underscores
the intertextual connection with Voi chascoltate, not only in sound, but also in
symbolic meaning. In their first appearance in each quatrain of Mentre chel cor,
the assonantal partners appear in the same order as in Voi chascoltate, yet because
114
Petrarch adheres to the abba rhyme scheme he uses for the quatrains in most of his
sonnets, the paired words are reversed in the second appearance. What we catch
are merely whiffs of sound connecting the two poems. In the latter poem we hear
scrambled reminiscence of the sound and meaning of the opening line of the first,
which itself refers to the connection of sounds, words, and feelings: You who
hear in scattered rhymes the sound of those sighs. Petrarchs intent in evoking his
earlier style by tying Mentre chel cor to the first poem in the collection through
the assonance of the rhymes in the octave becomes apparent as we are torn from
Petrarchs past to his present in the first tercet: not only are we told that those days
are gone, but the assonantal echoes of the sighs with which he nourished his heart
in his youthful infatuation are gone as well, and a new set of rhymes dominates the
tercets. As Bembo would tell us, these new rhymes are stuffed with consonants like
the earlier ones, in order to preserve gravit throughout the poem.
Comparison of the Bembo edition with the text as set by Willaert reveals that
the two match very closely, differing in only a very few minor variants in spelling
(fosse/fossi and vechiezza/vecchiezza) and choice of punctuation mark. More
significantly, perhaps, the version of Mentre chel cor Bembo cites in his 1525
Prose della volgar lingua contains one substantial variant from the version in his
1501 Petrarch edition that Willaert does not duplicate: this occurs in line 9, where
the Prose della volgar lingua version reads Quel foco spento rather than Quel
foco morto. This tells us that Willaert either was not working from Bembos
discussion of Mentre chel cor in the Prose della volgar lingua, or that he chose
to ignore the variant reading found there. Had Willaert used spento rather than
morto, of course, we would have much stronger evidence that Willaert was
directly influenced by Bembos reading.
While I find little evidence that Willaert responded in specific musical ways
to the affective sonic qualities of Petrarchs verse,38 there can be no doubt that he
read much gravitas into this text, that Petrarchs use of enjambment was a major
factor in Willaerts musical reading of the poem, and that Willaert could have
been influenced by Bembist principles in this regard.39 Martha Feldman notes that
subsequent sixteenth-century literary theorists discuss the gravit that enjambment
lends to a poem, and that Petrarchs Mentre chel cor and Bembos analysis of
it were cited.40 The text as articulated by the phrase structure of Willaerts music
appears as follows:
Mentre chel cor da gli amorosi vermi Fu consumato,
en fiammamorosa arse;
Di vaga fera le vestigia sparse Cercai
38
I refer here to the affective deployment of intervals in response to word-sound, and not
to the careful manner in which Willaert sought to preserve and enhance word-sound through
musical rhythm and polyphonic texture discussed more generally by Feldman and Miller.
39
See Feldman, Venice and the Madrigal, pp. 2345.
40
Feldman, Rores selva selvaggia, p. 557, n. 17.
115
per poggi solitari, et hermi:

Et hebbi ardir cantando di dolermi DAmor,
di lei, che s dura mapparse:
Ma lingegno et le rime erano scarse In quella etate
pensier novi enfermi.
Quel foco morto, // el copre un picciol marmo:
Che se col tempo fosse ito avanzando,
Come gia in altri infino la vechiezza;
Di rime armato, // ondhoggi mi disarmo,
Con stil canuto, // havrei fatto parlando Romper le pietre,
et pianger di dolcezza.
Willaert focused on preserving the enjambment in Petrarchs line structure in his

musical setting. Because of this, the rhyme words that drew Bembos gaze are not
articulated consistently by cadences at musical phrase endings as otherwise might
be expected, but in many cases are buried in the texture of Willaerts madrigal,
particularly those in the quatrains.
Willaert chose to reflect the overall gravitas of the poem by using the Phrygian
mode on A, with its natural proclivity toward a higher percentage of minor sonorities
and its somber Phrygian gestures (such as those in mm. 25, 31, 104, and 106;
see Example 3.3, p. 151). Willaert then dabs touches of harmonic color onto this
austere background at references to hard concepts in the poem. The harshness
Laura showed Petrarch while alive in line 6 (di lei, che s dura mapparse) calls
forth a torrent of 11 harmonic sixths in mm. 3744. All but one of these occur
in stressed metric positions, seven of them are major, one of the minor ones is
extended by immediate repetition in another voice (m. 42), and one of the others
participates in a rare appearance of the vertical six-five (m. 37) in the Musica nova
madrigals; Feldman comments that this latter dissonant clash of A on dura and
B on dolermi (cantus and tenor) speaks powerfully to the ear, a painterly
touch on the bland tonal canvas that makes sensible the harshness and lamenting
of the text.41 In this instance it is the A in the cantus that resolves, yet when this
clash returns in the same voices in m. 41, the tenor has dura and its B acts as a
suspended fourth sounding against the octave of its resolution and accompanied
by a suspended major sixth. The stones that Petrarch could break with the power of
his verse conjure up major sonorities and two hard Bs in mm. 99101 (repeated
in mm. 10911), and the marble that covers Laura in death perhaps receives a very
subtle emphasis with major sonorities in mm. 72 and 756.
This latter passage brings to the fore the unusual cadential design of Mentre
chel cor and also serves as the launching point for a chromatic fifth cycle similar
to those in I vidi in terra and Laura mia sacra. In the majority of the Musica nova
madrigals, the two strongest cadences will be those ending the prima parte and
seconda parte, based upon the full-stop in all voices on a notated longa which
41
Feldman, Venice and the Madrigal, pp. 2367.
116
always occurs in these positions.42 As is well known, purely formal rather than
expressive considerations determine the placement of the medial cadence in these
madrigals, because Willaert always divides the sonnets between the octave and
sestet. As is also well known, he frequently elides, omits, or otherwise manipulates
interior cadences to create a seamless texture and to reflect syntactic or semantic
aspects of the text. In Mentre chel cor, though, the cadence structure is nebulous
even for Willaert, yet provides a fitting counterpart to the long-breathed syntactic
units and extensive use of enjambment that characterize the freely flowing structure
of the poem. Martha Feldman notes that the madrigal contains only two instances
of standard suspension cadences.43 Both of these occur in the setting of el copre
un picciol marmo, the first to G and the second to D. Though both are dovetailed,
because of the suspensions these cadential gestures are the most easily recognized
points of punctuation in the madrigal, other than the medial and final cadences.44 As
Feldman observes, they serve to articulate the turning point in the text, and, indeed,
in Petrarchs amorous journey: the reference to Lauras death.45 The latter instance
involves accidental A and D sonorities that launch a fifth cycle of major sonorities
spanning A to E as in I vidi in terra and Laura mia sacra (with the modification
noted above), here representing the growing (avanzando) love-flame described in
the poem,46 though, of course, this growth did not actually occur because of Lauras
death. As in the other two madrigals, Willaert breaks the cycle at a critical moment
in the text, in this case timing its demise to coincide with the entry of the next verse,
the cycle being brought up short of the coveted goal (vechiezza), just as the outer
limit of the cantus mollis gamut (E) has been reached.47
Most significant to the current study of interval affect is Willaerts setting of
portions of the last two lines of the poem: here we hear a dramatic shift from major
sonorities at pietre (stones) to minor sonorities at pianger di dolcezza (weep
42
The four dialogues closing the volume, three of which are settings of Petrarch
sonnets, are not divided into two parts by such a medial cadence.
43
Feldman, City Culture, p. 279, n. 21.
44
Another suspension cadence occurs in the Phrygian motion to A in cantus and
quintus in mm. 1056 and is repeated as the final cadence in mm. 11516, with the cantus
having a formulaic precadential suspension of B as well. The B forms a brief vertical
six-five before its anticipated resolution, but because it participates in a standard melodic
cadential pattern, its primary function here is formal rather than expressive, unlike the
vertical six-five in m. 37 with dura. The Phrygian cadential motion as a whole does
function expressively as well as formally, however, by underscoring the soft concept of
weeping (pianger di dolcezza).
45
Feldman, Venice and the Madrigal, pp. 23031.
46
Also noted by Jerome Roche, The Madrigal, p. 36; and Feldman, Venice and the
Madrigal, p. 231.
47
Bernhard Meier (The Modes, p. 94, n. 9) claims that Willaert uses an old-fashioned
clausula imperfecta at vecchiezza to reflect the word; this may be, yet the lack of a
standard cadence is typical for Mentre chel cor in general.
117
with sweetness) in mm. 92118 as Petrarch boasts of the stones that he could
have broken with his words, had he possessed the power of his mature style while
still a young man. The exclusively major sonorities, some created by accidental
inflections, in mm. 99101 morph into minor after reaching E major in m. 102;
that is, we hear in the music sweetness overcoming harshness, just as Petrarch
could have overcome Lauras harsh heart with the sweetness of his verse. The line
of demarcation between the antithetical concepts is not sharply etched, because
et pianger di dolcezza enters in overlapping fashion with the last statement of
pietre. Yet once again Willaert has woven text and harmony together in such
a way that ordinary musical procedures are made to convey the deeper sense of
the poem. Once again, a fifth cycle of major sonorities plays an important role
in reflecting a transitional process in the text, moving from G through C, F, and
B before arriving at the soft E as the transition to sweetness concludes and
minor sonorities commence, enhanced by the minor sixth leaps in the cantus at
dolcezza, and capped by the Phrygian motions to D and A in mm. 104 and 106
(repeated in 114 and 116).
We shall conclude our consideration of Mentre chel cor by returning to the
issue of the relationship between Bembos and Willaerts theories of affective
sound quality. Both men thought sound could carry meaning in and of itself, but
applied this concept in differing ways: Bembo to words in the service of explaining
their expressive effect, Willaert to music in the service of projecting the meaning
of words. Bembo broke words into their constituent letters and letter groups in
order to categorize their expressive sonic affect; Willaert broke the vertical
combinations of tones into their constituent intervals and the specific arrangement
of these intervals in order to categorize their expressive sonic affect. In this general
way, I think it possible to speak of Bembos influence on Willaert. As we have
seen, Willaerts theory of interval affect represents a major feature of his mature
style of composition as embodied in the Musica nova madrigals, a collection
written in large part to put his theories about how words should be set to music into
practice under the influence of literary and intellectual currents that were coursing
through the Venice of his day. In Mentre chel cor, Willaert self-consciously uses
his mature style, with its emphasis on the expressive power of harmonic quality,
to mirror Petrarchs reference to the superior expressive effects of his own mature
style, not by echoing the sonic effects Bembo highlighted in Petrarchs verse, but
by creating an analogous system within his own artistic realm.
I piansi, hor canto and Cantai: hor piango
The texts of I piansi, hor canto and Cantai: hor piango no doubt caught Willaerts
eye because they appear side-by-side in Petrarchs Rerum vulgarium fragmenta
and share a reversed opening antithesis, the one stating I wept, now I sing and
118
the other I sang: now I weep.48 Willaert kept the poems together in Musica nova,
though he exchanged their relative position.49 These paired madrigals demonstrate
that Willaert thought deeply about how harmonic quality might be manipulated in
subtle ways to give musical substance to his reading of the essence of a poem, and
not merely to etch obvious antitheses of the sort famous from Liete e pensose and
superficial analyses of Aspro core. He drafted a larger musical antithesis to match
Petrarchs antithesis inherent in the pairing, and chose to use harmonic quality
to underscore the overall message of the poem, rather than to stress the surface
meaning of the words, in setting their opening lines. Thus in I piansi, hor canto we
find major sixths being used in conjunction with weeping (Example 3.4, p. 164),
and in Cantai: hor piango minor sonorities in conjunction with singing (Example
3.5, p. 177), both in opposition to Willaerts more famous affective practices in
Musica nova. In both madrigals, he responds to the opening antithesis primarily
through melodic and rhythmic means.
For I piansi, hor canto, Willaert chose the G tonal type, with its inherent
emphasis of major sonorities, to set the overall happier tone of this poem:
I piansi; hor canto: chel celeste lume
Quel vivo sole gli occhi miei non cela;
Nel qual honesto Amor chiaro rivela
Sua dolce forza, et suo santo costume:
I wept, now I sing, for the celestial light

of that living sun from my eyes does not hide,
in which chaste Love clearly reveals
his sweet force and his holy customs.
Onde ei suol trar di lagrime tal fiume

Per accorciar del mio viver la tela;
Che non pur ponte, guado, remi,
vela;
Ma scampar non potienmi ale, ne
piume.
Whence he draws such a river of tears

to shorten the thread of my life.
that not even bridge, nor ford, nor oars, nor
sail
but could rescue me, neither wings nor
feathers.
S profundera, et di s larga vena

Il pianger mio, et s lunge la riva;
Chi vaggiungeva col pensier pena.
So deep and from so broad a vein was

my weeping, and so distant the shore
that I could gain it in thought only with effort.
48
See the discussion of these openings in Einstein, vol. 1, pp. 3357; Carapetyan,
The Musica Nova, pp. 25760; Howard Mayer Brown, Music in the Renaissance
(Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976), pp. 200202; Ringhandt, pp. 11112;
Feldman, Venice and the Madrigal, pp. 2567; Feldman, City Culture, p. 253; see also her
comparison of Willaerts settings with Perissone Cambios, ibid., pp. 34856.
49
Though Martha Feldman discovered correspondences in the number of voices and
tonal type in the ordering of the four- and seven-voice motets and madrigals of the collection
(City Culture, pp. 2247), such correspondences are not as clear for the six-voice works,
and it is difficult to account for the reversed ordering of I piansi, hor canto and Cantai: hor
piango on these grounds.

Non lauro, palma; ma tranquilla
oliva
Piet mi manda; el tempo rasserena;
El pianto asciuga; et vuol anchor, chi viva.
119
Not the laurel, or the palm, but the tranquil

olive
Pity sends me; and the weather clears,
and my tears dries, and wishes still that I live.
Zarlino cites Willaerts setting as an example of Mode 7, a mode he finds

appropriate to cheerful words as well as those that are lascivious or express anger.50
For Cantai: hor piango, on the other hand, Willaert chose the E tonal type with
its inherent emphasis on minor sonorities to set the sadder, though resolute, mood
of this poem. Zarlino does not use Cantai: hor piango as an example in On the
Modes, but therein he describes both Modes 3 and 4 as suitable for lamenting.51
The poem reads as follows:
Cantai: hor piango; et non men di dolcezza
Del pianger prendo, che del canto presi,
Ch la cagion, non leffetto intesi
Son i miei sensi vaghi pur daltezza:
I sang, now I weep, and no less sweetness

from weeping I take, than from singing I took,
since on the cause, not on the effect, intent
are my senses, they yearn still for the heights.
Indi et mansuetudine, et durezza

Et atti fieri, et humile, e cortesi
Porto egualmente; ne mi gravan
pesi;
Ne larme mie punta di sdegni spezza.
Thence gentleness and harshness

and acts fierce and humble and courteous
I bear equally; nor does their weight oppress
me;
nor my armor does the point of scorn break.
Let them keep toward me their usual style

Tengan dunque ver me lusato stile
Amor, Madonna, il mondo, et mia fortuna: Love, my lady, the world, and my fortune;
Chi non penso esser mai, se non
for I think I shall never be anything but
felice.
happy.
Arda, mora, languisca; un piu
gentile
Stato del mio non sotto la luna;
S dolce del mio amaro la radice.
[Whether] I burn, or die, or languish; a more

noble
state than mine does not exist under the moon,
so sweet is the root of my bitter [fate].
The opening line of each of the paired poems presents an obstacle to affective
harmonic setting because the first words refer to a past emotional state that runs
counter to the prevailing mood of the poems present, and thus counter to the
basic quality of the tonal type Willaert chose to accommodate this essential
50
Zarlino, 4:24, pp. 3278 (724).

Zarlino, 4:2021, p. 324 (64). Pike (Hexachords, p. 46) briefly compares Willaerts
setting with that by Lassus, noting that both are cast in Phrygian and share some affective
features, yet bases his discussion on their respective publication dates (1559 and 1555) and
thus has Willaert reacting to Lassus rather than the other way around.
51
120
mood. This does not mean that harmony is not factored into Willaerts affective
setting of the opening of either madrigal, however. While a harmonic emphasis of
minor sonorities suggested by the opening I wept in I piansi, hor canto would
be difficult to sustain while supporting the mode, Willaert nods in this direction
by beginning with an empty octave on G followed by two minor sonorities; a
major five-three is not heard until the resolution of the 43 suspension occurs in
the second half of m. 4. More important as a bearer of affective content in this
instance, though, is the primary melodic motive, which consists of three notes
descending by step in slow-moving breves. It enters a total of six times, once in
each of the madrigals six voices, beginning with the sesta parte and cantus. The
motives sinking shape suits the concept of weeping, and its overlapping entries
accommodate expressive suspensions; the cantuss suspended eleventh sounding
against the lower octave of its resolution tone in the quintus in the third bar is
especially poignant. Willaert hangs the motive on the customary initial tones of the
mode (D and G) such that a falling half-step occurs each time the word piansi
appears (DCB and GFE).52 Notice also how he realigns the respective entries
on G and D in the three statements of the opening module: the initial entries in
the sesta parte and cantus are separated by three semibreves, the second pair of
entries, in the altus and tenor, is inverted and separated by two semibreves, and
the third pair in the bass and quintus returns to the original voicing while being
separated by only a single semibreve.
The subsidiary motive in the bass in mm. 24 fosters the initial minor sonorities,
which are filled out by the rising figure in the quintus; harmonic completion seems
to be the primary function of this latter figure, as it does not return in later statements
of the module. When the subsidiary motive moves successively to the sesta parte,
cantus, altus, and tenor and the primary motive moves to the lowest-sounding
voices, however, a series of major sonorities and suspended sixths, similar to those
found in Aspro core, results: prominent and extended major sixths occur over
positions I and IV in mm. 6 and 8, and a minor sixth over position iii in m. 9. This
is the only spot in the 25 Musica nova madrigals where Willaert uses a variant of
one of the harsh voice-leading models and prolonged major sixths in a passage
of sad or sweet affection. I believe they result from Willaerts desire to set the
larger antithesis between the two poems through his choice of mode, and to remain
faithful to that mode in the opening measures. On the other hand, one could argue
that placing the major sixths with the wrong sort of words helps locate them in
the past tense: though Petrarch refers to weeping, he does so from a current state
of happiness. Or Willaert might evoke here the widespread trope of using generic
sixths to express complaint, as many have suggested.53 In this particular passage,
though, the descending half-step of the primary melodic motive, and its staggered
presentation, seem paramount in Willaerts affective rendering of the text. In any
52
Meier also notes the strongly emphasized half-tone, ratione verborum in this
instance in the course of a regular Mode 7 melodic procedure; The Modes, p. 186.
53
See the Carapetyan and Feldman citations in n. 48.
121
event, clear affective contrast ensues at now I sing, as the languishing breves
and suspensions are replaced by running semiminims and a brighter harmonic
color created by emphasis on predominantly major five-three sonorities.
Harmonic highlights of the remainder of the prima parte include the emphasis
of major sonorities accompanying the appearance of celestial light at chel celeste
lume Quel vivo sole gli occhi miei non cela, followed by the turn toward B
at dolce forza, which continues through the emphasis of minor sonorities at
lagrime tal fiume, and the repeated and sequential series of major sonorities
providing rhetorical emphasis of the presentation of the list Che non pur ponte,
guado, remi, vela. The seconda parte contains further salient harmonic
moments, such as the turn to minor sonorities and cantus mollis pitch-space at et
di s larga vena Il pianger mio and the sustained and repetitive major sonorities
at Chi vaggiungeva col pensier pena, where the slow harmonic rhythm and
the replacement of a freely flowing harmonic succession with back-and-forth
alternation of pairs of sonorities represent the difficulty of reaching the distant
shore, finally achieved audibly at the strong authentic cadence to C ending the
first tercet in m. 99.54 Subtle interaction of harmonic quality and cadential focus
continues at el tempo rasserena, which slips toward the minor side, only to be
pulled back briefly to major at the cadence on C in m. 113, allowing us to hear the
dark clouds clear. The repetition of this hemistich brings a more plangent Phrygian
motion in mm. 11516 as it overlaps with the beginning of the next line, El
pianto asciuga, with this brief cadential digression setting up a return of stability
at the authentic cadence to G in m. 122 as Pity rescues the protagonist and dries
his tears.
The exordium of Cantai: hor piango contains a more subdued response to its
opening antithesis than does I piansi, hor canto. Once again, quicker note values
are associated with singing, longer ones with weeping, and in this instance the
notion of singing also calls forth the leaping nota cambiata (rarely encountered
in the Musica nova madrigals) in the motive presented in tenor and sesta parte
(Example 3.5, p. 177). As in I piansi, hor canto, though, the first emotional state
referenced is one remembered rather than currently felt. The joy that led to singing
must now be viewed through a veil of tears, as Willaerts opening measures make
abundantly clear. Proper Phrygian modal procedures lead to a natural dominance
of minor sonorities and somber Phrygian cadential gestures with Cantai.55 Major
sonorities enter only above the Phrygian motion FE in the sesta parte in m. 5, with
G in the cantus leading to a dovetailed authentic cadence to A in the next bar.
54
In her analysis, Feldman notes that substantial slowing of the composite rhythm,
as at the beginning of the final tercet, almost always marks moments of key rhetorical
importance in Willaerts writinga point of symbolic significance, a shift of grammatical
person or tense, or an important twist in meaningespecially in articulating structural
divides; City Culture, p. 356.
55
By Phrygian cadential gestures I mean the introduction of the twovoice cadential
formula between the tenor and quintus in m. 3 and the altus and sesta parte in m. 5.
122
Willaert does use harmonic means to shape his reading of the text, but this
shaping depends less upon harmonic quality than upon harmonic motion. In fact,
from the standpoint of harmonic interval affect, the opening measures seem to
have things backwards if viewed only at the surface level: cantai receives mostly
minor harmonies, while piango receives mostly major. Willaert aims not at this
antithesis, however, but at Petrarchs statement that he takes no less sweetness
from weeping than he took from singing. Following the precadential E major
sonority in m. 5, he drives through a fifth cycle of diatonic five-three sonorities
that carries to B (with a brief last-second detour through a D minor sonority). As
we have seen in other examples, Willaert uses the fifth cycle to project a sense of
motion or change, in this case from singing to weeping that is no less sweet. The
first flat inflection enters strikingly at dolcezza in the cantus and sesta parte in
m. 11, as Willaerts music audibly wrests sweetness out of weeping through the
driving fifth cycle and its ultimate shift into softer pitch-space. Willaert uses a
very similar harmonic drive toward B to reflect the revelation of the sweet force
of love at Nel qual honesto Amor chiaro rivela Sua dolce forza in mm. 248 of
I piansi, hor canto.
In the remainder of Cantai: hor piango, Petrarch continues to put on a brave
face, declaring that he shall never be anything but happy, despite his current lot.
Though the text provides many antitheses for the picking, Willaert shies away
from most of them because of their secondary importance to the essential point
of the poem: Petrarch feels gentleness and harshness, humbleness and ferocity, in
equal measure, and whether he burns, dies, or languishes, he can be in no nobler
state. Willaert responds to the gravitas of this noble forbearance by using the
Phrygian mode (as in Mentre chel cor), and targets his harmonic response to the
text at a broad reading rather than the surface details of each individual antithesis.
Past the opening bars, major and minor sonorities remain in a state of relative
equilibrium in most cases (with the exceptions noted below), with some passages
seeming almost oxymoronic, such as the introduction of B and minor sonorities
with durezza and F and major sonorities with mansuetudine in mm. 4044. In
keeping with the textual sense of balance, though, the most common harmonic
sonority by far is the stable five-three; harmonic sixths and dissonances are scarce
in this madrigal.
The harmonic climax of Willaerts madrigal occurs in the setting of the sestet.
As he often does, he begins the seconda parte on the same harmony with which
the prima parte concluded, in this case also an A major sonority as in Laura mia
sacra and I vidi in terra. Once again the use of a list or other idea of progression
in the text prompted a fifth cycle in Willaerts setting, here not departing directly
at the beginning of the seconda parte like Laura mia sacra and I vidi in terra,
because the appropriate concept occurs in the second line of the first tercet: the
list Amor, Madonna, il mondo, et mia fortuna. Willaert uses the fifth cycle
and predominantly major sonorities to join the two lines as they are linked in the
poem: the first line says Let them keep toward me their usual style, while the
second line identifies who they are: Love, my lady, the world, and my fortune.
123
The settings of the lines are made parallel and predominantly major through
fifth cycles that launch from a precadential E major sonority and carry to C in
mm. 746 and 7882 before being reined in by an A minor sonority.
As in other examples we have examined, Willaert uses harmonic sonority to
disclose a deeper reading of the poem than a surface-level antithesis, here through
his fourfold manipulation of quality in the seconda parte: (1) predominantly
major sonorities in mm. 7188 reference the harshness, fierceness, and disdain
of the usual style Love, his lady, the world, and his fortune keep toward the
protagonist; (2) a balance of major and minor sonorities returns in mm. 8895,
as he declares that he shall never be anything but happy, no matter what; (3) a tilt
toward almost exclusively minor sonorities references his suffering in the setting
of Arda, mora, languisca in mm. 95102 (except for the major sonority above
B introducing the Phrygian motion to A in m. 100, and the very last sonority of
the line, which overlaps with the beginning of the next line);56 and (4) equilibrium
of harmonic quality returns at un piu gentile Stato del mio non sotto la luna;
S dolce del mio amaro la radice. The changes in harmonic quality are striking
and unmistakable, and Willaerts musical reading of the overall message of the
poem hinges on them. One hears equilibrium threatened by the major sonorities
accompanying the usual style of Love and Laura and the minor sonorities at
the reference to burning, dying, and languishing, yet restored at I shall never be
anything but happy and the final so sweet is the root of my bitter [fate]. In order
to create this broader sense of equilibrium suggested by the protagonists assertion
that he can bear anything thrown his way because of the nobility of his cause,
Willaert passes over many opportunities to set lesser antitheses with harmonic
contrasts, even the juxtaposition of dolce and amaro in the final line, and
targets the larger ones. This is a much more reflective and profound affective use
of harmonic quality than the simple dichotomies Zarlino and Vicentino describe
and which Willaert famously employed in the opening of Liete e pensose.
56
That Willaert likely was working from Bembos edition is suggested once again by
his use here of the variant Arda rather than the Viva found in other editions.
124
Example 3.1 Willaert, Laura mia sacra
125
continued
126
Example 3.1 continued
127
continued
128
129
continued
130
131
continued
132
133
continued
134
135
continued
136
137
concluded
138
Example 3.2 Willaert, I vidi in terra angelici costumi
139
continued
140
141
continued
142
143
continued
144
145
continued
146
147
continued
148
149
continued
150
151
Example 3.3 Willaert, Mentre chel cor
continued
152
153
continued
154
155
continued
156
157
continued
158
159
continued
160
161
continued
162
163
concluded
164
Example 3.4 Willaert, I piansi, hor canto
165
continued
166
167
continued
168
169
continued
170
171
continued
172
173
continued
174
175
continued
176
177
Example 3.5 Willaert, Cantai: hor piango
continued
178
179
continued
180
181
continued
182
183
continued
184
185
continued
186
187
continued
188
189
continued
190
Chapter 4
Willaerts Other Madrigals and the Theory of

Interval Affect
Within any dialect, individual composers tend to employ some constraints rather
than others; indeed, they may themselves have devised new constraints. Those that
a composer repeatedly selects from the larger repertory of the dialect define his
or her individual idiom. Like dialects, idioms may be subdivided in various
waysaccording to genre or function, for instance.
Leonard B. Meyer
Musica nova represents Willaerts only surviving book of madrigals, yet other
madrigals appeared individually or in small groups in prints devoted primarily
to the work of other composers, and a 1563 print gathered together and reprinted
many of his four-voice madrigals. Martha Feldman suggests that all of Willaerts
madrigals were probably written in Venice, though she finds a clear stylistic separation
between the anthologized madrigals and those of Musica nova; she attributes this
distinction to the differing audiences for which the madrigals were intended, with the
expressive weight of those in Musica nova, withheld from publication for many years,
representing a private style for the Venetian cognoscenti, while the less imposing
styles of the madrigals appearing in published anthologies were aimed at broader
public appeal. Although publication dates cannot securely establish a chronology of
compositional origin, the genesis of Willaerts madrigals seems to span a substantial
part of his career and documents a shift from an earlier, Florentine-influenced style to
the development of a more mature and characteristically Venetian style. My study of
these madrigals indicates that the earliest-published ones show little effort to utilize

Leonard B. Meyer, Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), p. 24.

Madrigali a quatro voci di Adriano Willaert con alcune napolitane et la canzon de
Ruzante tutte racolte insieme coretti & novamente stampati (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1563)
[RISM 1563]. Several of the madrigals attributed to Willaert in this collection are by Arcadelt
or Leonardo Barr. Willaerts madrigals other than those in Musica nova are available in
modern edition in Adrian Willaert, Opera omnia, vol. 14, Madrigali e Canzoni Villanesche,
ed. Helga Meier (Neuhausen-Stuttgart: Hnssler-Verlag, American Institute of Musicology,
1977). A complete listing of Willaerts non-Musica nova madrigals and their sources appears
in Kidger, Adrian Willaert: A Guide to Research. See also Helga Meiers introduction to her
edition; Bossuyt, Adriaan Willaert, pp. 1267; and Feldman, City Culture, pp. 2012.

192
harmony as an expressive device, other than using six-three sonorities in contrast to

five-three sonorities with little regard to quality. They tend to introduce the harmonic
sixth more liberally than the later-published madrigals. They also use the vertical
six-five, consonant fourth, and nota cambiata more freely, and contain stepwise
parallel major thirds far more often without obvious expressive intent. The madrigals
appearing in print from 1548 onward, on the other hand, show almost complete
avoidance of parallel major thirds, except for a few very significant moments, and
most even avoid juxtaposing major triads a whole-step apart in general (because of
the false relation generated between the root of the lower triad and the third of the
higher triad). Harmonic sixths and dissonances appear less frequently and are more
tightly controlled. The vertical six-five, consonant fourth, and nota cambiata are rare.
These changes reflect the increasing importance of harmonic quality and succession
to Willaerts compositional thinking in his madrigal writing, and perhaps suggest that
aspects of a private style became part of his madrigal style more generally. This chapter
will sample a selection of madrigals drawn from across the chronological span of their
appearance in print and demonstrate that careful treatment and expressive manipulation
of harmonic quality were significant features of what was new about Musica nova, and
that these remained important in Willaerts other later-published madrigals.
The Earlier-Published Madrigals
Willaerts Madonna, il bel desire appeared, along with his famous early work Amor
mi fa morire and three other madrigals, in Verdelots second madrigal book, published
in 1534. Michle Fromson chose it to exemplify Willaerts early madrigal style:

Exceptions include Willaerts sole surviving three-voice madrigal, Sel veder voi
mancide (in RISM 154934), and two of his four-voice madrigals: Quando i begli occhi (in
RISM 155428) and Con doglie con piet (1563; see n. 2 above). These four-voice madrigals
do not avoid whole-step related major sonorities, but do avoid parallel major thirds above
them in almost every case (though half-step related major sonorities will be written with
parallel major thirds), while the three-voice madrigal contains several sets of parallel major
thirds. It may be that these works were written much earlier than their publication date, but
it also may be that Willaert simply did not apply the principles of affective writing used
in Musica nova to the writing of these works as he did for the nine five-voice madrigals
published in 1548 or later. One also should note that the alto voice given in the modern
Willaert edition for Con doglie con piet was added by the editor because the part was
presumed lost (the copy of the 1563 print in the Paris Bibliothque Nationale contains the
alto part). Parallel major thirds appear much more freely in the four-voice works Oiml bel
viso and Lagrime meste, which, though included in the Willaert edition, are thought to be by
Leonardo Barr, to whom they are also attributed in sixteenth-century sources. Based upon
their harmonic and contrapuntal style, I agree they are not Willaerts.

Il secondo libro de Madrigali di Verdelot (Venice: Andrea Antico and Ottaviano
Scotto, 1534) [RISM 153416]. Madonna, il bel desire is attributed to Verdelot in a later print
(RISM 154118).
193
Early works like Madonna, il bel desire (1534) display what has been called the
classic Florentine madrigal style, a chanson-like idiom perfected by Verdelot
and Arcadelt by the 1530s. Its identifying features include a prominent and
tuneful upper voice and a formal plan following the versification of the text. This
style is characterized by predominantly syllabic declamation, regular phrasing
with a cadence marking the end of each verse, and prevailingly homorhythmic
textures, which often incorporate dance-like passages in triple time.
Immediately obvious in comparison to the Musica nova madrigals are the

smaller dimensions, lighter texture, and the more regular demarcation of line
endings with clear-cut cadential motions (see Example 4.1). Less obvious,
without careful attention to the subtleties of Willaerts harmonic language, are
the numerous major sixths that crop up throughout the course of the madrigal: in
its 48 measures, more than 20 vertical major sixths appear. With the exceptional
case of I piansi, hor canto (discussed in the previous chapter), such an outburst
of major sixths would be associated only with certain types of texts in Musica
nova, principally those expressing harshness, hardness, cruelty, or similar
concepts.
The text of Madonna, il bel desire does provide opportunities for expressive
writing:
Madonna, il bel desire,
Che maccendestin pett s possente,
Che mi convien morire,
Non lo vorrei scoprire,
Ma voi chogni mio stato v
presente,
Quanto gran torthavete,
Non scemar tanto duol quanto
sapete,
Che nel mio pettacerbamentaccoglio,
Poich son fattaltrhuom chesser non
soglio.
Adunque per ver dire,
Voi sete causa dogni mio martire.
My lady, the beautiful desire

that you ignited in my breast is so powerful,
that I must perish.
I would not want to disclose it,
but to you, to whom each state of mine is
given.
How great the wrong you do
not to diminish so much pain, how well you
know,
that in my breast I bitterly accept.
For I am made a different man than I am
wont to be
Thus, in truth to speak,
you are the cause of all of my martyrdom.
Michle Fromson, s.v. Willaert, Adrian, Grove Music Online. See also the
discussion of Madonna, il bel desire in Feldman, City Culture, pp. 21213. Helga Meier,
on the other hand, expresses some concern about the authorship of this madrigal based
on a conflicting attribution to Verdelot and its stylistic similarity to those of the earlier
madrigalist; Willaert, Opera omnia, vol. 14, p. VIII.
194
Example 4.1 Willaert, Madonna, il bel desire
195
continued
196
197
concluded
198
While a string of sixths appears conventionally at the text acerbamentaccoglio

in mm. 2930, the association loses some of its effectiveness when Willaert
repeats this music with the following line as well (Poich son fattaltrhuom
chesser non soglio), and because similar strings of sixths appear without
strong textual impetus at in pett s possente (mm. 89) and mio stato v
presente (mm. 1618), and in the approach to the final cadence at mio martire
(where they might serve both formal and expressive functions). In addition to the
frequent six-three sonorities and the lack of passages clearly emphasizing major
or minor sonorities for affective purposes, the occasional open-fifth sonority in
four-voice texture (including the final sonority) and the decoration of the final
cadence with the consonant fourth idiom also mark this as an early madrigal;
this latter formulation is not used among the medial or final cadences of any of
the Musica nova madrigals. The dissonances left by leap in the alto and tenor in
m. 44 also would not appear in Musica nova, where the only leaping dissonance
is the relatively infrequent cambiata.
Qual dolcezza giamai, first appearing in a print devoted to the works of
multiple authors in 1540, was written in homage to the singer Polissena
Pecorina. Pecorina was intimately associated with Musica nova, even owning
the manuscript for a time, and the collection sometimes was referred to as La
Pecorina. The style of Qual dolcezza giamai, however, lies far from that of
Musica nova. Though Willaert distinctly divided the madrigal into two parts,
and though he does pay some attention to enjambments in his setting of the text,
overall it exhibits more of the characteristics of Willaerts early madrigal style,
as listed by Fromson, than those of Musica nova. As in Madonna, il bel desire,
the repetition of musical phrases with different words in Qual dolcezza giamai
also suggests this as a relatively early madrigal. Most remarkable in comparison
to Musica nova are the numerous cross and false relations, by which Willaert
seems to mean to reflect the Sirens song and the dolce armonia referenced in
the poem:
Qual dolcezza giamai
Di canto di Sirena
Involo i sensi e lalma chi ludiro
Che di quella non sia minor assai
Che con la voce angelica e divina
Desta nei cor la bella Pecorina.
As much as ever the sweetness

of the song of the Siren
abducted the senses and the soul of the listener,
than that not much less,
with her voice angelic and divine,
arouses in the heart the beautiful Pecorina.
Le dotte, et excellente compositioni de i madrigali a cinque voci da diversi

perfettissimi musici fatte (Venice: Scotto, 1540) [RISM 154018]. For the printing history
of this collection, see Jane Bernstein, Music Printing in Renaissance Venice: The Scotto
Press, 15391572 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 2557. For
further discussion of Qual dolcezza giamai, see Feldman, City Culture, pp. 21618.

See Butchart, La Pecorina at Mantua; and Feldman, City Culture, pp. 324.

A more poetic translation appears in Feldman, City Culture, pp. 345.

Et la dolcarmonia si fa serena
Laria sacquetal mar taccioni venti
E si rallegral ciel di girin giro.
I santi angeli intenti
Chinandin questa partil vago viso
Soblianogni piacer del paradiso.
Et ellin tanthonore
Dice con lieto suon qui regnamore.
199
[At] the sweet harmony becomes serene

the air, the sea calms, the winds silence,
and heaven rejoices from sphere to sphere.
The holy angels intent,
bowing in this direction their lovely faces,
forget every pleasure of paradise.
And she at such honor
says with a happy sound Here reigns Love.
Unlike the Petrarchan texts of Musica nova, the uniformly sweet affection of
the poem does not invite affective contrast between major and minor harmonic
qualities, and none appear. At odds with the later association of minor quality
with sweetness in the affective theories of Zarlino and Vicentino, the majority
of harmonies are major and the use of the major sixth is unbridled.10 Willaert
generates harmonic sweetness through accidental inflections and the sort of false
relations that he avoids for the most part in the Musica nova madrigals, and which
he eschews entirely in some of his other later-published madrigals, as we shall see
in a moment. As shown in the excerpt in Example 4.2, the flanking of B with Es
at the word serena in m. 56 seems particularly counterintuitive from the Musica
nova viewpoint. A notated change to triple mensuration, such as that which reflects
heaven rejoicing in mm. 649, also finds no place in the Musica nova madrigals
(though it does in the Musica nova motets).
The parallel major thirds above the bass in mm. 689 and 745 also do not
conform to Willaerts typical practices in Musica nova. While the descending
motive and parallel motion in imperfect consonances in the latter instance portray
the angels bowing to better hear Pecorinas singing, the parallel major thirds and
frequent major sixths appear here in direct opposition to the association with
harshness they frequently assume in the Musica nova madrigals.11 Most significant
for the present study, the characteristics of Qual dolcezza giamai just enumerated,
coupled with the absence of clear evidence of the refined theory of interval affect
seen in the madrigals of Musica nova (despite the fact that it sets a poem whose
central character was associated with the cultural circle in which Musica nova
evolved), suggest that this theory could be a later development.
10
The use of accidental major sonorities as an alternative to mutation to a softer

(flatter) hexachord to represent sweetness becomes a common device later in the sixteenth
century; see Pike, Hexachords, pp. 389.
11
Major sixths would still be prominent in m. 75 even if the ficta F suggested by
Helga Meier were not added
200
Example 4.2 Willaert, Qual dolcezza giamai, mm. 5675
201
concluded
202
Gi mi godea felice, also first appearing in print in a volume of Verdelot

madrigals, contains another passage typifying Willaerts early lack of concern
about harmonic quality, parallel major thirds, introduction of numerous harmonic
sixths, and carefully differentiated affective associations for the sixths.12 As may
be seen in the excerpt in Example 4.3, the poem opens with a reminiscence of
earlier happiness, then cuts to a current state of pain and torment. Willaert dutifully
introduces several sixths with doglia sento and crudel tormento, and parallel
major thirds in mm. 24 (alto and bass) and 31 (soprano and bass). Yet examination
of the remainder of the madrigal shows that these devices occur throughout, even
with the word felice (happy) on numerous occasions (as in mm. 1213 of the
example). Their ubiquity lessens their efficacy as affective devices. One might
argue, of course, that Willaert intended to set the prevailing mood of the poem,
as he does in I piansi, hor canto and Cantai: hor piango, and that the parallel
major thirds and frequent harmonic sixths not only reflect the current torment,
but also color the reminiscence of happier times. Yet, unlike I piansi, hor canto
and Cantai: hor piango, Willaert is not faced with an antithesis wedged into a
single hemistich, thus he had plenty of room to set up an affective contrast had
he wished. I also would note that harmonic sixths and parallel major thirds are
prevalent in Willaerts madrigals bearing earlier publication dates, which suggests
that it is more likely that, although he may have begun to think of these devices
as suitable for certain affects, he has not yet decided to hold them in reserve for
the appropriate moment within a particular madrigal in order to enhance their
affective power, much less to avoid them as a general principle to be broken only
in exceptional instances. Other stylistic features seen in Example 4.3 that are less
commonly found in the Musica nova madrigals include the cambiata and lengthy
melisma in mm. 69, the consonant fourth pattern preparing the cadence in m. 17,
and the vertical six-five in m. 30.13
Another of Willaerts madrigals having a potential connection with Musica nova
is Rompi de lempio cor, composed on a text by Florentine exile Filippo Strozzi.14
12
Di Verdelotto tutti li madrigali del primo, et secondo libro a quatro voci con la
gionta de i madrigali del medesmo auttore (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1540) [RISM
154020]. For discussion of other aspects of Willaerts setting of Gi mi godea felice, see
13
Though the melisma at bene might be taken as text-painting, as might those at
felice lamor in mm. 8790, long melismas also occur at gravose pene (grievous pains)
in mm. 525. Once again it is difficult to pin down Willaerts affective intent because of
the frequency with which a particular device occurs, a feature of his style that he cleans up
considerably in Musica nova.
14
Rompi de lempio cor appeared in La piu divina, et piu bella musica, che se udisse
giamai delli presenti madrigali, a sei voci composti per Verdelot, et altri musici ... (Venice:
Gardano, 1541) ([RISM 154116].
203
Example 4.3 Willaert, Gi mi godea felice, mm. 133
continued
204
205
As Richard Agee and Martha Feldman have demonstrated, Florentine exiles, the
fuorusciti, were important patrons of music in Venice and of Willaert in particular.15
Filippo Strozzis son Ruberto and his nephew Neri Capponi were particularly
active supporters of the madrigal in Venice in the 1530s and 40s, and it was in
Capponis musical academy, under the personal direction of Willaert and including
the singer Polissena Pecorina, that many have suggested that the Musica nova
madrigals were premiered.16 Filippo Strozzi was a Florentine banker, believed to
be one of the richest men in Italy at the time, who was captured and imprisoned
while leading an attempt to overthrow the Medici in 1537, and who died in prison
the following year.17 The poem he penned in response to his imprisonment offers
contrasting affections that are ripe for the picking, ranging from the hardness of a
cruel ladys heart to the sadness of a swans song:
Rompi de lempio cor il duro scoglio
Depon gli sdegne lire,
Hormai donna crudel depon lorgoglio,
Ne ti rincresca udire
Comio giontal morire,
Non pi di te damor del ciel mi doglio,
Ma sol qual cignin tristaccenti chieggio,
Che se modiastin vita,
Non mi nieghun sospir, alla partita,
Ah dove folle son come vaneggio
Qui non modo risponde,
Altri che de Mugnon le rive londe.
Break the hard rock of your wicked heart,

lay down disdain and ire
at last, cruel lady, lay down pride;
do not be sorry to hear
how I, reaching death,
no longer for you, by love of heaven, grieve.
But only as a swan in sad accents implore
that if you hated me in life,
do not deny me a sigh at my parting.
Ah, where am I mad, why do I rave?
Here no one hears me or responds
other than the Mugnones banks and waves.
Feldman speculates that Willaerts setting may have served as a eulogy of Strozzi
for his sons, and suggests that Willaert chose Mode 3 for this purpose, also
noting his choice of Hypophrygian for Mentre chel cor (which refers to Lauras
death).18 Willaerts setting is for six voices, the only six-voice madrigal outside
those in Musica nova, and the only non-Musica nova madrigal by Willaert cited
by Zarlino in the Istitutioni among his exemplars of modal practice, where
it is identified as Mode 4 rather Mode 3.19 Many Musica nova-like harmonic
15
Richard Agee, Ruberto Strozzi and the Early Madrigal, Journal of the American
Musicological Society 36/1 (1983), pp. 117; Agee, Filippo Strozzi and the Early Madrigal,
Journal of the American Musicological Society 38/2 (1985), pp. 22737; Feldman, City
Culture, especially pp. 2446. See also Fromson, Themes of Exile.
16
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 24 and 33; further bibliography there.
17
18
Feldman, City Culture, p. 220, n. 37.
19
Zarlino, 4.21, p. 324 (64). In On the Modes Zarlino cites motets and masses by
numerous composers, yet resorts to citing madrigals by composers other than Willaert only
when stuck for examples of Mode 5 (pure Lydian), which he could not find among Willaerts
206
traits appear, yet without the consistency with which they are employed in that
collection, as may be seen in Example 4.4. Though the tonal type prompts an
opening emphasis on minor sonorities, Willaert manages to cast duro fairly
consistently with major sonorities in mm. 310, even attaching a major sixth
and parallel major thirds to its first appearance in m. 3 (the latter between tenor
and quintus, though the bass somewhat undermines them). Harmonic motion
rapidly shifts toward G, C, and F, and cadential gestures to G follow in mm. 8
and 11. Having thus wandered from the AE axis common for this tonal type,
Willaert returns to it and concomitant minor-dominated sonority in mm. 1216.
He momentarily swerves away again at Hormai donna crudel, with the first
reference to the cruel lady eliciting major sonorities, harmonic major sixths,
parallel major thirds, and 43 suspensions in mm. 1718. The subsequent oftrepeated reference to death returns to the AE axis and receives a somber Phrygian
cadential motion at its conclusion in mm. 356. At this point the harmony turns
decidedly minor and the major sixths momentarily disappear as Strozzi intones
Non pi di te damor del ciel, but suddenly brightens to major with a cadential
swerve to G at mi doglio in m. 42 as he claims to grieve no longer. The line
then repeats with an essentially different setting (tethered to the previous one by
moving the sopranos subject, in slightly altered form, to the tenor) and brings
another cadence to G in m. 47, this one a full stop uncharacteristic for interior
cadences in Musica nova. At the ensuing Ma sol qual cignin tristaccenti
chieggio (not shown) Willaert supplies old-fashioned successions of generic
sixths and a B to represent the swans lamenting tones.
While more liberal in its use of sixths and dissonances, and certainly choppier
in its phrase structure, Rompi de lempio cor evidences more stylistic affinities to
Willaerts harmonic practice in Musica nova than do the other examples examined
thus far in this chapter, and quite likely was written about the same time as Musica
nova, or slightly before.
madrigals; he then cited two madrigals by Cipriano de Rore and one by Francesco dalla
Viola; Zarlino, 4.22, p. 325 (70). He also cites one of his own madrigals for Mode 9, one
of the new modes, again because an example could not be found among the Musica nova
madrigals, but also probably to position himself on the cutting edge of the intersection of
theory and practice. This madrigal, I vo piangendo, is discussed in Chapter 5. Zarlinos
citations and their motivations are examined in detail in Judd, Reading Renaissance Music
Theory, pp. 198205 and 22661. Zarlinos citation of Mode 4 madrigals remains intriguing
because he went outside of Musica nova to cite Rompi de lempio cor, and because, as noted
in the previous chapter, he was clearly mistaken in his identification of Laura mia sacra as
being in Mode 4.
207
Example 4.4 Willaert, Rompi de lempio cor, mm. 147
continued
208
209
continued
210
211
concluded
212
The Later-Published Madrigals

The attention to harmonic quality and succession that Willaert exercised in
Musica nova continues to mark the madrigals appearing for the first time in
anthologies published in 1548 and afterwards. Se la gratia divina appeared with
four other Willaert madrigals in Rores third book of five-voice madrigals.20 In
this madrigal Willaert avoids parallel major thirds above the lowest-sounding
voice almost entirely. They appear only once, and this with the appropriate
affect-word amare (bitter) in mm. 1314 (see Example 4.5). The first major
sixths in the madrigal also occur in mm. 1213, introduced by the 56 motions
in the alto and tenor. He also avoids juxtaposing major triads above positions
IV and V except for this single instance. In other spots where major sonorities
above these positions might succeed one another, a notated or performer-added
B prevents the false relation, as in the alto in m. 7.21
Example 4.5 Willaert, Se la gratia divina, mm. 114
20
Di Cipriano Rore et di altri eccellentissimi musici il terzo libro di madrigali a
cinque voce novamente da lui composti et non piu posti in luce (Venice: Scotto, 1548)
[RISM 15489].
21
In this instance, the prior notated Bs in the alto in m. 1 and the bass in m. 7 likely
would prompt the alto to add B anyway, but the presence of the forbidden major sixth leap
that would occur without the B dispels any doubt that parallel major thirds above the bass
would not be heard in mm. 78.
213
214
A related setting of amare occurs in the exordium of Ne lamare freddonde,

another of the Willaert madrigals printed in Rores third book of five-voice
madrigals. Though parallel major thirds and stepwise-related major sonorities are
avoided entirely in this madrigal, Willaert sets amare with major sonorities and
extended 56 motions producing major sixths in mm. 2 and 5, as shown in Example
4.6. Because this is a black-note madrigal, the note values must be doubled to
appreciate the length of the sixths in comparison with other examples. As was
the case in Aspro core and Giunto mha Amor, the protracted length of the sixths
in comparison with those arising from contrapuntal or cadential considerations
underscores their affective intent, just as Zarlino recommended. Furthermore,
the setting of Ne lamaree freddonde Onde si bagna lalta Vinegia in the first
eleven bars contains an 82/18 percentage ratio of major to minor sonorities, as
well as the occasional B duro, in response to the hard concept of the bitter and
cold waves in which Venice bathes itself.
Martha Feldman demonstrates that the text of Ne lamare freddonde was
written by Lelio Capilupi as a tribute to Venetian noblewoman Helena Barozza
Zantani.22 Feldman notes that Helena received many such tributes, and that she
and her husband Antonio were important figures in the Venetian artistic and social
scene in which Willaert worked:
the music, writings, and paintings in her honor participated in loose networks
of reference and praise that helped situate familial identities within larger civic
structures. Indeed, it raises the possibility that some were spousal commissions
meant (like Willaerts madrigal) to embellish the domestic household and
redound to the family name: Helenas husband, Antonio, could after all count
himself among the most avid of aristocratic devotees to secular music at midcentury and a keen patron of the visual arts.
Music historians remember only two major aspects of Zantanis biography.
The first is that he was foiled in trying to publish a collection of four-voice
madrigals that included four Petrarch settings from the Musica nova, then
owned exclusively by the prince of Ferrara. The second is that he patronized
musical gatherings at his homegatherings that involved Perissone, Parabosco,
and others in Willaerts circle 23
Zantanis interest in Musica nova and his documented interactions with members
of Willaerts circle lend greater significance to the similarities I have found
between the general harmonic and contrapuntal language of Willaerts Musica
nova madrigals and that of Ne lamare freddonde. Willaerts affective use of
Feldman, City Culture, p. 63. The poem and Feldmans translation appear therein,
though the version she cites omits the antanaclasis (onde onde) reflected in Willaerts
setting and seen in De le rime di diversi nobili poeti toscani, raccolte da M. Dionigi Atanagi,
libro secondo (Venice: Lodovico Avanza, 1565).
23
22
Example 4.6 Willaert, Ne le amare freddonde, mm. 111
215
216
sustained major sixths and contrapuntal prolongation of harmonic quality in

the opening passage of Ne lamare freddonde draws upon musical codes and
techniques central to Willaerts Musica nova madrigals. The appearance of these
particular expressive devices in a work closely tied to the Zantani household thus
highlights the private and privileged status of Willaerts Musica nova madrigal
style and its intimate connection to Venetian society and artistic patronage.
The non-Musica nova madrigal coming closest to the Musica nova style in terms
of affective use of harmony, if certainly not in texture, phrase structure, and other
matters, is Willaerts five-voice setting of Piangetegri mortali, published as his sole
contribution to a collection of spiritual madrigals in 1563.24 The text is a conflation
drawn from two poems by Jacopo Sannazaro that describe the crucified Christ:25
Piangetegri mortali,
Piangete laspra morte del Signore,
Se spirto di piet vi pungil core,
Volgete glocchin qua, choggi
dimostra,
Non quella formhoime, non quel colore,
Che finge forsi sensin mente
vostra,
Vedetil voltesangue,
Le chiome lacerate, il capo basso,
Qual rosa che calcata in terra
langue,
O mirabil piet, o dolce pegno,
O sacro santo sangue,
S largamente sparsal duro legno,
O raro nuova legge,
Humiliarsa mortaccerbe
dura
Quel chel ciel e la terrel mar
corregge,
Piangi mondorbo, piangegra natura,
Mortl pastor per liberar lo gregge,
Comagnel mansueto alla tonsura.
Weep week mortals,

mourn the harsh death of the Lord,
if the spirit of pity you place in your heart;
turn your eyes here, for today
demonstrates,
not that form, alas, not that color
that feigns perhaps the senses in your
mind;
see the bloodless face,
the lacerated mane, the lowered head,
like a rose that, trampled to the earth,
languishes;
o admirable piety, o sweet pledge,
o sacred, o holy blood
so abundantly shed on the hard wood;
o rare, o novel law,
to humble oneself by death, bitter and
hard,
the one who heaven and earth and sea
rebukes;
weep blind world, weep weak nature,
dead is the shepherd to liberate the flock,
as a meek lamb to the tonsure.
24
Musica spirituale libro primo di canzon et madrigal a 5 (Venice: Girolamo Scotto,
1563) (RISM 15637). See the modern edition and critical commentary in Katherine Powers
(ed.), Musica spirituale, libro primo (Venice, 1563); Recent Researches in the Music of the
Renaissance 127 (Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions, Inc., 2001). See also the review of
Powers edition by Sarah M. Stoycos in Notes 61/2 (2004), pp. 5536.
25
For details on the text and its origins, see Katherine Powers, Musica spirituale,
libro primo (Venice 1563), pp. xviixviii. See also Feldman, City Culture, pp. 2223.
217
As a spiritual madrigal, of course, the essential subject matter of Piangetegri

mortali differs substantially from that of the Musica nova madrigals, as does its
frequent use of imperative verb forms. Katherine Powers notes that Willaerts
frequently syllabic declamation and regular phraseology marked by clear-cut
cadences, often separated by rests, work along with the imperative verb forms to
imitate the rhetorical style of a sermon.26 Though aspects of this madrigal are very
far removed from the style of Musica nova, its syllabic setting, generally slowmoving rhythmic values, and recitational melodic idiom make for a relatively
slow harmonic rhythm that facilitates an affective use of harmony resembling that
seen in Musica nova. The poem shares much the same Petrarchan terminology and
juxtaposition of antithetical concepts with the sonnets of Musica nova, substituting
Christ and his attributes for Laura and hers, and Christs pain and suffering for
that of the poet-lover; thus we find soft concepts such as the calls for weeping
(piangi) or Christs sweet pledge (dolce pegno) and hard images such as the
wood of the cross (duro legno) or harsh, bitter, and hard death (aspra morte and
mortaccerbe dura). As happens with similar imagery in many of the Musica
nova madrigals, the composer highlights these textual contrasts through emphasis
of major or minor sonorities or harmonic sixths.27
The composer also manipulates modal/centric focus in Piangetegri mortali
in a manner similar to that seen in Musica nova and discussed in connection with
Laura mia sacra and I vidi in terra in the previous chapter. For Piangetegri
mortali, he employs the cantus mollis signature and shifts centric focus primarily
between D and F to obtain the appropriate harmonic quality at given moments in
the text. As shown in Example 4.7, he sets the opening imperative Weep with two
measures of minor harmony built on D, followed by an elongated 43 suspension
within its major dominant and a return to D with egri (weak). At mortali the
elongated suspension returns, now poised on the dominant of F, with F arriving
at the beginning of the second verse. Though the second verse also opens with
an imperative to weep, and thus would seem to call for minor harmony as well,
the composer chose to focus on the hard concept aspra morte immediately
following. The setting of Piangete laspra morte thus features exclusive use of
major sonorities built on positions I, IV, and V, a harmonic progression that again
embellishes a dominant with an elongated suspension in m. 10 before arriving
on F in the following measure. Centric focus quickly shifts back toward D at del
Signore, ending the second verse with yet another elongated 43 suspension, now
on the dominant of D, in mm. 1314.
26
Ibid., p. xxi.
Nonetheless, based upon its stylistic quirks (which extend to harmony), I would
not be surprised to learn that Piangetegri mortali was not composed by Willaert, but by
someone else familiar with his affective practices. See the potential problems in attribution
raised by Katherine Powers, Musica spirituale, p. xxviii, n. 109.
27
218
Example 4.7 Willaert, Piangetegri mortali, mm. 120
219
concluded
220
The setting of Se spirto di piet vi pungil core appropriately remains largely

minor and focused on D. Once again, the inherent conflict between two affective
practices emerges, though, as the soft Phrygian motions at piet and core
introduce major sixths above the half-step in the bass. At piet an open fifth
appears above A, while a major sonority concludes core in accordance with the
actual cadential function taking place. More striking, at least in view of Willaerts
practice in Musica nova and the majority of his late madrigals, are the parallel major
thirds above positions V and IV in m. 16. Parallel major thirds return in a similar
three-voice approach to a Phrygian motion in m. 42 within another soft passage,
so it seems likely that they result in these cases from an emphasis on smooth partwriting. A further set of parallel major thirds occurs in a full five-voice texture in
mm. 745 at correge (rebukes), however, suggesting the composer simply was
not scrupulous about avoiding such thirds in this madrigal.
Other salient harmonic effects occur in the passage shown in Example 4.8,
beginning with the striking shift from the cadential A major sonority to an A
minor one following the half-bar rest in all voices for the beginning of the soft
phrase O mirabil piet, o dolce pegno.28 The tonal focus shifts toward G and
an E appears in response to dolce pegno. Major sonorities appear only in the
half-cadential arrival on D in m. 52 and the Phrygian cadential motion to D in
mm. 545. Another full stop ensues, followed by a radical and unmistakable shift
to entirely major sonorities at O sacro santo sangue as centric focus tries to
gravitate toward F once again, yet settles onto a half-cadence on G that requires
B duro. It might seem that the composer has changed to major harmonic sonority
too soon, that he should have saved it for duro legno in the following line, yet in
this instance he is making a theological statement: the major sonorities represent
the saving power of Christs blood.29
The setting of the following line shades toward minor after the initial
sonorities, in order to prepare the highlighting of duro with a major
sonority in m. 62; a cautionary accidental superceding the una nota supra la
rule and assuring that E-mi rather than E-fa be sung by the tenor appears in
the 1563 print and documents the composers affective intent.30 A mixture of
agonized sixths ensues at the reference to the wood of the cross, punctuated
by the pungent double suspension involving an augmented fourth in m. 63.
28
One of the quirks of this spiritual madrigal is that most phrases end on a major
sonority, and generally an accidental one. A similar juxtaposition of major and minor
sonorities on A occurs with similar dramatic impact at the phrase juncture immediately
preceding the one in m. 49.
29
For a list of examples, drawn from a variety of sixteenth-century composers,
showing the use of major sonorities with concepts of strength and power, see Bernhard
Meier, The Modes, pp. 41015. See also the discussion of spiritual madrigals by Vicentino
and Zarlino in Chapter 5 of this book.
30
I am grateful to Katherine Powers for sharing with me her copy of Piangetegri
mortali from the 1563 print.
221
Example 4.8 Willaert, Piangetegri mortali, mm. 4872
continued
222
223
Although the suspension staggers the parallel major thirds that would otherwise
occur here, in so doing it makes a glaring vertical reality of the false relation
Zarlino found objectionable between adjacent sonorities. The suffering of the cross
is further represented by the fauxbourdon-like parallel fourths occurring in the
upper voices, which form sixths, though not strictly parallel, with the sometimes
leaping bass line. The sixths lead to a Phrygian cadence on an initially open A
sonority in m. 64, notably filled in with a late-arriving minor third rather than
the major thirds that have marked most cadences to this point. Tonal motion dips
toward B briefly at the end of O raro nuova legge, with the expansion of the
major sixth to an octave B being accompanied by an empty open fifth, setting
up the composers most graphic use of harmony in this madrigal at Humiliarsa
mortaccerbe dura. He begins with leaping parallel motion in the upper voices at
humiliars, then continues with parallel fourths as he dwells in Musica nova-like
fashion on major sonorities above positions V, IV, and VII and introduces major
sixths, including accented neighboring ones in mm. 69 and 71, to drive the point
home like the nails of the crucifixion.31
31
Because of the parallel motion in the upper voices of the three-voice texture, an
open fifth rather than a complete major triad occurs over position IV. The E in this passage
arises as a logical consequence of the preceding B in the bass and the desire to emphasize
major sonorities rather than as an affectively soft symbol, yet it also produces a plangent
effect when it drops by semitone onto a brief minor sonority on D at the end of the line.
224
Conclusion
Willaerts madrigals exhibit stylistic growth that bridges the gap between the
early and lighter madrigal style of Verdelot and Arcadelt and the mature and more
weighty style typical of Rore and subsequent madrigal composers from the middle
decades of the sixteenth century. In addition to the well-known advancements in
the literary quality of the poetry chosen and in careful attention to declamation,
text setting, and the rhetorical presentation of the words, this chapter has shown
that Willaerts contrapuntal and harmonic language within his madrigals also
evolved in ways that have not been discussed in previous studies. Some of the
differences I have noted between the Musica nova madrigals and Willaerts other
madrigals simply reflect the general growth of Willaerts compositional style
over a substantial span of years. Perhaps the best example here is his increasing
tendency to avoid harmonic successions involving whole-step motion between
major sonorities, ostensibly because of the false relation such progressions entail
(as explained by Zarlino). Other differences derive from the differing demands
of private and public style of the sort Martha Feldman establishes in relation to
Willaerts madrigals and Katelijne Schiltz has studied in his motets.32 Long hidden
from the public eye, the Musica nova madrigals, with their extreme gravity, high
literary ideals, refined declamatory and rhetorical expression, carefully regulated
contrapuntal and harmonic language, and affective use of intervals, represent the
quintessence of private style in Venetian culture of the first half of the sixteenth
century. The fact that Willaerts other later-published madrigals share some
features of Musica nova style more than others may well result from their being
written for a different audience and purpose.
Schiltz, Vulgari orecchie purgate orecchie; and Content and Context.
32
Chapter 5
The Compositional Legacy of Willaerts

During the mid-forties and fifties the Musica nova style, still known only through an
aural and manuscript culture, was disseminated by Willaerts students in madrigals
that modified its syntactic and expressive rigors for the purposes of print, making it
more palatable for public consumption.
Martha Feldman
In this chapter I examine the influence of Willaerts theory of interval affect in

the madrigals of Vicentino, Zarlino, and several other composers whose orbits
intersected with Willaerts. I first show that the affective importance Vicentino and
Zarlino attach to certain intervals in their theories is borne out in their compositional
practices. I then trace the influence of Willaerts affective techniques on other
members of his circle, evidenced most clearly by emulations of his protracted
65 and 56 motions in conjunction with harsh texts. The chapter concludes with
a brief discussion of the subsequent fate of the theory of interval affect in the
stylistic transition from the Renaissance to the common-practice era.
Vicentino
Most of Vicentinos compositions have been lost. His first (1546) and fifth (1572)
five-voice madrigal books and a handful of miscellaneous compositions have
survived intact, some of the latter being known only from their appearance as
examples in theoretical writings. I shall focus here primarily on the 1546 madrigal
book, because Vicentino claimed therein to have composed in the style of his
teacher. The title page reads:
Del unico Adrian Willaerth Discipulo / Don Nicola Vicentino / Madrigali a cinque
voci per theorica / et pratica da lui composti al nuovo modo / dal celeberrimo
suo maestro / ritrovata.
226

Disciple of the unique Adrian Willaert / Don Nicola Vicentino / Madrigals for
five voices through theory and practice composed by him in the new manner
discovered by his very celebrated master.
Vicentino pays similar homage to Willaert in the dedicatory letter to Lucretia

Chiericata that prefaces the collection, and refers to the rare manner of composing
(modo raro di comporre) and the true musical harmonies discovered with effort
and ingenuity by his master (veri concenti musicali con fatica et ingegno dal mio
maestro ritrovati). Vicentino scholar Henry Kaufmann speculated that the new
manner of composing Vicentino learned from Willaert:
may consist in part of the latitude with which the poetic form is treated in the
structure of the composition, which in turn, is reflected in the organization of
the music. It may also refer to the frequency of avoided cadences permitting
the thought of the text to proceed without interruption in the music. Other
new features may well be the frequent mixture of modes within the same
composition, the melodic and harmonic dissonances based on the demands of
the words, the affective use of intervals founded on the theories proposed in
the treatise, Lantica musica, the crowded entrances of the various voices and
the persistent verticalism of the texture, with its harmonic rather than polyphonic
orientation.
Kaufmanns list of shared characteristics is generally apposite, though the

consensus among scholars is that Vicentinos compositions fall well short of
Willaerts in quality. I argue here and elsewhere that, regardless of the relative
quality of the compositions in his first madrigal book, the affective use of intervals
(mentioned but not explored systematically by Kaufmann) is a substantial part
of what Vicentino meant by the theory and practice of the new manner
discovered by his teacher. Though I find that he emulates Willaerts affective
techniques, Vicentinos expressive readings often react on a more superficial level
to the words being set.

Nicola Vicentino, Madrigali a cinque voci per theorica et pratica da lui composti
al nuovo modo dal celeberrimo suo maestro ritrovato. Libro primo (Venice, 1546). Modern
edition in Henry Kaufmann, ed., Nicola Vicentino: Opera omnia, Corpus mensurabilis
musicae 26, ed. Armen Carapetyan (n.p.: American Institute of Musicology, 1963).

The dedicatory letter appears in partial quotation and translation in Einstein, The
Italian Madrigal, vol. 1, p. 412; and Kaufmann, Life and Works, pp. 523.

Kaufmann, foreword to Nicola Vicentino: Opera omnia, p. VII.

See, for example, Einstein, The Italian Madrigal, vol. 1, p. 412; Maria Rika
Maniatess introduction to Ancient Music Adapted to Modern Practice, p. xi; and Feldmans
City Culture, p. 369, n. 55.

See also McKinney, Rhetorical Functions, pp. 32022.
227
In the 1546 madrigal book Vicentino frequently uses major harmonies at

references to hardness or happiness and consistently introduces flats (B in cantus
durus and E in cantus mollis) or minor harmonies at references to sweetness,
sadness, or softness, sometimes in opposition to the sense of the passage of text as
a whole. The fifth madrigal book of 1572, on the other hand, bristles with accidental
inflections that generally create major sonorities, and embodies a harmonic style
far removed from the subtler shadings and relatively sedate pitch gamut of Musica
nova. Generally speaking, because of the prevalence of major sonorities in the
chromatic style of the 1572 book, the use of major sonorities to underscore
hard concepts would be much less apparent, while minor passages might be
more pronounced and remain important for communicating affect. In both books,
he carries the reduction in the number of harmonic sixths we noted in Musica
nova even further than did Willaert. In fact, in Vicentinos madrigal style 43
suspensions outnumber generic harmonic sixths having at least minim length, and
minor sixths far outnumber major sixths. The reduction in the number of harmonic
sixths creates a concomitant rise in their salience, especially when they appear in
concentration.
The passage in Vicentinos first madrigal book most resembling Willaerts
prolonged emphases of major sonorities in the Musica nova madrigals comes in
the concluding spiritual Capitolo de la passione di Christo, near the beginning of
the secunda pars,10 Piange inferma natura (see Example 5.1).11 Its text calls for
various entities to weep in response to Christs suffering:
Piange inferma natura
Piange lasso mondo
Piange alto ciel
Piangete venti
Piange tu cor
Se non sei duro sasso
Weep, infirm nature

weep, weary earth
weep, high heaven
weep, thou winds
weep thou, heart
if thou art not hard rock.
A somewhat exceptional case happens in mm. 767 of the seven-voice dialogue

Amor ecco, where after the typical introduction of E in cantus mollis with dolce, Vicentino
switches to chromatic melodic semitones using B and C. See also mm. 549 of Se la mia
donna miro, where soavi appears with F, C, and B in close proximity as chromatic
neighboring tones. See the discussion of accidental major sonorities for sweetness in Pike,
Hexachords, pp. 389.

See, for example, the well-known and frequently recorded Laura che il verde lauro.

See also the statistics in Nick, A Stylistic Analysis of the Music of Nicola
Vicentino, pp. 12930.
10
I retain the Latin labels used in the 1546 print for identifying the parts of segmented
works. In Example 5.1 I have made uniform the inconsistent values among the voice parts
for the final note at sasso just before the double bar in the print.
11
This passage is presented in full and discussed further in McKinney, Rhetorical
Functions, pp. 31115.
228
Example 5.1 Nicola Vicentino, Capitolo de la passione di Christo, mm. 98109
229
For the first 31 measures of the secunda pars, Vicentino avoids the harmonic
major sixth entirely in setting the anaphoristic calls for weeping. He holds the
major sixth in reserve to effect a gritty harmonic contrast at Se non sei duro
sasso (if thou art not hard rock) in mm. 98109. The major sixth first enters
in m. 100 in the resolution of the triple suspension that accentuates the arrival
of duro. More importantly for the current study, Vicentino then dwells on
positions V and IV with long-held neighboring major sixths in mm. 1013,
followed by an elongated suspended major sixth above V in m. 106. Each of these
elongated harmonic major sixths in mm. 1016 occurs in a voice pronouncing the
word duro and moving by major second. Vicentino undoubtedly learned this
particular method for representing hard concepts directly from Willaert, while
the triple suspension and subsequent 43 suspensions in mm. 100101 represent
a more generic affective convention. Willaerts setting of Ne per che con
atti acerbi, et rei in O invidia, nemica di virtute (Example 2.16, p. 81) and the
opening of Aspro core (Example 2.7, p. 64) could well have served as Vicentinos
models for the current passage.12
A more subtle representation of a hard concept with major sonorities occurs
in the secunda pars of Alma gentil. Willaerts influence again seems clear, this
time stemming from the later passage from Aspro core discussed in connection
with Example 2.12 (p. 74): Non s duro cor; che lagrimando, Pregando, amando
talhor non si smova (There is no heart so hard that weeping, praying, loving
cannot move it). The respective lines in Luigi Cassolas poem, as set by Vicentino,
read se a preghi human si move un cor di pietra (if by human prayers one moves
a heart of stone). As seen in Example 5.2, the soft concept of entreaty is set with
E while the heart of stone is represented by more than three measures of major
sonorities, with a particularly telling signed B duro in m. 41, which creates a major
sonority above G. This passage shows Vicentino thinking of the major quality
in general as being appropriate for hard concepts, and not just the harmonic
major sixth that he singled out in his treatise. While the B duro in m. 41 operates
similarly to a solmization pun by associating a music theoretical term with specific
words or concepts in the text (hard B suits the hardness of stone),13 Vicentinos
12
See also Vicentinos use of 56 motions featuring major sixths in order to invoke
harshness in the opening of his textless exemplar of the diatonic genus in Lantica musica,
as discussed in McKinney, Point/Counterpoint, pp. 3969.
13
While Vicentino speaks disparagingly in his treatise of composers who select
melodic pitches so that the vowels of their associated solmization syllables match the vowel
sounds of the words being set (4.29, 86r [271]), he was not above using solfge puns in
the first madrigal book of 1546. See, for example, the setting of mi fa predominantly
with ascending half-steps on EF and BC (natural and hard hexachords, respectively)
in mm. 469 of Quandol desir, and the setting of sola predominantly with ascending
whole-steps on GA and CD (natural and soft hexachords, respectively) in mm. 4956
of Fin che mamasta mai arsi. Zarlino does the same when setting sola in mm. 615 of
his Donna che quasi cigno. Both of these practices are discussed more generally in Pike,
230
Example 5.2 Vicentino, Alma gentil, mm. 3542
231
musical rendering of the hardness of the heart of stone depends more on harmonic
quality than the symbolic accidental. Most of the major sonorities at pietra are
built on C and F, and the accidental appears only once.14
In the first madrigal book Vicentino associates minor harmonic quality and
slow motion with sadness, and major harmonic quality and fast motion with
happiness, just as he suggested in the passages from Lantica musica ridotta alla
moderna prattica cited in Chapter 2. The most vivid instance occurs in the passage
of Fin che mamasta mai arsi shown in Example 5.3, where the words begin with
sorrowful imagery, veer toward happiness, then return to sorrow: carco fui di dolor
se ti dolesti / io lieto fui se mai di me godesti / se tu piangestet io piangendandai
(I was laden with sorrow if you suffered / I was joyful if ever you were pleased
with me / if you wept then I went weeping). The initial carco overlaps with the
setting of the preceding line, in which several generic sixths are introduced to
reflect the protagonists longing (io te bramai). Following the arrival of dolor
in m. 18, the harmony turns decidedly minor, the major sixths disappear, and eight
minor sixths ensue in the setting of the remainder of the line. Notice the use of B
in opposition to its symbolic meaning in order to obtain melodic semitones and to
avoid mi contra fa in the harmony in m. 23.
The initial io lieto overlaps with the minor sonorities setting dolesti, yet
rhythmic motion accelerates instantly in voices intoning lieto and soon ushers
in predominantly major harmony that continues through the end of the line in
m. 33. In the repetition of the line, Vicentino uses rapid syncopation to capture the
protagonists excitement. While some minor sonorities appear in the setting of this
line, the complete absence of minor sixths here, following on the heels of their
concentrated use in the previous line, goes far beyond coincidence. The minor
sixths and longer note values return in the setting of the third line in mm. 3342
as the harmony again shades more toward the minor side. The bulk of the major
sonorities in these latter measures derive from the appearance of E in the lowestsounding voice, a symbol intended both to represent weeping in and of itself and
to generate accidental melodic semitones and harmonic minor thirds above C in
order to create expressive distance from the preceding line.
Hexachords. In a related vein, Vicentino creates a musical pun in the madrigal Mentre chio
guardo fiso by setting cosil maggior mio danno with almost entirely major sonorities in
its first appearance in mm. 3840, though he reverts to the usual mixture of major and minor
sonorities in the repetition of the text. Willaert similarly sets maggior with exclusively
major sonorities in mm. 1820 of Ingrata la mia donna; see Helga Meiers edition, p. 117.
He also introduces ascending and descending leaps by the appropriate interval in at least
some voices with the words quarto and quinto in mm. 667 and 8691 of Questanima
gentil from Musica nova.
14
The symbolic use of accidentals, however, clearly was important to Vicentino in the
first madrigal book, as mentioned in connection with added flats above.
232
Example 5.3 Vicentino, Fin che mamasta mai arsi, mm. 1642
233
continued
234
235
Vicentinos use of the minor sixth in this example provides especially

compelling proof of an affective dichotomy that separates the minor harmonic
consonances into one camp and the major ones into another, and confirms that the
affective theory of harmonic intervals he would later publish in Lantica musica
ridotta alla modern prattica was not merely a speculative taxonomic exercise, but
a description of an actual pre-existent compositional practice in which he himself
engaged.
A passage coupling light and dark imagery with major and minor sonorities
occurs in the tertia pars of the Capitolo de la passione di Christo (see Example
5.4). The text reads che col suo morir vinse la morte quel vero sol chen viva
luce apparse (when with his death he conquered death, that true sun that in living
light appeared). The minor sonorities representing death and darkness at suo
morir succumb briefly to the stronger major sonority with vinse (conquered)
before returning in conjunction with the dark E at la morte (which creates a
major sonority when placed in the bass). Any doubt that Vicentino intentionally
manipulated harmonic quality in this passage should be dispelled by the radical
shift to brighter harmonies at the declaration that Christ is the true sun: Christs
victorious return from death in living light is set with purely major sonority
lasting the equivalent of 20 consecutive minims. In this passage we see not
only Vicentino the madrigalist responding to the variegated imagery of the text,
but also Vicentino the priest proclaiming the Gospel. Given the rich context
of Vicentinos theoretical writings and his studies with Willaert, it seems clear
that his use of harmony in this passage had both general rhetorical and specific
affective intent.
Vicentino also introduces contrasts of major and minor sonorities to underscore
more general notions of change referenced in the text. A very clear example comes
from the close of Fiamma gentil (see Example 5.5).15 Here the text reads o pieta
vera che cangi cori et fai dolce il tormento (o true pity that changes hearts
and makes sweet the torment). Vicentino sets o pieta vera entirely with major
sonorities in its first appearance (mm. 7781), which is particularly interesting
because pieta normally is treated as a soft concept in Willaerts circle. What
Vicentino wishes to emphasize through harmonic quality in this passage is the
change that pity causes in the heart, first suggested in the change from major to
minor as the second tenor and bass intone cori, yet happening in earnest with
the 11 consecutive minims of exclusively minor sonorities beginning at dolce
il tormento in mm. 836. Just as importantly, most of the major sonorities in
mm. 7982 participate in a circle-of-fifths succession (ADGCFB of the
type used by Willaert in response to similar textual imagery in Laura mia sacra,
I vidi in terra angelici costumi, and Mentre chel cor (Examples 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3).
Unlike Willaert, Vicentino breaks the fifth cycle before reaching E, saving this
pitch for use with dolce in the following measure.
Fiamma gentil is discussed in Kaufmann, Life and Works, pp. 548.
15
236
Example 5.4
Vicentino, Capitolo de la passione di Christo, mm. 20620
237
The significance of this passage rests on the manner in which Vicentino

has manipulated harmonic quality and his motivation for doing so. The major
qualities in m. 78 through the beginning of m. 82 function more to set up the
coming contrast (and makes sweet the torment) and less to reflect the literal
meaning of the words with which they appear (o true pity that changes hearts);
this latter function is carried out more by their organization into a fifth cycle, with
the progression through the cycle embodying the change that takes place in the
heart. The almost exclusive use of major sonorities in mm. 7882 casts the change
to minor sonorities at et fai dolce il tormento in mm. 835 in bold relief. As
we have seen in numerous cantus mollis examples, the shift from major to minor
sonorities in Example 5.5 goes hand-in-hand with a shift in pitch center from F
toward G or D. In the repetition of the final line of text in mm. 8593, one may also
observe interaction between affective and structural concerns: in order to cadence
on F (the overall pitch center of the madrigal) and to establish a sense of stability
to make the ending sufficiently conclusive in sound, the musical contrasts just
described are less clearly delineated and the fifth cycle of major sonorities does
not appear.
238
Example 5.5 Vicentino, Fiamma gentil, mm. 7793
239
concluded
240
In several striking instances the happy/majorsad/minor dichotomy that

characterizes Vicentinos theoretical discussion of interval affect plays out in a very
broad sense in the first madrigal book, as seen in the correspondence between the
emotional content of a text and the overall ratio of major to minor sonorities. The
highest ratio of major to minor sonorities measured by duration is 67/33 in Amor io son
si lieto and Fiamma gentil, both set in the F cantus mollis tonal type. The lowest ratio
of major to minor sonorities measured by duration is 47/53 in Si grand la piet, the
pitch center of which is less stable, oscillating between D, G, and A in cantus mollis.
A comparison of the contrasting poetic affections of Amor io son si lieto and Si
grand la piet is instructive. Amor io son si lieto focuses on loves pleasures and
maintains a happy affection throughout:
Amor io son si lieto
Quando stretto mi trovo in mille nodi
Negli amorosi nodi
Chaltro cor non fu mai del mio pi
quieto
O cor felice mio hor vive godi
In tanta libert non servitute
Et per nostra salute
Io pregol ciel che mai pi non ti snodi
O pregion dolce o che dolcezza nova
Sin le catene libert si trova.
Love, I am glad
when I find myself tight in a thousand knots;
in the amorous knots
no other heart ever was more quiet than
mine.
O my happy heart, you now live and delight
in so much liberty, not servitude;
and for our salvation
I pray heaven that you never again unknot.
O sweet prize, o novel sweetness that
in the chains one finds liberty.
Because of the relatively uniform affection of the text, Vicentino eschews strong
harmonic contrasts in this madrigal. The only significant turn toward soft
concepts in the words occurs at dolce and dolcezza in the penultimate line,
where Vicentino dutifully introduces E but little swing toward minor sonorities.
Si grand la piet, on the other hand, focuses more on the pains of love:
Si grand la piet cho di me stesso
Per il gran duol chio sento
Che la mia doglia spesso
Accresce la piet pi chel tormento.
Hor vedi amor in qual pena mhai
messo
Et quantl duol chio provo
Quando piet ne la piet non trovo.
So great is the pity that I have for myself

for the great grief that I feel
that my pain often
increases pity more than torment.
Now see Love in what agony you have
put me
and how much is the grief that I experience
when pity of pity I do not find.
Vicentino chooses a tonal type allowing greater emphasis of minor sonorities and
maintains a fairly even musical affection throughout. There are no dramatic contrasts
of major and minor sonorities. Vicentino creates contrast instead through shifts in
centric focus and particularly by the use of dissonance and unstable sonorities.
The harmony of the opening 28 measures consistently shades toward the minor
241
side, while affective words and phrases such as gran duol chio sento, doglia,
and tormento call forth frequent and concentrated suspensions and harmonic
sixths, and a passing diminished fifth in m. 18.16 Piet calls forth the usual E,
and accresce the expected ascending runs (with one descending), yet overall the
setting is much more grave than Amor io son si lieto. Thus, while neither madrigal
features salient affective contrasts in harmonic quality, between them they form
such a dichotomy on a large scale in a manner similar to Willaerts Cantai: hor
piango and I piansi, hor canto (though not inherently paired as are the latter). I do
not suggest by pointing out such dichotomies that one may find a consistent and
unfailing relationship between mode and basic textual affection in Willaerts circle,
but only that, given the context of the affective theories presented by Zarlino and
Vicentino and the affective practices I have documented in this study, in some cases
a given tonal type was chosen predicated on its ability to accommodate a prevailing
affection or to serve as a foil for certain dramatic moments in the text.
While Vicentinos style changed radically in many respects between the 1546
and 1572 madrigal books, a few passages exist in the latter book that retain marked
traces of the theory of interval affect as devised and deployed by Willaert in
Musica nova some three decades earlier. The poem Occhi lucenti e belli by poet
Veronica Gambara contains Petrarchan oppositions inviting affective contrasts in
Willaerts manner:
Occhi lucenti e belli
Comesser puo chin un medesminstante
Nascan da voi si nove forme tante,
Eyes bright and beautiful,

how can it be that in the very same instant
you bear such new and many forms?
Lieti, mesti, superbi, humili, altieri

Vi monstratin un punto,
Onde di speme di timor mempiete,
Joyful, sad, proud, humble, haughty

you manifest in a moment,
whence with hope and fear you fill me.
16
Similar relatively concentrated affective uses of dissonance and unstable harmonic
sixths with notions of distress, agitation, or cruelty occur at un torbido pensiero che
pensar mi fa cose da far morir quel chio penso vero in Quandol desir; at io te bramai
carco fui di dolor se ti dolesti and (perhaps most tellingly of all) instabile soggetto in
Fin che mamasta mai arsi (for the former passage, see the example and commentary in
McKinney, Rhetorical Functions, pp. 30811); at che penar mi fanno in Da quei begli
occhi; at minor male in Madonna che per voi semprardo; at la crudelta, il dolor mio,
la vostra crudel voglia, tanta mia doglia, and vostra durezzasconde i dolor mei in
Deh cosi potessio; and at in terra langue, tanti tormenti, and loscure horrende porte
in Capitolo de la passione di Christo. In the fifth madrigal book, an exceptionally clear
instance occurs in the homorhythmic setting of dure spine with three sixths in both of
its appearances in the famous Laura che il verde lauro. As noted throughout this study,
however, devices used for affective intent on some occasions may occur for purely musical
reasons at other times.
242
E tanti effetti dolci, acerbi e fieri,

Nel cor arso per voi vengoninsieme,
Ad ognhor che volete.
And so many effects sweet, harsh and wild

into this heart burned by you enter all at once
at any hour that you desire.
Hor poi che voi mia vita e morte sete

Occhi felici, occhi beati e cari,
Siate sempre sereni, allegri, e
chiari.
Now because you are my life and death,

happy eyes, eyes beautiful and dear,
may you be always serene, cheerful, and
clear.
Vicentino responds to many of these oppositions in his setting, perhaps most

tellingly at effetti dolci, acerbi e fieri. In the portion of this passage seen in
Example 5.6, Vicentino first uses accidental melodic semitones with the word
dolci in conjunction with 43 suspensions and major sonorities in mm. 4042.
He next falls back on the Willaertian technique of antipodal deployment of major
and minor sixths: minor sixths and melodic semitones occur with dolci in
mm. 434, while more vigorous major sixths and melodic major seconds occur
in mm. 45 and 47 in voice parts intoning the word acerbi. A brief minor sixth
follows when the alto leaps an ascending octave from its position beneath the
quintus just as the bass and tenor drop out, yet it seems incidental and secondary;
Vicentino has already made his point with the preceding major sixths.17
Zarlino
Zarlino is much better known to posterity as a theorist than as a composer. Beyond
the concise overview that appears in Roman Flurys inaugural dissertation of 1962
and isolated studies of text underlay or mode, little has been written about Zarlinos
music other than brief statements of opinion about his compositional prowess.18
Cristle Collins Judds recent work that has shed light on Zarlinos motets and
their relationship to his theories provides a notable and welcome exception.19
17
The 1572 print has an A where the G appears on the last beat of m. 48 in Example
5.6. Though A would form a further major sixth above the bass, it is a typographical error
and should be either G or C.
18
Roman Flury, Gioseffo Zarlino als Komponist (Winterthur: Keller, 1962); see
pp. 16 for opinions on Zarlinos skill as a composer. See Judd, Reading Renaissance Music
Theory, p. 206, n. 50, for other studies.
19
See her book Reading Renaissance Music Theory; her article A Newly Recovered
Eight-Mode Motet Cycle from the 1540s: Zarlinos Song of Songs Motets in AnneEmmanuelle Ceulemans and Bonnie J. Blackburn (eds), Thorie et analyse musicales:
14501650 (Louvain-la-Neuve: Universit Catholique de Louvain, 2001), pp. 22970;
and particularly her editions Gioseffo Zarlino: Motets from 1549, Part 1 (Middleton,
Wisconsin: AR Editions, 2006) and Part 2 (2007), the first of which has been recorded
with selections from the second by Ensemble Plus Ultra under the direction of Michael
Example 5.6 Vicentino, Occhi lucenti e belli, mm. 4048
243
244
Zarlinos corpus of surviving works is not large; other than examples composed for
didactic purposes, most are motets. The 13 extant madrigals appeared individually
or in small groups in anthologies over a span of 22 years and, as a group, do
not form a collection in the same way as do those of Willaerts Musica nova or
Vicentinos first madrigal book.20
Flury discovered no significant association of major or minor sonorities with
particular textual imagery in Zarlino compositions:
Obwohl sich Zarlino der verschiedenen Ausdrucksbedeutung des Dur- und
Molldreiklanges theoretisch bewusst war, ist in seinen Motetten kein durch
den Text verursachtes deutliches berwiegen von Dur- oder Mollcharakter
festzustellen. Hinsichtlich der Marienmotetten oder der Gesnge aus dem
Hohen Lied, denen man gerne Durcharakter zuschreiben mchte, wird man in
der Erwartung getuscht, immer ist Zarlinos kirchentonartliche Denkweise
noch dominierend. Der ausgeprgte Durcharakter einiger Madrigale (1562[5]
Nr. 1, 2 und 4) steht sogar im Widerspruch zum vorwiegend elegischen Gehalt
der Texte.
Although Zarlino was theoretically conscious of the different expressive
meaning of the major and minor triads, no clear preponderance of major or
minor character, caused by the text, is to be found in his motets. Regarding the
Marian or the Song of Songs motets, to which one readily would like to attribute
major character, one is deceived in expectation, Zarlinos way of thinking
always is still dominated by the church modes. The pronounced major character
of some madrigals (1562[5] nos. 1, 2, and 4) even stands in opposition to the
predominantly elegiac content of their texts.21
I find, however, that Zarlinos madrigals participate, along with those of Willaert and
Vicentino, in a network of affective conventions utilizing interval quality and certain
voice-leading patterns. In several madrigals, primarily found among those published
together in RISM 15625, he emphasizes major sonorities at textual references to
Noone due to her efforts (Gioseffo Zarlino: Canticum Canticorum Salomonis & Selected
Motets [Glossa GCD 921406, 2007]).
20
Only the canto now survives for the three madrigals appearing in RISM 156716,
though one of these, Come si maccendete, was printed in four parts in the nineteenthcentury anthology Musica antiqua: A Selection of Music of This and Other Countries from
the Commencement of the Twelfth to the Beginning of the Eighteenth Century, ed. John
Stafford Smith (London: Preston, 1812), pp. 1223. Nine of Zarlinos madrigals appear in
modern edition in Joseffo Zarlino: Nove madrigali a cinque voci tratti da varie raccolte,
edited by Siro Cisilino (Venice: Istituto per la collaborazione culturale, 1963), and a modern
edition of a tenth (Si chove prim) is appended to Flury, Gioseffo Zarlino als Komponist.
21
Flury, Gioseffo Zarlino, pp. 423.
245
harshness, cruelty, and hardness.22 An excellent illustration of this occurs near the
beginning of the seconda parte of Amor mentre dormia (Example 5.7), where
sustained major 65 motions like those of Willaerts Aspro core (Example 2.7) and
Zarlinos harsh exemplar in his treatise (Example 2.1) occur at the word amara
(bitter). Zarlino begins the seconda parte with a circle-of-fifths succession of
major sonorities like those occurring in the same position in Willaerts Laura mia
sacra and I vidi in terra angelici costumi (see Chapter 3 above), and with similar
expressive intent: to reflect the concept of motion or change, here the soul passing
to the other life (Cos passando dunallaltra vita). Zarlino begins his cycle on A,
as does Willaert, yet carries it only as far as F. Particularly interesting is the fact that
the breaking of the cycle and the arrival of the first minor sonority coincide with
the arrival of altra vita (other life). This manner of first using the circle of fifths to
represent progression and then breaking it at a critical moment in the text is another
convention Zarlino probably learned from Willaert.23
A subtle mixture of major and minor sonorities accompanies the bipolar imagery
of the next line: spinse lalma la pioggia per glocchi lassi amara et infinita. The
soft imagery of tearful weeping is subsequently recast as being bitter and infinite,
thus transforming into a hard image. While major and minor sonorities intermingle
throughout the setting of this line, several significant affective markers occur. As in
the works of Willaert and Vicentino examined earlier in this study, the presence of
concentrated or prolonged harmonic sixths provides a good indicator of affective
intent. No major sixths of at least minim duration occur in the seconda parte before
the Phrygian motion to E (quinto and bass) in mm. 589a motion, as we have
seen, often employed as an affective convention for sadnessyet minor sixths begin
to appear in m. 52 with the entry of the second line of text and its mournful affection.
I dolci et harmoniosi concenti fatti da diversi eccellentissimi musici sopra varii

soggetti. A cinque voci. Libro primo (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1562). The five Zarlino
madrigals in this collection include Amor mentre dormia, Spentera gi lardor, questol
legno, I vo piangendo, and Cantin con dolce gratiosi accenti. Pronounced expressive
harmonic effects are found in the first four, while the latter is written to an encomiastic
text offering less opportunity for expressive contrast. For RISM citations, see Lesure under
Secondary Sources in the Select Bibliography.
23
As we saw in Willaerts case, brief successions of fifth-related major sonorities are
not unusual in Zarlinos madrigals in general, yet, when launched from sonorities made
major through accidental inflections, they often serve to enrich his interpretation of the
text. See the discussion of the use of such cycles at references to God in I vo piangendo;
the succession EADGC at a reference to the immortality desired for poet Annibale
Caro (visse fin che poteo farsimmortale) in Zarlinos setting of the panegyric Mentre del
mio buon Caro that appeared in the collection Corona della morte dellillustre Signore, il
Sig. Comendator Anibal Caro (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1568); and the cantus mollis
succession ADGCa6B at a reference to tasting paradise (parmi gustar il ben del
paradiso) in his forse il mio ben. Each of these occurs in a context describing things that
transcend mundane human existence, much as in Willaerts setting of I vidi in terra.
22
246
Example 5.7 Gioseffo Zarlino, Amor mentre dormia, mm. 4671
247
continued
248
249
Particularly significant is the neighboring minor sixth above position vi in m. 61,

which slows the harmonic rhythm and prolongs a minor sonority in preparation for
the introduction of bitterness that follows. The change to major sonorities precedes
the entry of amara by a measure, though, with minim-length major sixths
appearing in m. 62 over positions V and I. These may be intended as affective
anticipations of the coming bitterness, or they might stem from a generic use of
sixths to represent weeping. The prolonged major sixths that accompany amara
in mm. 64, 66, and 68 engender no such doubt about affective rationale. They are
of semibreve length, they are suspended, they are used to prolong major sonorities,
they resolve by major second, and they involve voices actually intoning amara
(though this occurs in the bass rather than upper voice in m. 64).
Of greatest significance for the current study is the appearance in mm. 667
of the V65 IV65 voice-leading sequence that formed the nucleus of the famous
representation of harshness that opens Willaerts Aspro core, which no doubt served
as Zarlinos model (sharing also a motivic contour that features descending stepwise
motion and a reduction in texture to three voices). Zarlino goes two steps beyond
the model in using harmonic intervals to depict harshness: he suspends a perfect
fourth along with the major sixth above V, and an augmented fourth with the major
sixth over IV. Because of this staggered voice-leading, the implicit false relation
responsible in large part for the dura, aspra, & quasi inconsonante effect Zarlino
found in the succession of parallel major thirds moving by whole-step becomes
a vertical reality, as we noted in connection with Example 4.8.24 It is interesting
also that the suspended tritone and major sixth in m. 67 are of normal length for
suspensions rather than the protracted length of the other major sixths in this passage.
This fact recalls Zarlinos famous dictum that when the word denotes harshness,
hardness, cruelty, bitterness, and other things of this sort, the harmony will be similar
to these qualities, namely, somewhat hard and harsh, but not to the degree that it
would offend.25 The needs of expressive writing in accordance with the words led
Zarlino to introduce the augmented fourth, yet stylistic decorum in this instance may
have led him not to stretch the time span allotted to this unusually harsh dissonance
beyond that normally given to suspensions (as he did for the prolonged suspension
of a perfect fourth in the previous measure) in order not to offend.
Similar uses of affective intervals occur in the spiritual madrigal questol
legno, also printed in 15625. These include mixed major and minor sixths to depict
a wild and rigid serpent (alpestre rigidangue), a decided swerve toward minor
24
Zarlino, 3.29, p. 177 (62). As noted in Chapter 2, the unpleasant effect Zarlino (and
Willaert before him) finds in successive major thirds moving by whole-step results from the
false relation occurring between the extreme notes of the succession. See my forthcoming
A Rule Made to be Broken for an examination of the justifications he provides for
discouraging parallel imperfect consonances in general. Zarlino also uses the augmented
fourth as a suspension, in a similar voice-leading context, with the word inganni (deceits)
in mm. 712 of Donna che quasi cigno.
25
Zarlino, 4.32, p. 339 (95); as quoted in Chapter 2, pp. 423.
250
sonorities and melodic semitones at the concept of languishing (in terra langue),
and exclusively major sonorities and major sixths with the words accerb e
dura. Zarlinos questol legno bears an interesting relationship to the spiritual
madrigal attributed to Willaert, Pianget egri mortali (discussed in Chapter 4),
because they conclude with essentially the same text (forming most of the terza
parte of Zarlinos setting):
Willaert, Pianget egri mortali, ending
Zarlino, questol legno, terza parte
O raro nuova legge,

Humiliarsa mortaccerbe dura
Quel chel ciel e la terrel mar corregge;
Piangi mondorbo, piangegra natura,
Mortl pastor per liberar lo gregge,
Comagnel mansueto alla tonsura.
O piet grande,
O rare nova legge,
Humiliarsa morte, accerbe dura,
Quel chel ciel, e la terra, el mar corregge,
Piangil mondorbo, piangegra natura,
Mortl pastor, per liberarel gregge,
Comagnel mansueto, alla tonsura,
These spiritual madrigals, published a year apart (with Zarlinos appearing first),
thus may provide a rare opportunity to compare Willaerts and Zarlinos affective
responses to the same words. The respective settings of accerbe dura are
particularly instructive. As shown in Example 5.8, the first syllable of Zarlinos
setting enters on the fourth minim of m. 107 and merges with the predominantly
minor sound that characterizes the terza parte to this point (including the Phrygianlike falling semitones in the bass in mm. 105 and 1067), in response to the textual
keywords piet, humiliars and morte. Things change radically in the next
measure, as Zarlino slows the harmonic rhythm and launches a string of major
sonorities featuring prolonged major sixths over positions VII and IV.
Flury mentions that the fauxbourdon-like voice-leading in this passage might
be intended by Zarlino as a symbolic contrast to the texture of the remainder of the
work.26 As noted in the first chapter of this study, such symbolic uses of parallel
six-three sonorities form a separate and more ancient affective tradition. There are,
however, similarities between Zarlinos setting and Piangetegri mortali (Example
4.8, mm. 6772) that underscore the importance of major sonorities and major
sixths to the representation of the harsh affection of the words. Both composers
introduce E at precisely the same moment and place a major sixth over it. The
composer of Pianget egri mortali chose to set the line Humiliarsia mortaccerbe
dura as a single affective unit characterized by major sonorities and neighboring
major sixths over a long-held position V, followed by a subsequent drop to IV as
accerb arrives. Zarlino, on the other hand, isolates accerbe dura for special
affective treatment, and places prolonged major sixths over positions VII and IV
in the composite bass. It is particularly interesting that the descending melodic
motive in m. 71 of Pianget egri mortali so closely resembles the descending
26
Flury, p. 45.
251
parallel six-three sonorities in mm. 10910 of Zarlinos setting, yet the emphasis
on major sonorities, and particularly the harmonic major sixth, shared by these
passages represents their most salient and significant feature.
Example 5.8 Zarlino, questol legno, mm. 10710
A more likely model for Zarlinos use of parallel motion at dura is Willaerts
similar treatment of duro in Giunto mha Amor from Musica nova, seen in mm.
934 of Example 2.14 (p. 79). The melodic contours and pitch-classes over a
sustained B are identical, and the rhythm nearly so (keeping in mind that Willaerts
is a black-note madrigal, thus its note values must be doubled in comparison).
Willaerts parallel motion involves six-four sonorities over the sustained bass,
which might be judged a bit harsher than Zarlinos parallel six-three sonorities and
would not be allowed by the rules of polite counterpoint without the sustained bass
note. In his counterpoint treatise Zarlino condemns parallel six-three sonorities
because of their inherent parallel fourths and occasional false relations:
Usano alcuni di porre la parte acuta con la mezana distante per una Quarta; &
questa con la grave per una Terza; di maniera chel Basso viene ad esser lontano
dal Soprano per una Sesta, tramezata dalla Terza, o maggiore, o minore. Onde
essendo le parti composte in tal maniera, sogliono farle ascendere, o discendere
insieme pi gradi; & tal modo di procedere chiamano Falso bordone. Ma in
verit, ancora che tal maniera sia molto in uso, et che con difficult grande
si potesse levare; dico, che non lodevole: Imperoche, oltra che la Quarta
consonanza perfetta; come altrove h mostrato; & che non dovemo far contra la
Regola data nel Capitolo 29; genera alle volte tra le parti alcune relationi, che
non sono harmoniche: La onde poco diletto apportano all udito
252
Some write the upper voice a fourth from the middle voice, with the bass a third
below, so that the bass and soprano are separated by a sixth, which is divided by
a major or minor third. Then they have the parts ascend or descend together for
several steps in a manner they call falso bordone. Although this way of writing is
much used, and it would be very difficult to stamp it out, I must say that it does
not deserve praise. For the fourth is a perfect consonance, as I have shown, and
we must not disobey the rule given in Chapter 29 [forbidding parallel motion
in consonances of the same type and quality]. Moreover, certain nonharmonic
relations occur occasionally between the parts in such progressions. These
bring no pleasure to the ear.27
Considering this passage from Zarlinos treatise in relationship to his setting of

dura in Example 5.8 suggests that he might not wish to stamp out fauxbourdon
or fauxbourdon-like passages entirely, but to reserve them for textual situations
for which their aural characteristics might be considered appropriate; i.e., for
making the harmony somewhat hard and harsh, but not to the degree that it
would offend. Though this is not true fauxbourdon because of the sustained
bass note, Zarlino nonetheless intends the parallel motion and the cross and
simultaneous false relations it engenders (formed between the passing E in the
alto and the B in soprano, tenor, quinto, and bass) to enunciate the harshness
of the text.28
As did Willaert and Vicentino, Zarlino responded to words whose hard
meanings are more connotative than denotative. His first-published madrigal,
Lauro gentile (RISM 15489), on a text by Bartolomeo Ferrino, contains just such
an instance.29 In setting the line Ne perchio fossal suon conversin pietra
Zarlino quadruples the prevailing harmonic rhythm, petrifying it, as it were,
in order to sustain the major sonority on F accompanying pietra (stone) in
mm. 345 (Example 5.9). As with other cantus mollis works we have discussed,
this brief emphasis of major sonorities coincides with a local swerve in tonal
orientation to F.30
27
Zarlino 3.61, p. 247 (1945).

In contrast, Zarlino uses expressive neighboring minor sixths in the opening of
the madrigal to set a plangent tone for This is the wood upon which the sacred blood was
dispersed, and later in setting the line e scolorosel santo visadorno (and drained of
color the holy face adorned) in mm. 6774. See also the further discussion of fauxbourdon
later in this chapter.
29
Zarlinos madrigal appears in Di Cipriano Rore et di altri eccellentissimi musici il
terzo libro di madrigali a cinque voce (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1548). Ferrinos poem
may be seen in Rime diverse di molti eccellentiss. auttori nuovamente raccolte. Libro primo
(Venice: Gabriel Giolito di Ferrarii, 1545), p. 37.
30
Lauro gentile begins with a D cantus mollis melodic procedure and loosely imitative
entries on D and A, but concludes in G.
28
253
Example 5.9 Zarlino, Lauro gentile, mm. 326
A more protracted emphasis of major sonorities with a text connoting hardness

occurs in Spentera gi lardor (RISM 15625) at the line lantico, freddo, adamantino
ghiaccio (the ancient, frigid, adamantine ice).31 Because this text concludes the
prima parte of Zarlinos C cantus durus setting, the long major sonorities associated
with the half-cadence on G in mm. 3032 cannot be taken as strictly expressive in
and of themselves, but several other markers point toward an intentional emphasis
of major sonorities in this passage (Example 5.10). First is the protracted major sixth
used as a neighbor tone in the alto in m. 24 (briefly doubled by the tenor). The alto
is at this point finishing the previous line of text, and its neighboring figure neatly
stitches together the sense of the two lines: the returning neighbor tone makes a
fitting melodic representation of ritorno, while the major quality prolonged by
the neighbor introduces antico, the first of three adjectives modifying ghiaccio
(ice). A second affective marker is the elongated 76 suspension in the following
measure. This is perhaps a second double entendre: the Phrygian motion, with its
elongated note values, might be meant to evoke the concept of antiquity, while the
suspension and following major sixth continue to reflect the hardness of the ice
being described (though not yet named explicitly). The Phrygian motion leads to
position iii in the bass and a measure of minor sonority, and its potential cadential
effect is undermined by a minor sixth in the canto.
31
The poem appears in the same collection as Ferrinos Lauro gentile cited above,
where it is attributed to Pietro Barignano. It is attributed to Niccol Tiepolo or Nicol
Amanio in other sources.
254
Example 5.10 Zarlino, Spentera gi lardor, mm. 2332
255
The next affective marker happens in the following measure at the double
suspension above position II/ii, which introduces another major sixth. Although
the remainder of this measure settles into a minor sonority on D, in this bar and
the next the canto and alto dwell on the false relation (here between F and B)
inherent in parallel major thirds moving by whole-step that I have argued Zarlino
meant to reflect harshness in the setting of dura in questol legno (though not
involving the composite bass voice in either example).32 The minor sonority in
m. 29 results from the bass landing on E as it loosely imitates the quinto at the lower
fifth, having moved through a passing tritone at the end of m. 28. The remainder
of the passage is entirely major, which, as mentioned above, is not particularly
noteworthy in and of itself, given that these measures contain the medial cadence
and do not depart from modal norms. Once again, the presence of prolonged major
sixths with a textual phrase connoting a hard concept provides the best evidence
of affective intent.
Not all of Zarlinos madrigals show the same degree of reliance upon affective
distinctions based upon harmonic quality, though the avoidance of parallel major
thirds moving by whole-step and involving the bass tends to be fairly consistent
unless such thirds are warranted by the words being set. At times, he employs
affective harmony in ways that seem contrary to the superficial meaning of
individual affective keywords and perhaps of the passage as a whole. In Mentre del
mio buon Caro, he introduces parallel major thirds and fauxbourdon-like motion
at e dognaffettuman lanima spoglio, thus expressing the emotions that the
words say are suppressed. He uses the same devices later at grato giorir in the
phrase N di lui privalcun de pianger quanto grato giorir, thus undermining joy
with an affective convention for weeping. At other times, he might skip over one
affective keyword to respond to another concept. Such cases include the use of
numerous sixths, mostly major, and suspensions with the words dolce deso chal
cor parle risponde in Donna che quasi cigno, published in RISM 156623, his
sole contribution to the collection.33 Here Zarlino focuses more on the concept of
desire, and paints it with unsettled harmonies rather than employing conventions
for dolce. In forse il mio ben, he similarly undermines dolce by setting the sense
of the passage as a whole: chi ti scaccia dolce mio bene (you who drives away
32
This suggestion must be tempered by the fact that occasional multiple parallel moves
in thirds or sixths are not uncommon in Zarlinos madrigals, though normally involving
semiminims. In the present passage, the semiminims only embellish an elongated motion
from a GB dyad to one on FA, then returning to GB. Zarlino also may have intended
the parallel motion as a nod toward antico. Although this passage does not represent
fauxbourdon per se, but only parallel thirds above a slower moving bass, it could still be
relevant to the frequent use of fauxbourdon by sixteenth-century composers to evoke the
concept of antiquity. See Bernhard Meier, The Modes, pp. 2467.
33
Di Hettor Vidue et dAlessandro Striggio e daltri eccellentissimi musici,
madrigali a V. & VI. voci di novo posti in luce da Giulio Bonagionta de San Genesi musico
dellIllustrissima Signoria di Venetia, in San Marco (Venice, 1566).
256
my sweet good).34 Numerous sixths and several suspended dissonances serve to

drive sweetness away.
On the other hand, Zarlino also manipulates harmonic and modal quality on
a global level, in a manner similar to Willaerts in I vidi in terra, in his setting of
Petrarchs I vo piangendo (also printed in RISM 15625). Given that this is the
only setting of Petrarch among Zarlinos surviving works, the sharing of affective
devices between this and the madrigals of Musica nova is particularly significant.
In his shadings of major and minor sonorities and manipulation of centric focus in
this spiritual madrigal, Zarlino presents a musical reading of the text more closely
resembling those of Willaert than any of his other surviving madrigals.35 The
sonnet, as it appears in Zarlinos madrigal, and its translation are as follows:
I vo piangendi miei passati tempi,
I quai posin amar cosa mortale,
Senza levarma volo, havendio
lale,
Per dar forse di me non bassesempi,
I go weeping for my past time

that I spent in loving a mortal thing
without raising myself to flight, though I had
wings
to offer perhaps of myself not a base example.
Tu che vedi miei malindegnet empi,

Re del ciel invisibilimmortale,
Soccorrallalma desviate frale,
El suo diffetto di tua gratiadempi.
You who sees my vile and impious evils,

King of Heaven, invisible, immortal,
give succor to the soul strayed and frail
and its defect with your grace fulfill.
S che, sio vissin guerra, et in tempesta,

Moran pace, et in porto, e se la stanza
Fu vana, almen sia la partita
honesta,
So that, though I have lived in war and in storm,

I may die in peace and in port, and if my abiding
was in vain, at least my departure may be
virtuous.
A quel poco di viver che mavanza

Et al morir degnesser tua man presta,
Tu sai ben, chin altrui non ho speranza.
To what little life that remains to me

and at my dying deign to be, lend your hand;
you know well that in others I have no hope.
The work opens with an emphasis on minor harmony appropriate both to the tonal
type (D cantus mollis) and the mood of the initial words: I vo piangendi miei
passati tempi (I go weeping for my past time). In the mode book of the Istitutioni,
Zarlino mentions I vo piangendo as an example of Mode 9, one of the new modes
added to the eight traditional church modes by Glarean and later appropriated
forse il mio ben appears as Zarlinos only contribution to I dolci et harmoniosi
concenti fatti da diversi eccellentissimi musici sopra varii soggetti. A cinque voci. Libro
secondo (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1562).
35
Claude Palisca also found the expressive nature of I vo piangendo to resemble
that of Willaerts music, though without mentioning specific compositional devices; s.v.
Zarlino, Gioseffo, New Grove.
34
257
by Zarlino. Not being able to draw upon traditional designations of modal ethos
for this mode, his discussion borrows heavily from Glarean,36 and consequently
conflates the happy/hard/bitter and sad/soft/sweet expressive categories he is
at pains to keep separate in his discussion of interval affect throughout the treatise:
One can use this mode with words containing cheerful, sweet, soft, and sonorous
subjects, because (as it is claimed) it possesses a pleasant severity, mixed with a
certain cheerfulness and sweet softness.37
Surely Zarlino the theorist cited I vo piangendo as an exemplar of Mode 9
more for its technical characteristics than for the relevance of its text to the specific
expressive qualities of Mode 9 that he lists in On the Modes. It models the proper
initial tones in its exordium, and its cadences fall on the pitches Zarlino deems
regular: the first, third, and fifth degrees, or D, F, and A in this case. Elsewhere
in the mode book, Zarlino says that when a composer begins a new composition,
he should first consider the subject matter of the words to be set and then choose
a mode suitable to the nature of these words.38 Zarlino the composer and disciple
of Willaert, therefore, may have chosen Mode 9 for setting I vo piangendo
because of its essential minor quality as described in the tenth chapter of The Art
of Counterpoint,39 and also to serve as a foil on a global level to a special harmonic
effect at a critical moment in the text, as we shall see in a moment.
36
Heinrich Glarean, Dodecachordon, (Basel, 1547; facs. edn New York: Broude
Brothers, 1967); translation by Clement Miller, Musicological Studies and Documents 6 (2
vols., n.p.: American Institute of Musicology, 1965), 2.17, p. 104; (vol. 1, p. 142). See the
discussion of this particular instance of Zarlinos borrowing in Cristle Collins Judd, Reading
Renaissance Music Theory, p. 240; and the citation of both passages in Bernhard Meier,
Heinrich Loriti Glareanus als Musiktheoretiker, Aufstze zur Freiburger Wissenschaftsund Universittsgeschichte, edited by Johannes Vincke et al. (Freiburg im Breisgau: Verlag
Eberhard Albert Universittsbuchhandlung, 1960), p. 105, n. 286.
37
Zarlino, 4.26, p. 330 (77). ( la onde se li potranno accommodar quelle parole,
che contengono materie allegre, dolci, soavi, & sonore: essendo che (come dicono) h in
s una grata severit, mescolata con una certa allegrezza, & dolce soavit oltra modo.)
Zarlino transliterates Glareans dulci suavitate and gratam severitatem even though they
fall on opposite sides of his affective dichotomy (and certainly of Bembos gravit and
piacevolezza categories as well). He then adds una certa allegrezza, thus this mode proves
very versatile, being suitable for cheerful, sonorous, sweet, or soft subjects.
38
Zarlino, 4.31, p. 337 (92).
39
Once again, I do not mean to suggest that one can generalize a relationship between
textual affection and choice of mode, but merely that in the specific context of Willaerts
circle, this was an important consideration in some instances. It clearly was not in others.
Cristle Collins Judd observes that Zarlinos Song of Songs motets proceed in modal order
rather than evincing concern for modal ethos relative to textual content; Gioseffo Zarlino:
Motets from 1549, Part 1, Motets Based on the Song of Songs, p. xi. In the Musica nova
madrigals, many of the weightier or more somber texts are set in tonal types traditionally
identified as Phrygian or Hypophrygian (E cantus durus or A cantus mollis), as may be seen
in Table 2.1 (p. 49), yet the encomiastic In qual parte del ciel also belongs to this group
258
Several affective markers in the exordium support this suggestion, particularly

the elongated neighboring minor sixth in mm. 23, which introduces a plangent
semitone in the canto, and the prolongation of minor quality above position vi,
which sustains for ten consecutive minims (see Example 5.11). It is possible for
modern ears to hear the FA dyad following the one on DA in the first measure
as belonging to a minor sonority on D as well, though this would run afoul of a
strict interpretation of the theory of interval affect as expressed in the treatises
of Vicentino and Zarlino. Whether Zarlino might have heard a change to major
sonority in the second half of the first bar, or whether the tones appearing there
would have blended with their surroundings and been heard as constituents of an
underlying minor sonority on D, we simply do not have enough information to
know for sure. Either way, the main features of the passage are the predominance
of minor harmonic sonority and the unusually lugubrious pace of the harmonic
rhythm in mm. 24 (and perhaps m. 1 as well), a pace unprecedented in the exordia
of Zarlinos surviving madrigals and those of Musica nova.
As Petrarch recalls his time spent loving Laura while she lived, Zarlino touches
off a short ascending circle-of-fifths succession at passati tempi, commencing with
major sonorities and reflecting the passage of time in the same general sense that we
have seen in fifth cycles used by Willaert and Vicentino. The unexpected insertion of
E in the following measure intrudes upon Petrarchs remembrance, renders minor the
sonority on C forming the next leg in the fifth cycle, returns to the opening plangent
sound, and symbolically moves into a different pitch-space to reflect the unbreachable
temporal distance separating current misery from a past that cannot be regained.
Parallel major thirds moving by whole-step above the bass also play an important
affective role in this madrigal, appearing only three times. The first instance appears
in m. 38 with the text soccorrallalma desviate frale (give succor to the soul
strayed and frail) (Example 5.12). Zarlino here uses both harmonic quality and
relative harmonic stability to illustrate the contrasting imagery between Gods
strength and glory in the preceding line and the frailty and sinful nature of the human
soul. The former is set with eight consecutive five-three sonorities from the final
minim of m. 30 until the precadential and cadential dissonances in m. 36.40 Most
of the sonorities in this succession are major, with those in mm. 312 being created
through accidental inflections. In stark contrast to the strong five-three sonorities at
the affirmation of Gods sovereignty in mm. 315, the plea for help for the frail soul
in mm. 3742 commences with weaker six-three sonorities and quasi-fauxbourdon
motion and continues with a greater emphasis on minor five-three sonorities.41
even though its text resembles that of Onde tolse Amor, which is set in G cantus durus, in
tone and content. See also Feldman; City Culture, pp. 33641.
40
See also the discussion of major sonorities at references to the power and glory of
God cited in reference to Vicentinos Capitolo de la passione di Christo on p. 235.
41
As Meier notes, the most frequent symbolic use of fauxbourdon in sixteenthcentury works accompanies a reference to some bad quality such as affliction, pain,
death, poverty, humility, misery, and sin in the words being set; The Modes, p. 246.
Example 5.11 Zarlino, I vo piangendo, mm. 19
259
260
261
Notice also the use of the soft E here, in contrast to the hard B and F of the
preceding line.42 False relations of the type that Zarlino mentioned in his discussion
of fauxbourdon occur in the madrigal in the parallel major thirds above I and VII
in m. 38. Here they represent weakness and sin rather than harshness, as, to use
modern terminology, Zarlino paints the textual opposition of strong and weak with
root-position and first-inversion triads, respectively.43 These concepts are reversed
in the next line (el suo diffetto di tua gratiadempi), which Zarlino first sets with
numerous sixths and suspensions, then changing to five-three sonorities at the final
statement of di tua gratiadempi (which includes the cadence of the prima parte
and thus requires stability). Parallel major thirds and their attendant false relation
return twice more in conjunction with frequent harmonic sixths at the close of the
madrigal with the text chin altrui non ho speranza (that in others I have no hope),
a phrase again evoking human weakness and asking for divine assistance. Frequent
sixths, without parallel major thirds, also crop up in the setting of e se la stanza fu
vana (and if my abiding was in vain).
42
Zarlinos use of harmonic quality, centric focus, and symbolic accidentals to contrast
the mighty and the lowly resembles Willaerts in the excerpt from Confitebor tibi Domine
given in Example 1.7, p. 39, while contrast in vocal register is much less marked.
43
Compare the similar associations from a work by Lassus in Example 1.4, p. 21.
262
A palpable affective use of harmonic quality that acts on a global level occurs
in the opening of the seconda parte, which begins in Willaertian fashion at the
first tercet of the sonnet. Zarlino dutifully responds on the musical surface to the
antitheses war/peace and storm/port contained in the poem (see Example 5.13).
The more turbulent imagery receives semiminim runs, melismas, a relatively
quicker harmonic rhythm, and the precadential and cadential dissonances in
m. 59. In contrast, pace is set syllabically and with a harmonic rhythm that
first slows in m. 61, then comes to rest on a sustained major sonority on D for
two measures with longas on D and F in bass and quinto. This is an unusual
moment. Throughout the madrigal Zarlino generally follows Willaerts practice of
dividing the text according to its syntax rather than poetic structure. Thus his heavy
harmonic emphasis of pace, which effectively divides the hemistich against its
syntactic and semantic grain before the concluding et in porto (a metaphor for
heaven receiving a cadence to F, as did the earlier King of Heaven), stands out
as a significant departure from his normal procedure in this madrigal.
While arresting rhythmic and harmonic motion at the word peace represents
a mere madrigalism on one level, the sustained D major sonority carries a much
deeper symbolic meaning when we recall Zarlinos comments on the relative
merits of the harmonic and arithmetic divisions of the fifth, and his belief in the
greater perfection of the former. When viewed in the context of the madrigal as a
whole, and in light of Zarlinos revision of the theory of modal ethos in order to
bring it in line with his theory of interval affect, the sustained major sonority on D
at pace projects still-deeper symbolism because it alters the quality of the triad
built on the modal final in a fashion similar to what Willaert did in I vidi in terra,
and because it does so in such a protracted fashion here.
Support for my contention can be found in the use of the D major sonority
elsewhere in the madrigal. Other than occurring in the brief fifth cycle that opens
the seconda parte (a device Willaert often used to launch the seconda parte in
his Musica nova madrigals), the D major five-three only appears with references
to God (Tu in m. 23 and Re del ciel in m. 31) and as the very last sonority.
Though it is common practice to conclude a work on a major sonority, given the
coupling of this sonority with references to God earlier in the madrigal, this final
appearance also serves to affirm God as Petrarchs only hope of ultimate salvation,
as indicated in the poems final line (Tu sai ben, chin altrui non ho speranza).
But it is the setting of pace with a protracted D major sonority in the middle of
the madrigal that I find most significant overall, especially given the way Zarlino
breaks the syntactic and semantic flow of the text at this point. If the D cantus
mollis tonal type that so appropriately sets the opening I go weeping is meant to
reflect globally the current emotional state of Petrarchs life as he acknowledges
his frivolous pursuit of mortal happiness, then the change of the essential quality
of the modal triad at pace, in reference to the longed-for final peace of salvation,
may be taken as Zarlinos testament to the transcendent power of divine redemption
over human existence.
263
continued
264
Some Initial Conclusions

The foregoing examination of the extant madrigals of Vicentino and Zarlino has
shown that these repertoires share certain affective conventions with Willaerts
Musica nova madrigals and instantiate, in varying degrees, certain aspects of the
affective theory of intervals the theorists presented in their respective treatises.
The most obvious of these include the use of elongated major sonorities, often
in conjunction with prolonging 56, 65, or 565 contrapuntal motions, at
words denoting or connoting hard concepts such as duro, aspro, amaro,
pietra, or ghiaccio. Many passages also were discovered that associate minor
sonorities and prolonged contrapuntal motions with words of sad, soft, or sweet
affection. Most convincing as intentional expressions of affect are those cases in
which the textual juxtaposition of opposing concepts, which typify Petrarchan
lyrics, prompted overt contrasts in harmonic quality. Of great significance also
is the general avoidance of whole-step related parallel major thirds involving
the bass in Musica nova, Vicentinos 1546 madrigal book, and the majority of
Zarlinos madrigals, except when warranted by the sense of the words. Because
the avoidance of such parallel major thirds was not a common feature of sixteenthcentury composition in general, and because Vicentino and Zarlino are among
a very small number of theorists who mention such a contrapuntal guideline in
their treatises, the importance of this connection with Willaerts practice in Musica
265
nova cannot be overstated. In this shared practice, as in the affective deployment

of intervals more generally, the madrigals of Vicentino and Zarlino reveal to us a
portion of the substance of Willaerts pedagogy and traces of his own theory of
musics expressive powers.
Other Madrigalists in Willaerts Circle
The number of madrigalists that may have been influenced directly or indirectly
by Willaert or his works, the number of madrigals written by these composers,
and the number of ways in which Willaerts influence may have acted upon them
are each too large to be systematically addressed in the present context. Here I
shall discuss primarily those composers commonly thought to belong to Willaerts
immediate circle, principally those who have been established as students of his,
or who served in some capacity under his direction at San Marco, and I shall
limit consideration primarily to their madrigals that were published in the 1540s
through 1560s; as noted in connection with Vicentinos madrigal books of 1546 and
1572, the madrigal of the latter decades of the sixteenth century was often a very
different creature from that of the middle decades. General stylistic comparisons
between composers lie beyond the scope of this study, as do examinations of the
way they read and parse texts, or critical judgments of the aesthetic worth of their
madrigals. Instead I shall briefly discuss each composers biographical connection
to Willaert, assess in a general way his adherence to Willaerts practices, and then
focus narrowly on tracking the influence of Willaerts theory of interval affect in a
few relevant passages drawn from that composers works.
The most prominent composer to be connected with Willaerts circle was
Cipriano de Rore (c. 151565). The precise nature of the relationship between
Willaert and Rore has yet to be determined, because little biographical information
has been recovered for Rores early years. But some sort of relationship is generally
assumed, and Rore is known to have visited Venice prior to November of 1542,44
and to have provided music to prominent patrons associated with Willaerts
circle, such as Ruberto Strozzi and Neri Capponi, during the 1540s.45 Most of his
professional life was spent in Ferrara, however, and his only known position in
Venice was his brief stint as Willaerts successor at San Marco in 156364.
Martha Feldman positions Rore and Willaert as pillars of a single musicoliterary project in their madrigals of the 1540s.46 She compares Musica nova and
Rores startling and unprecedented (at least in print) Primo libro a 5 of 1542 and
finds similarities that point toward a bond of sorts between the two:
44
Jessie Ann Owens, s.v. Rore, Cipriano de, New Grove, provides an overview of
the evidence relating to a possible relationship between the two.
45
See Richard J. Agee, Ruberto Strozzi and the Early Madrigal; and Feldman, City
Culture, especially pp. 445.
46
266
Both collections are based on Petrarchan sonnets set motetlike in two parts in
a broad, contemplative vein. Both embed Petrarchs convoluted language in
a dense mass of freely imitative polyphony, shaping it in motives that subtly
change from voice to voice. And most important, both attend scrupulously to
rhetorical qualities of textsound, accent, verbal figure, and syntax.47
Whether or not the two interacted directly in the years prior to the publication of
Rores Primo libro in 1542 has yet to be established, though. James Haar asserts:
Master-pupil relationship now seems all but out of the question; but some
relationship there must be. Two musicians, 25 years apart in age, could not have
come up with this kind of madrigalian style independently or as the result of
chance meetings. It seems clear to me that Rore must have come to know some
of Willaerts new music, perhaps through Strozzi-Capponi connections, not
from isolated hearings but through study of the music itself, and that he set out
to master this new idiom in short order.48
I believe Haars general conclusion makes sense relative to the theory of interval
affect as well for several reasons: (1) as Feldman has shown, Willaert was rooted
in a Venetian culture fascinated with questions of style and decorum that would
provide fertile ground for the development of a theory of interval affect, whereas
Rores intellectual background, before his Primo libro of 1542 sprang forth,
remains far less certain;49 (2) the fact that the theory of interval affect was codified
by self-proclaimed Willaert disciples Zarlino and Vicentino, and employed by them
in their own madrigals, suggests a close association of the theory with Willaert
rather than Rore;50 and (3) my examination of Rores madrigals suggests that a
well-defined theory of interval affect would be difficult to nail down therein.51
Though his corpus of surviving works is too large to be dealt with in detail in the
context of this book, I can report my sense that he is aware of the conventions
associated with the theory of interval affect and emphasizes major or minor
47
Ibid.
Haar, review of Feldman, City Culture, p. 326.
49
Feldman concludes that Willaert sought Bembist balance and restraint while Rore
walked on the wilder, more Dantean side in his first madrigal book. See her City Culture
and Rores selve selvaggia. For another view, see Stefan La Via, Cipriano de Rore as
Reader and as Read, pp. 3913. As noted in Chapter 2, Rore certainly goes further in the
affective deployment of melodic intervals in his second four-voice book of 1557, using the
generally forbidden leap of a major sixth with harsh texts.
50
Cristle Collins Judd has suggested that Zarlino avoided citing Rore in his treatise,
except when a suitable example by another composer could not be found, because he saw
him as a rival in his quest to become Willaerts successor; Reading Renaissance Music
Theory, p. 240. See also La Via, Cipriano de Rore as Reader and as Read, p. 15.
51
D.P. Walker reached a similar conclusion in Studies in Musical Science, pp. 7980.
48
267
melodic or harmonic intervals on occasion, often in quite striking ways, but that
overall the practice is less important to him than it was to Willaert in Musica nova.
For example, the passage from Quanto pi mavicino from the Primo libro shown
in Example 5.14 displays the same sort of affective contrast found in Willaerts
Liete e pensose, though it is not perfectly delineated through rests in all voices as
in Willaerts usage: here laughter (riso) is set with sustained major sonorities
and juxtaposed with only slight overlap with weeping (pianto) and sustained
minor sonorities.52
Example 5.14 Rore, Quanto pi mavicino, mm. 10812
On many occasions Rore utilizes generic harmonic sixths at words such as

crudel, amaro, aspro, or duro, often in conjunction with parallel thirds
and stepwise tetrachordal or pentachordal motives, yet without taking pains to
emphasize major harmonic intervals, as seen in Example 2.19 (p. 90). He also uses
the relative stability and instability inherent in five-three and six-three sonorities
to reflect various stable or unstable aspects of the poetic situation at hand, or
durus/mollis shifts in tonal system in conjunction with hard and soft concepts,
without necessarily emphasizing a particular harmonic quality.53 Yet on some
See Bernhard Meier, The Modes, p. 414, for other passages from Rores sacred and
secular works that contain similar affective juxtapositions of major and minor sonorities.
53
His control of harmonic sixths for affective purposes seems to grow toward his
second book of four-voice madrigals published in 1557, which contains his famous settings
of Mia benigna fortuna / Crudele acerba and O sonno. In this latter example Rore avoids
52
268
occasions we can see him exploring the structure of the gamut and how it might be
utilized to emphasize major or minor intervals in a fashion similar to Willaerts.
A particularly telling instance happens in the exordium of Quel sempre acerbo
et honorato giorno (That always bitter and honored day) from the Primo libro of
1542 (see Example 5.15). The poet is Petrarch and the tonal type is G cantus durus,
as in Willaerts Aspro core, and a clear connection between the expressive devices
employed can be drawn between the two madrigals. Rore places an ascending
pentachordal motive in paired imitation beginning on G and C and forming 56
motions, and thus mirrors the descending motive and 65 chain suspension of
the exordium of Aspro core.54 Though both major and minor positions appear, as
in Aspro core, the major sixths above positions I and ii/II in the opening pair of
imitative voices are placed in accented positions, and the minor sixth that ensues
over position iii immediately afterward is quickly passed over in parallel motion
on a weak beat. Position iii thus is not prolonged though a 56 motion; this is
similar in effect to the way Willaert moved quickly off position iii in Aspro core,
though that was by descending leap rather than ascending step. When position
IV arrives on the following downbeat, Rore reinstates the 56 motion to prolong
major sonority. The subsequent 56 motion over V is undercut by the entry of the
second pair of voices, which are offset by one beat in relation to the opening pair
so that the major sixths now fall in unaccented positions and the minor sixth in an
accented one, yet it still is passed over quickly. Parallel major thirds occur between
the outer voices in the move from position IV to V from m. 5 to 6; however, this
motion occurs several other times within this madrigal without a direct connection
with hard concepts. With the fifth entry of the motive on G in the tenor, Rore
layers above it a staggered restatement of the motive on C in the canto, yet with
all five voices now engaged and the bass moving in free counterpoint, the 56
motions are buried in the texture and the emphasis on major harmonic sonorities
essentially evaporates. Although he locates it in a different stretch of the gamut,
Rores strategic placement of the 56 voice-leading model to emphasize major
sixths, and the care he takes to reduce the emphasis on the minor sonorities
inevitably produced by a stepwise soggetto, show him to be thinking through the
same basic issues Willaert faced in forging the affective use of intervals found in
Aspro core.
harmonic sixths and suspensions entirely for the first 11 measures in setting the text O
sonno, o della queta humida ombrosa Notte placido figlio, allows a single minor sixth in
setting o de mortali Egri conforto, oblio dolce, introduces the first major sixth at de
mali in m. 18, then sets off an explosion of sixths and suspensions at the following la vita
aspra e noiosa: Soccorri al cor homai che langue posa Non have in mm. 2134. For more
on Rores interpretation of these poems and others, see the extensive analyses in La Via,
Cipriano de Rore as Reader and as Read, especially pp. 152211 and 43787.
54
Vicentino used a nearly identical opening imitative duo in his exemplar illustrating
the harshness of the diatonic genus in Lantica musica; see McKinney, Point/Counterpoint,
pp. 3969.
Example 5.15 Rore, Quel sempre acerbo et honorato giorno, mm. 110
269
270
Perissone Cambio (c. 1520c. 1562) was admitted into the chapel at San
Marco in July of 1548. He was already known as a talented singer and composer in
Venetian circles well before that date, as evidenced by his inclusion in both of these
roles in Donis Dialogo della musica published in 1544.55 Perissone is represented
by two works in the Dialogo, one a six-voice setting of the octave of Giunto mha
Amor.56 He would later set the complete sonnet divided into two parti for five
voices in his Il segondo libro di madregali a cinque voci as one of seven texts in
common between this print and Musica nova.57 The Segondo libro was preceded
by the first five-voice book in 1545 and a book of four-voice madrigals in 1547,
both of which contain additional settings of texts also set by Willaert in Musica
nova.58 Helga Meier examined these common settings as well as those by other
composers, and located passages in Perissones that are modeled on Willaerts,
and which borrow melodic and rhythmic motives and harmonic progressions.59
She states that These possibilities stretch from the assumption of whole voice
complexes to the mere shining-through of the model in motives, which perhaps
appear only once and in only one voice, yet which are recognizable as melody
quotationsif perhaps not for the listener, yet nevertheless for those that study
the workthrough the presence of more expanded and obvious quotations in
the same work.60 Martha Feldman also examines Perissones borrowings from
James Haar, s.v. Perissone Cambio in New Grove. For other of the scant details
of Perissones life, see Ongaro, The Chapel of St. Marks, pp. 1278; and Feldman, City
Culture, pp. 3412.
56
Antonfrancesco Doni, Dialogo della musica (Venice, 1544); modern edition ed.
Francesco Malipiero and Virginio Fagotto, Collana di musiche veneziane inedite e rare 7
(Vienna: Universal Edition, 1964). Giunto mha Amor is wrongly attributed to Willaert in
the modern edition. James Haar suggests that a third work, Ave virgo gratiosa, could be by
Perissone as well, based upon the fact that Perissone introduces it and then asks the other
interlocutors how they liked it; Notes on the Dialogo della Musica of Antonfrancesco
Doni, Music & Letters 47/3 (1966), p. 208; reprinted in Haar, The Science and Art of
Renaissance Music, ed. Paul Corneilson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998),
p. 280.
57
Perissone Cambio, Il segondo libro di madregali a cinque voci con tre dialoghi a
otto voci & uno a sette voci novamente da lui composti & dati in luce (Venice: Gardano,
1550). For more on this collection and its relationship to Willaert, see Feldman, City Culture,
pp. 35669; and Helga Meier, Zur Chronologie der Musica nova Adrian Willaerts,
Analecta musicologica 12 (1973), pp. 7196.
58
These earlier prints have been transcribed in modern edition by Martha Feldman
as Madrigali a cinque voci (New York and London: Garland, 1990) and Il primo libro di
madrigali a quatro voci (New York and London: Garland, 1989).
59
Meier, Zur Chronologie, pp. 7587.
60
Meier, Zur Chronologie, p. 77. (Diese Mglichkeiten reichen von der bernahme
ganzer Stimmenkomplexe bis hin zum blossen Durchschimmern der Vorlage in Motiven,
die vielleicht nur einmal und nur in einer einzigen Stimmen erscheinen, durch das
Vorhandensein ausgedehnterer und offenkundiger Zitate in demselben Werk sich aber
55
271
Willaert, and has compared their madrigal styles more generally.61 In the current
study we shall be concerned only with the extent to which Willaerts theory of
interval affect might be evidenced in Perissones madrigals, and shall add a highly
significant borrowing in this regard to those cited by Helga Meier.62
In general, I would note that his first two madrigal prints do not show consistent
affective use of harmonic quality in the manner of Willaert, nor regular employment
of harmonic sixths as affective markers. The four-voice book in particular evinces a
relatively brisk harmonic rhythm without obvious affective emphasis of harmonic
quality through frequency or duration of appearance, nor prolongation of a quality
by the contrapuntal patterns we have seen Willaert use.63 In both collections he
seems to take care to avoid parallel major thirds over positions IV and V in some
madrigals and not in many others, without obvious textual justification in most
cases. Even Perissones reworking of the opening of Willaerts Liete e pensose in
the Segondo libro, which Meier cites in her study, shows little care for harmonic
quality.64 Perissone retains Willaerts major sonorities with Liete, yet sets e
pensose with predominantly major sonorities as well, thus losing the affective
harmonic contrast for which Willaerts setting has become famous.65
Yet at least one borrowing not cited by Helga Meier shows Perissone exploring
the inner workings of Willaerts application of his theory of interval affect. Both of
Perissones settings of Gionto mha Amor [sic] may show some degree of familiarity
with the affective conventions Willaert established in his setting, principally the
emphasis of major sonorities at e romprognaspro scoglio, though not anywhere
near the extent found in Willaerts setting, and not using the 56 voice-leading
model over IV and V that Willaert employed.66 The earlier setting shows no overt
concern about parallel major thirds, while the second setting does. Much more
significantly, in the later setting we also can see Perissone playing with the 56
gleichfallswenn vielleicht auch nicht fr dem Hrer, so doch fr den, der das Werk
studiertals Melodiezitate zu erkennen geben.)
61
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 34184. See also her introductions to her editions of the
Madrigali a cinque voci and Il primo libro di madrigali a quatro voci.
62
Though general style comparisons are beyond the scope of this study, one quickly
notes that Perissones madrigals display a freer treatment of dissonance, less care about
cadence placement relative to the completion of textual phrases, a more habitual use of
cross relations and direct chromaticism involving a change in quality of the third above the
bass, and a more pronounced fondness for harmonic fifth cycles.
63
See Feldman, City Culture, pp. 36981, for an examination of various styles in this
book.
64
See the comparison in Helga Meier, Zur Chronologie, p. 78.
65
Fellow Willaert pupil Baldassare Donatos setting of Liete e pensose comes much
closer to retaining Willaerts harmonic contrast, yet concludes pensose on a major
sonority. See Helga Meier, Zur Chronologie, p. 83.
66
Both of Perissones settings also introduce frequent generic harmonic sixths to
reflect the crude braccia of the opening line, while Willaert avoided sixths entirely in his
setting of the line.
272
voice-leading model, decelerated harmonic rhythm, and rhythmic and melodic

motives Willaert used to express harshness at e romprognaspro scoglio, but
not with the same text. Perissone instead deploys these devices at the subsequent
passage for which Willaert also used major sonorities but not the 56 voiceleading model: cor s duro (compare Examples 5.16 and 2.13, p. 77). Instead of
using Willaerts three-part parallel voice-leading over sustained major positions
at cor s duro, Perissone reworks material from Willaerts e romprognaspro
scoglio passage, complete with parallel major thirds twice over positions IV and
V.67 Though he is less rigorous about avoiding minor sonorities than Willaert, even
sustaining some of them, the elongated major sixths (one lasting a full breve) and
juxtapositions of positions IV and V evince clear affective intent. Another likely
model for this passage is the setting of the nearly identical text Non s duro
cor with major sonorities and 56 motions in Willaerts Aspro core, discussed in
connection with Example 2.12 (p. 74): in particular, Perissones cantus motive in
mm. 746 exactly duplicates Willaerts in mm. 1035 in both pitch and rhythm,
though the major sonorities are formed over different bass pitches. In each of these
passages, the same basic rhythms and melodic motives featuring ascending steps
are used in conjunction with sustained major sonorities, major sixths, and parallel
major thirds. The appearance of this passage in a work from the 1550 book, rather
than the two earlier books that contain examples modeled on Willaerts, stands
out as significant, postdating as it does by two years Perissones entry into the
chapel at San Marco and thus removing any doubt as to a direct and continuing
relationship between him and Willaert.
Girolamo Parabosco (c. 15241557) also acted as an interlocutor in Donis
Dialogo, and was lauded therein as a poet, composer, and performer, and for
a thousand virtues.68 He is known to have been active in Willaerts Venetian
circle for much of his brief life. According to the story related by Zarlino and
cited in Chapter 1, Parabosco was acquainted with Willaerts working habits as a
composer by 1541;69 he later became first organist at San Marco under Willaerts
directorship in 1551, and held that post until his death in 1557. His sole madrigal
book, Madrigali a cinque voci of 1546, proudly proclaimed on the title page
that he was a disciple of Willaerts, as did Vicentinos book of the same year.70
67
Such dubious parallel major thirds occur in only one other spot in the madrigal, in
an imitative passage featuring a motive that ascends by step and invites parallel motion in
thirds or sixths (m. 49).
68
Doni, Dialogo della Musica, Malipiero ed., p. 190. ( chi compone i canti,
Parabosco; chi fa versi, Parabosco; chi suona, chi ha mille virt, Parabosco.)
69
Zarlino, Sopplimenti musicali, p. 326; see Chapter 1.
70
Madrigali a cinque voci di Girolamo Parabosco discipulo di M. Adriano novamente
da lui composti & posti in luce (Venice: Gardano, 1546). For the contents of the book and
the poetic forms of the texts, see Feldman, City Culture, pp. 3267. Feldman also provides
a translation of the dedication on p. 44.
Example 5.16 Perissone Cambio, Gionto mha Amor, mm. 6978
273
274
Helga Meier has shown that Paraboscos setting of Aspro core was modeled on
Willaerts, as mentioned in Chapter 2. In addition to his first madrigal book, a
few other madrigals by Parabosco appear in Donis Dialogo or other sources, one
of these a setting of the octave of another Musica nova text, Giunto mha Amor.
Martha Feldman asserts that Parabosco did not model this setting on Willaerts,
and in her survey of Paraboscos madrigals finds that the earlier ones, such as those
published by Doni, show less affinity with Willaerts practice than those of his
madrigal book.71 She also concludes that Willaerts students followed his practices
concerning decorum, gravity, and careful rhetorical shaping most closely when
actually modeling their settings on his.72
Paraboscos familiarity with Willaerts teaching on interval affect resounds
in his setting of the Petrarch sonnet Solo e pensoso in his 1546 madrigal
book.73 The setting of the somber opening lines Solo e pensoso in pi diserti
campi vo misurando a passi tardi e lenti (Alone and pensive I go measuring the
most deserted fields with steps tardy and slow) in the first 20 measures features
a marked emphasis on minor positions in the composite bass, with 62.5% of the
harmonic sonorities being minor (measured by duration) and only 37.5% major
(see Example 5.17). While an emphasis on minor sonorities might be expected
given the G cantus mollis tonal type, in the madrigal as a whole major sonority
is more frequent than minor, at a ratio of 51/49 (as typical of Willaerts G cantus
mollis madrigals in Musica nova, as shown in Table 2.1, p. 49). Notice also the
presence of harmonic minor sixths in accented positions in mm. 5, 8, and 9, and
the embellishing neighboring one over a long-held position vi in mm. 1314.74
The major sixth is avoided entirely before the plangent Phrygian motion to D in
mm. 1920.
Compare this opening with the setting of ma pur s aspre vie ne s selvaggie
(but still paths so harsh nor so savage) in mm. 918 of the seconda parte of the
madrigal (Example 5.18). Now there is a marked shift to major positions and
major sixths, though two minor sixths also appear. Particularly significant is the
presence of the major sixths and parallel major thirds over F and E in m. 92 as
all three voices in this measure move by descending major second with aspre.
This represents yet another reference to Willaerts Aspro core involving some
type of reworking of the three-voice voice-leading model found therein (here
occurring in another location in the gamut and requiring an accidental bass tone).
71
Feldman, City Culture, pp. 31441. See particularly her comparison of Willaerts
and Paraboscos settings of Aspro core.
72
73
Three voice parts of a setting of Solo e pensoso by Vicentino survive in manuscript
and have been transcribed in Kaufmans Opera omnia edition, though there is some question
as to whether additional voice parts may be missing.
74
Melodic minor sixths also appear in mm. 1012 with misurando (measuring).
Paraboscos Solo e pensoso is also discussed in McKinney, Hearing in the Sixth Sense,
pp. 52631.
275
Example 5.17 Parabosco, Solo e pensoso, mm. 120
continued
276
Example 5.18 Parabosco, Solo e pensoso, mm. 918
277
278
The retention of E in m. 94 in the alto (specifically signed in the 1546 print) does
cancel out another opportunity for parallel major thirds over positions V and IV
and does introduce a sustained minor sonority, yet the major sixth is reinstated
over IV between soprano and tenor on the fourth beat (both singing aspre).
Selvaggie receives continued emphasis on major sonorities, and a series of three
suspensions. This madrigal evidences control of harmonic quality for affective
purposes in the manner of Willaert, particularly as regards the introduction and
use of harmonic sixths.
Francesco dalla Viola (d. 1568) had close ties to Willaert and to others of his
circle. He sang under Willaerts direction at Ferrara Cathedral from about 1522
until 1526,75 and later was instrumental in preparing Musica nova for its eventual
publication, acting as the agent of Alfonso dEste.76 He appears, along with
Willaert, as a participant in the dialogues crafted by Zarlino for his Dimostrationi
harmoniche, in which he is described as Zarlinos singular friend (singolare
amico).77 In his Il primo libro de madrigali a quatro voci of 1550, Francesco
scrupulously follows Willaerts Musica nova practice concerning parallel major
thirds over positions V and IV.78 As do Willaert in his late madrigals and Zarlino
in his madrigals, Francesco generally avoids juxtaposing major sonorities on
positions V and IV altogether. I found such juxtapositions fewer than 20 times in
the 39 madrigals of this collection. Only one of these instances included parallel
major thirds involving the bass, and this again occurred quite appropriately with
the word amara (see Example 5.19). On the other hand, when an accidental flat
over position V is notated or required according to standard guidelines for applying
musica ficta, this position is frequently juxtaposed with IV and results in parallel
thirds of unequal sizes. This also conforms with Willaerts usual procedures in
Musica nova.
Francescos madrigals tend to be brief and relatively light in tone compared to
Willaerts weightier Musica nova madrigals, and he sometimes sets only the sestet
of a sonnet. While he occasionally employs the affective conventions that have
been the point of the current study, his madrigal book does not embody a unified
practice in this regard. Interestingly, he set several of the texts that prompted some
of Willaerts more overtly affective musical responses. These include Gionto mha
Amor [sic] and Vivo sol di speranza (the sestet from Aspro core); he also set In
qual parte del ciel and Talhor massale in mezzo (the sestet of Io mi rivolgo).
Comparison of these passages with Willaerts settings in Chapter 2 shows that
Francesco passes over these highly charged texts with relatively little ado.
James Haar, s.v. Dalla Viola (2) in New Grove.
For Francescos role in the publication of Music nova, see Butchart, La Pecorina,
pp. 3612; and Owens and Agee, La stampa, pp. 22234.
77
Zarlino, Dimostrationi harmoniche, p. 1.
78
The madrigals of Alfonso dalla Viola, also active in Ferrara and probably related to
Francesco, though not clearly tied to Willaert, contain numerous instances of parallel major
thirds over positions IV and V.
75
76
279
Example 5.19 Francesco dalla Viola, Deh perche non credete, mm. 1518
Francesco does evince familiarity with the theory of interval affect, however,
in a few passages worthy of particular note. In Poi che nostro servir, he carefully
separates the text pianto, stratio e dolore (weeping, anguish, and sorrow) for
affective treatment, with exclusively minor sonorities and elongated minor sixths
that require a marked shift in modal focus away from the F cantus durus opening
(see Example 5.20). In Siepi chel bel giardin he responds to pena acerba e ria
with almost exclusively major sonorities, sixths, suspensions, and a juxtaposition
of positions IV and V accompanied by a suspended major sixth (though no parallel
major thirds) (see Example 5.21).
Baldassare Donato (c. 15291603) was a choirboy at San Marco from at least
1545, and was evidently a special protg of Willaerts.79 An archival document
dating from 1547 tasks the young Donato with copying all of Willaerts new
works and keeping maestro Adriano occupied in composing, ostensibly,
the document indicates, because Willaert was kept busy (occupato) by the
demands of his office but, as Giulio Ongaro notes, probably also because
of the slow and thoughtful manner in which he composed, as recorded in
Zarlinos anecdote about Paraboscos dressing-down of maestro Alberto.80
79
The biographical details of Donatos life are sketched in Anu Ahola, s.v. Donato,
Baldassare, New Grove. See also Feldman, City Culture, p. 384 and passim, the introduction
to her edition of Donatos first madrigal book (cited below), and Ongaro, The Chapel of St.
Marks.
80
Ongaro, The Chapel of St. Marks, pp. 8890; Zarlino, Sopplimenti musicali,
p. 326. Ongaro transcribes the San Marco document; pp. 3323.
280
Example 5.20 Francesco dalla Viola, Poi che nostro servir, mm. 110
All of this points toward a very close relationship between Donato and Willaert
during the formers formative years as a musician and budding composer.
Donato remained active in Venice throughout his career, holding various posts
and succeeding Zarlino as maestro di cappella at San Marco in 1590. His
first book of madrigals81 was issued in Venice in 1553 and a second82 in 1568.
81
Il primo libro di madrigali a cinque & a sei voci con tre dialoghi a sette (Venice,
1553); modern edition ed. Martha Feldman (New York and London: Garland, 1991).
82
Il secondo libro di madrigali a quatro voci (Venice: Gardano, 1568).
281
Example 5.21 Francesco dalla Viola, Siepi chel bel giardin, mm. 1519
Several other madrigals appear in other sources dating as far back as 1548 (at
which time he still may have been a teenager).83
In his first madrigal book, Donato set several texts also set by Willaert
in Musica nova, and also adopted the variety in the number of voices and the
appearance of dialogue settings found in Musica nova. Helga Meier and Martha
Feldman have discovered specific borrowings from Willaert in these common
settings, and Feldman has examined the relationship between the madrigals of the
two composers more generally.84 Some of his settings seem to emulate Willaerts
style, such as the Petrarch spiritual madrigal I vo piangendo, with its low voicing,
grave manner, two-part division, and complete avoidance of dubious parallel
major thirds, though even here there is a freer rhythmic and melodic flow. Other
sonnets are set in incomplete fashion or with less gravity, however, and Feldman
finds that his work followed that of other disciples at San Marco in reconciling
Willaerts rhetorical lessons with a lighter style, approximating Bembist ideals
without clinging to such introverted declamation as Willaerts.85
In terms of the affective deployment of intervals, Donatos first madrigal book
displays little overall consistency, and parallel major thirds are not infrequent in
83
Some of these sources suggest a relationship between Donato and Rore; see Jessie
Ann Owens, A Collaboration between Cipriano de Rore and Baldissera Donato? in
Stephen A. Crist and Roberta Montemorra Marvin (eds), Historical Musicology: Sources,
Methods, Interpretations (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2004).
84
Helga Meier, Zur Chronologie der Musica nova Adrian Willaerts and Fnf
Madrigale venezianischer Komponisten um Adrian Willaert; Feldman, City Culture,
pp. 384405.
85
282
general. Martha Feldman notes that his setting of Liete e pensose is more overtly
modeled on Willaerts than was Perissones;86 I would add that it comes closer than
Perissones to maintaining Willaerts frequent juxtaposition of major and minor
sonorities as well, yet without the crispness one finds in Willaert. The opening
antithesis retains major quality for liete and mostly minor for pensose, yet
frames the latter with major sonorities, thus weakening the contrast.87 Willaerts
double-edged setting of Ov la vita, ove la morte focused both on symbolic
accidentals and harmonic quality: predominantly major sonorities and F for life,
predominantly minor sonorities with B for death. Donato seems to follow suit
initially, setting vita with major sonorities and F, yet he retains the accidental
and largely major sonorities with morte, again blurring the lines drawn so
clearly by Willaert. Willaerts drawn-out harmonic antithesis at Liete siam
Dogliose is obviously reworked by Donato and remains largely intact, though
major sonorities intrude before dogliose is completed.
Evidence of the influence of Willaerts theory of interval affect can be found
in Donatos setting of the anonymous Qual sera mai si miserabil pianto from
Il primo libro of 1553. As suggested by the plangent tone of the words and the
opening G cantus mollis tonal type, minor sonority predominates throughout much
of the setting. The excerpt given in Example 5.22 is typical. Note the emphasis
on repeated minor sonorities and the concluding Phrygian motion at the initial
statement mesto, et sconsolato in pianto (sad and disconsolate in weeping) in
mm. 213, and the subsequent tonal shift toward F and major sonorities at the
entry of Et poi che si crudel mia fortuna (and because so cruel is my fortune).
Organist and composer Gioseffo Guami (15421611) was sent to Venice by
wealthy patrons as a young man to study music.88 Although the exact dates and
details of his time in Venice are not known, we do know that he studied with
Willaert before the latters death in December of 1562, and that his first madrigals
were published there in anthologies containing works by Willaert and other
members of his circle. His first published madrigal appeared in the second volume
of I dolci et harmoniosi concenti fatti da diversi eccellentissimi musici sopra varii
soggetti in 1562, along with works by Zarlino and others with strong Venetian ties.
His first madrigal book was published in Venice in 1565, to be followed by several
others in the ensuing years.89 He was highly thought of as both a composer and
organist, as evidenced in Galileis famous remark listing him as one of only four
86
Ibid.
The respective openings are shown in Helga Meier, Zur Chronologie, p. 83. The
complete setting by Donato appears in Feldmans edition, pp. 24063.
88
For known details of Gioseffo Guamis life, see Phillip D. Crabtree, The Vocal
Works of Gioseffo (ca. 15401611) and Francesco Guami (ca. 15441602) (Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1971); and Crabtree, s.v. Guami in New Grove.
89
Il primo libro di madrigali a cinque voci novamente da lui composti (Venice:
Antonio Gardano, 1565) survives intact and may be seen in modern edition in Phillip
Crabtrees dissertation. Guamis third and fourth books survive in incomplete form.
87
283
Example 5.22 Donato, Qual sera mai si miserabil pianto, mm. 2132
continued
284
285
musicians in Italy who could both play and write well.90 Zarlino praises him in his
Sopplimenti musicali as an excellent composer and the sweetest performer of organ
(eccellente Compositore & Sonatore soavissimo dOrgano),91 and recommended
him for the post of first organist at San Marco that he assumed in 1588.92
For his first madrigal book, Guami chose several of the Petrarch sonnets that
Willaert used in Musica nova, including Giunto mha Amor (set in black-note
style like Willaerts) and Mentre chel cor. Guamis affective responses to the
passages set so boldly by Willaert are somewhat restrained in comparison, though
not as much so as those of Francesco dalla Viola. His setting of Del bel diamante
ondellahal cor s duro in Giunto mha Amor is telling, however (see Example
5.23). It shows no overall emphasis of major sonorities, yet juxtaposes positions
V and IV at cor s duro in mm. 956, complete with parallel major thirds and a
major sixth. The repetition of this text in mm. 989 is accompanied by a slowing
of the harmonic rhythm on position V while a neighboring major sixth appears in
the canto. Guami worries less than Willaert about avoiding parallel major thirds
in the first madrigal book, yet he allows them infrequently, and they twice appear
with duro.93
A more striking instance of affective major harmony in the first madrigal book
occurs in Occhi fiamme damore, at the text crudi sete (cruel thirst). Here we
see ten measures of almost exclusively major sonorities, several of which require
accidental inflections (Example 5.24); five major sixths, four of which occur on
downbeats; and several suspensions. The major sixths often appear in a voice
intoning crudi. The harmonic rhythm also slows from the minim or semiminim
speed more typical of this madrigal.
At other times, Guami responds to hard keywords with generic sixths, though,
and exhibits no measure of slavishness in adhering to Willaertian conventions. His
setting of Romper le pietre e pianger di dolcezza from Mentre chel cor provides
a case in point in comparison to Willaerts. While both composers divide the verse
for affective treatment along hard and soft lines, Willaert chose to use major
sonorities for pietre and minor ones for dolcezza. Guami, on the other hand,
depended primarily upon rhythmic syncopation to reflect romper, with the broken
metric regularity representing the broken stones. Harmonic quality actually shades
more toward minor to set up the coming contrast: sweetness here is represented
though accidental major sonorities and melodic half-steps, an affective convention
that grew increasingly popular after the midpoint of the sixteenth century.
Galilei, Dialogo; trans. Claude Palisca as Dialogue on Ancient and Modern Music
(New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2003), p. 343.
91
Zarlino, Sopplimenti musicali, p. 18.
92
These and numerous other testaments to Guamis talents are chronicled in Phillip
Crabtrees dissertation. See also Edwards, Setting the Tone at San Marco, p. 399.
93
The other instance occurs with a neighboring major sixth over position V at e suoi
duri costumi in the eight-voice dialogue Aventurosi e ben nati sospiri.
90
286
Example 5.23 Gioseffo Guami, Giunto mha Amor, mm. 90101
287
I conclude this survey with a composer active in Venice and associated with
members of Willaerts circle, yet having, so far as I know, no direct contact with
Willaert himself. Vincenzo Bellavere was born around 1540 and died in 1587, but
nothing is known of him before a reference to his presence in Padua in 1567.94 He
became organist at the Scuola Grande di San Rocco in Venice in 1568, five years
after Willaerts death, and in 1586 replaced Andrea Gabrieli at San Marco. The
madrigal Pria si vedr nellarenoso lido is closely tied to Venice in both provenance
and musical gesture: it was published in Venice by the Scotto press in 1575 as
Bellavere sought to advance his career in the city, and it makes unmistakable use
of affective conventions of the Venetian madrigal school.95 These conventions
are most obvious at Di selvagi animai feroci e crudi in mm. 1116 (Example
5.25). After a series of fusa runs at the initial statements of selvagi in mm. 11
13, the harmonic rhythm slows to a crawl in mm. 1416 and the composite bass
oscillates between positions IV and V for the introduction of feroci e crudi. Major
positions predominate in this entire passage, but in mm. 1415 they are clearly
prolonged with affective intent and embellished with numerous major sixths.
94
Biographical detail for Bellavere cited here relies on Denis Arnold and Serena dal
Belin Peruffo, s.v. Bellavere, Vincenzo, New Grove.
95
Vincenzo Bellavere [Belhaver], Il secondo libro de madrigali a cinque voci
novamente posti in luce (Venice: Girolamo Scotto, 1575).
288
Example 5.24 Guami, Occhi fiamme damore, mm. 1930
289
Example 5.25 Vincenzo Bellavere, Pria si vedr nellarenoso lido, mm. 1116
290
The disruption of normal harmonic flow, through hovering around positions IV and
V and elongating the harmonic rhythm, in order to allow the major sonorities to
register clearly on the listener is a technique that can be traced directly or indirectly
to Willaerts practice.
Closing Thoughts and the Transformation of Willaerts Theory of
Interval Affect
In this study I have demonstrated that many aspects of the theories of interval
affect published by Vicentino and Zarlino in the 1550s can be found embodied in
the Musica nova madrigals written by their teacher, Adrian Willaert, more than a
decade earlier, and that this was a significant feature of what was new about this
new music. I have examined the emergence of a twofold division of interval
quality into major and minor camps that suit the expression of hard and soft
concepts from an existing tradition associating these concepts with the hard and
soft hexachords and B duro and B molle, and have uncovered the technical means
by which Willaert emphasized one quality or the other in his music. We have seen
how Petrarchs prevalent use of antithesis in his poetry prompted the employment
of analogous musical dichotomies in the Musica nova madrigals, and also have
noted the work of Martha Feldman, Claude Palisca, Dean Mace, and others who
elucidate the influence of Venetian preoccupation with questions of style and
variety on Willaert more generally, perhaps most importantly in Bembos notion
of gravit and piacevolezza. I have also shown that Willaert deploys his theory
of interval affect in the Musica nova madrigals not only to highlight Petrarchs
surface-level antitheses, but also to communicate broader and deeper readings of
poetic texts. In this, and in his use of contrapuntal motions to prolong harmonic
sonority, Willaerts theory of interval affect, as preserved in the Musica nova
madrigals, proves to be more complex and forward-looking than commonly
recognized.
We have observed that the theory of interval affect based upon a dichotomy
between major and minor intervals, as practised by Willaert and codified by
Vicentino and Zarlino, was but one means of utilizing intervals to express textual
concepts. Principal among other common expressive uses of intervals are the
introduction or absence of dissonance; the emphasis of six-three sonorities, often
moving in parallel motion, at references to harshness or hardness, anguish, lament,
and other bad concepts; the use of accidental melodic semitones with soft
concepts such as sweetness or sorrow; and the use of accidental major sonorities or
cross relations with concepts such as sweetness or beauty. We have also seen that a
shift into a different pitch-space, by hexachordal mutation or other accidental, can
have symbolic meaning in and of itself, and that changes in interval quality in such
cases may be of lesser importance as byproducts of the intended affective device.
More importantly, though, I have demonstrated that the Musica nova madrigals
provided a proving ground for Willaert to explore ways in which a theory of affect
291
based upon interval quality might be implemented, and that this theory shaped
many of the most expressive moments in these madrigals, and often informed their
larger dramatic trajectories.
What finally became of Willaerts theory of interval affect? Though he does
not connect such a theory directly to Willaert, D.P. Walkers brief historical
survey of opinions concerning the expressive value of intervals (which begins
with Vicentino and Zarlino) indirectly shows that Willaerts ideas continued to
influence theoretical discourse well into the following century:
During the second half of the sixteenth century and the first half of the
seventeenth several musical theorists dealt with the question: what intervals are
suitable for expressing what emotions? Without exception, these authors divide
emotions into two large contrasting classes: on the one hand, vigour, energy, joy,
but also hardness, harshness, bitterness, and on the other, softness, weakness,
sweetness, pity, sadness. The two groups of affective qualities vary somewhat
from author to author; sometimes it is harshness that predominates in the former
and sweetness in the latter, and sometimes joy in the former and sadness in the
latter. But there are always two categories set in opposition one to the other,
among which musical intervals, both harmonic and melodic, are distributed.96
In the evolution of musical style from the sixteenth century to the eighteenth,
though, Walker notes the substantial sea change in the classification of interval
affect represented in Table 5.1, which lists his descriptors under the categories of
major and minor.97
Table 5.1
Sixteenth- and eighteenth-century classifications of interval affect

Major
Minor
Sixteenth century
Eighteenth century
Sixteenth century
Eighteenth century
joy
vigor
joy
vigor
sweetness
softness
sadness
weakness
sweetness
softness
sadness
weakness
harshness
bitterness
anger
harshness
bitterness
anger
As one may see, joy and vigor are associated with major in both epochs, and
sadness and weakness with minor. Harshness, bitterness, and anger, on the other
hand, move from the major side of the spectrum, where they are placed in the
sixteenth-century tradition, to the minor side, where we are more accustomed to
Walker, Studies in Musical Science, p. 63.
Ibid., p. 71.
96
97
292
seeing them in relation to music of the common-practice era. In corresponding

fashion, sweetness and softness move from the minor side to the major. Though
Walker makes the vital point that we must be aware of these differences in order
to interpret the intentions of Renaissance composers correctly, he provides no
real rationale for the emergence of the original dichotomy, nor a reason for the
subsequent change.
From our modern perspective, the affective associations Walker lists for the
major and minor modes in the eighteenth century certainly strike us as more logical
(though still problematic as universals) than the seemingly peculiar dichotomies
of the sixteenth century, where harshness and happiness make strange bedfellows,
as might sadness and sweetness; think of Shakespeares famous contemporaneous
line parting is such sweet sorrow, in which sweetness and sorrow clearly are
intended as opposites.98 The affective dichotomies established by Willaert do not
truly equate harshness with happiness, nor sadness with sweetness, however;
rather, they indicate that major intervals bear inherent characteristics that could
be utilized to forge learned affective associations for harshness or happiness
particularly the major sixth and parallel major thirds moving by whole-step for
harshness and the major third more generally for happinesswhile the inherent
properties of minor intervals better suit associations of sadness or sweetness.
When properly understood, the apparently incongruous elements within Willaerts
dichotomies, and the contradictions between his dichotomies and those of later
times, are not troubling because one recognizes that they address different things.
Perhaps one may find in Zarlinos classification of modal ethos according to
the thirds and sixths above the modes final and median pitches the fount of later
common-practice affective associations for the major and minor modes, as many
have suggested.99 Yet as we have seen, Zarlino did not believe that a mode possessed
an immutable affect based upon its interval structure; his famous statement in
Book 3, Chapter 10 of the Istitutioni should be read more along these lines: that
if one wishes to emphasize a certain mood, one should choose a mode that is
more likely to introduce the imperfect consonances better suited to that mood, but
that the mood of the music is attached primarily to these imperfect consonances
rather than the mode, and is mutable along with them. This reading squares with
the way we have seen Willaert and subsequent composers under his influence
manipulate harmonic quality for expressive purposes: one may emphasize either
major or minor intervals within any mode. The use of major intervals to express
harshness is the most salient affective use of intervals in the works of Willaert
and his circle, but this harshness is attached to the intervals and their motion more
than the underlying mode or scale; we have seen the same essential voice-leading
models used in the same essential locations within the gamut in the context of
98
I am indebted to one of the anonymous prepublication reviewers of this study for
reminding me of the appositeness of this famous line from Romeo and Juliet to the drift of
my argument here.
99
For example, Walker, pp. 68, 71, and 80.
293
many different modes. While one might choose a given mode to facilitate emphasis
of major or minor sonorities, this does not necessarily point toward a particular
affective assignment for the mode chosen. Willaerts Aspro core provides a prime
example: I have shown that Willaert sought not only to create an affective contrast
to reflect the harsh/sweet antithesis of the opening lines of the poem, but that he
also wished to indicate that harshness and sweetness resided in the same person,
thus he needed access to major and minor versions of the same essential soggetto.
Thus he probably selected G cantus durus as his tonal type because its third degree
could be altered to establish the affective contrast without leaving the bounds of
the musica recta gamut so near the opening of the madrigal.100
The discrepancy between Walkers sixteenth-century and common-practice
affective categories exists because of the very different ways in which one
composed and thought about music in these epochs; i.e., it rests upon the inherent
differences between writing intervallic counterpoint within a relatively loosely
constricting tonal type on the one hand, and constructing functional progressions
based upon invertible triadic harmony within major or minor tonality on the
other.101 Thus while Willaert might think I shall put some major consonances here
to represent harshness, easily accomplished without having to be concerned about
strongly teleological harmonic succession, an eighteenth- or nineteenth-century
composer must think about maintaining a functional harmonic progression and
a pervasive sense of tonal centricity, and thus would be less likely to emphasize
major or minor sonorities abstractly than to change mode or tonal center. While
Willaert may be able to think of the pitch collection C, E and A in affective terms
as a major sonority by judging it as the sum of individual intervals measured
from the bass (major third and major sixth), an eighteenth-century composer
would interpret this collection (if an essential chord) as a set of pitch-classes
judged according to an abstract root, thus a first-inversion minor triad. Finally,
sixteenth-century composers did not think in a fixed seven-note key whose
constituents gravitate toward a tonal center. Rather, they wrote in a pitch system
that evolved from an ancient practice of plainchant, one based in a gamut that was
not reducible to a hard-and-fast seven-note diatonic scale, but one with mutable
degrees dependent upon musical context and a rich tradition of hard and soft
100
That this was an important consideration for Willaert is proven by the openings of
all 25 Musica nova madrigals. Zarlino suggests that composers should avoid accidental
inflections at the beginning without cause, because they will change the mode; 3.57,
p. 237 (175).
101
Consider, for example, the descending tetrachord used by Rore in the bass of
Example 2.22 in order to obtain access to the V65 IV65 voice-leading model for the purpose
of expressing harshness, as contrasted to the seventeenth-century practice of using a similar
minor-mode descending tetrachord to signal a lament; see Ellen Rosand, The Descending
Tetrachord: An Emblem of Lament, Musical Quarterly 65/3 (1979), pp. 34659. On the
use of the descending tetrachord as a symbol for weeping in the sixteenth century, see
Ringhandt, pp. 5053, 645, and passim.
294
associations in both theory and practice, a tradition that informed, but was not
supplanted by, the dichotomous theory of interval affect Willaert developed and
taught to his students. By the eighteenth century, however, the older pitch system
and its affective traditions had been absorbed by the modern major and minor key
system and a compositional technique driven by functional harmonic progression
and tonal prolongation.
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Index
Page numbers in italics refer to musical examples or poems

a note nere; see black-note madrigal
Aaron, Pietro 5 n.10
Accademia Veneziana della Fama 6
accidentals; see also under harmonic
sonority
cadential 55, 59, 60, 99, 100, 106, 121
editorial xvi, 857 n.77
expressive 1719, 20 n.62, 234, 54,
756, 84, 100, 1089, 11617, 199,
220, 231, 242, 261, 282, 285
fault-correcting 55, 60, 100, 212, 278
hard 23, 107, 261; see also hard B
performer-added 55, 857 n.77, 212
soft 23, 107, 117, 261; see also soft B
affective/expressive associations; see also
harmonic sonority; mode; textmusic relations
accidentals 23, 54, 75, 87, 1089, 290
augmented fourth 23, 28, 51, 712,
220, 249
cross relation 28, 109, 290
dissonance 19 n.61, 20, 425, 945,
99, 108, 24041, 249, 290
false relation 45 n.8, 57, 59, 1989,
249, 261
fauxbourdon 2021, 258 n.41, 290
fifth cycles 100102, 1078, 122
hard hexachord 234
harmonic sixths 20, 425, 53, 8990,
95, 108, 217, 241, 261, 267, 271
n.66, 290
imperfect consonances 41, 44, 47, 53,
54, 845, 292
major and minor intervals 13, 245,
424, 5053, 2914
major and minor modes 1719, 2924
major sixth 21, 25, 435, 47, 5054,
578, 63, 73 n.67, 84, 95, 292
major sonorities 14, 22, 245, 39,

623, 95, 264, 290
major third xv, 434, 47, 48 n.15,
5053, 84, 292
parallel major thirds 25, 579, 292
melodic sixths 513
minor sixth 14 n.43, 424, 47, 5053,
63, 85
minor sonorities 14, 245, 39, 63, 264
minor third xv, 19, 424, 47, 48 n.15,
5053, 85
Phrygian motion 39, 106, 253
rhythmic motion 15, 43, 467, 53, 56,
78, 834, 107, 12021, 231, 262,
285
semitone 424, 51, 290
soft hexachord 234, 106
tritone, see augmented fourth (above)
whole-step 434, 51, 292
Agee, Richard 205
antithesis 1, 24, 28, 38, 100, 106, 107,
11718, 120, 1212, 123, 202, 262,
282, 290, 293
Arcadelt, Jacques 20, 31 n.89, 58 n.54, 191
n.2, 193, 224
Benedetti martiri 9091, 91
Il bianco e dolce cigno 90
Perch non date voi, donna crudele
90, 91
Atlas, Allan 28, 70
B duro; see hard B
B molle; see soft B
Baldi, Bernandino 5
Barr, Leonardo 191 n.2, 192 n.4
Bellavere, Vincenzo
Pria si vedr nellarenoso lido 287,
289, 290
312
Bembist 28, 29, 59, 112, 114, 266 n.49,

281
Bembo, Pietro 7, 25, 29, 11017, 123 n.56
gravit and piacevolezza 2, 11012,
114, 257 n.37, 290
Prose della volgar lingua 110, 112, 114
numero, suono, variazione 111
Berger, Karol 556, 57
Bermudo, Juan 54, 57 n.52
Bessler, Heinrich 17
black-note madrigal 25 n.71, 76, 94, 214,
251, 285,
Boccaccio 7
Boethius 11, 19 n.61
Brown, Howard Mayer 30, 34, 97
Burney, Charles 32
cadence 16 n.53, 30, 32, 39, 55, 68, 978
n.4, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105,
1068, 115, 116, 121, 193, 202,
206, 217, 220, 226, 237, 253, 257,
258, 262, 271 n.62
accidental inflections for 59
cadential and precadential roles of
major sixth 45, 46, 58, 99
cadential dissonance 46, 99, 116, 258,
262
definition of 99
final 22, 11516, 198
medial 99, 11516, 198, 255, 261
Phrygian; see Phrygian motion
precadential dissonance 258, 262
cambiata; see nota cambiata
Cambio, Perissone 3, 118 n.48, 214,
27072, 282
Gionto mha Amor 2712, 273
Liete e pensose 271, 282
cantus durus/cantus mollis, definition of 59
Capilupi, Lelio 214
Capponi, Neri 30, 205, 265, 266
Carapetyan, Armen 25, 35 n.105, 38, 100
n.11, 1089 n.26
Cardan, Jerome 57
Caro, Annibale 245 n.23, 255
Casali, Giambattista 5
Cassola, Luigi 229
Chiericata, Lucretia 226
Christ; see Jesus
Colonna, Vittoria 16 n.53

consonant fourth 35, 94, 192, 198, 202
cross relation 28, 57, 73, 106, 109, 224,
271 n.62, 290
Danckerts, Ghiselin 10 n.31
Daolmi, Davide 89
decorum 5, 29, 37, 249, 266, 274
del Lago, Giovanni 5, 10
Donato, Baldassare 3, 27982
I vo piangendo 281
Liete e pensose 271 n.65, 282
Mentre questalme et honorate rive
1617, 16, 22
Qual sera mai si miserabil pianto 282,
2834
Doni, Antonfrancesco 270, 272, 274
Dufay, Guillaume 20
Ave regina caelorum 1719, 18, 24
Resvellies vous et faites chiere lye 16
n.53
editorial procedure xvixvii, 2 n.4, 16 n.52,
25 n.71, 227 n.10
Einstein, Alfred 1, 108 n.25
dEste 3
Alfonso 278
Ippolito II 8
false relation 45 n.8, 57, 59, 192, 1989,
212, 223, 249, 251, 252, 255, 261;
see also cross relation; mi contra fa
Farnese, Ranuccio 16
fauxbourdon 2021, 223, 25052, 255,
258, 261, 290
Feldman, Martha 4, 7, 16, 28, 29, 30, 33,
35, 59, 85, 8990, 92 n.82, 101,
114, 115, 116, 118 n.49, 121 n.54,
191, 205, 214, 224, 225, 2656,
27071, 274, 2812, 290
Ferrino, Bartolomeo 252
fifth cycle 100102, 103, 105, 1078, 115,
11617, 1223, 235, 237, 245, 258,
262, 271 n.62
final; see mode
56 motion 612, 63, 7383, 95, 102,
212, 214, 223, 225, 229, 264, 268,
2712
Index
565 neighboring motion 623, 78, 223,
229, 249, 250, 252 n.28, 253, 258,
264, 274, 285
Flury, Roman 242, 244, 250
Fromson, Michle 30, 32, 34, 1923, 198
Gabrieli, Andrea 287
Gafori, Franchino 22 n.65
Galilei, Vincenzo 15 n.48, 25, 45 n.8, 54
n.37, 56, 578, 95, 97, 106 n.21,
282, 285
Gambara, Veronica 241
Occhi lucenti e belli 2412
gamut 35, 41, 5963, 73, 76, 83, 95, 97,
109, 116, 227, 268, 274, 2924
genera (diatonic, chromatic, enharmonic)
5, 910, 19 n.61, 45 n.8, 50, 54,
229 n.12, 268 n.54
Gesualdo, Carlo 9
Glarean, Heinrich 2567
gravit; see under Bembo
Guami, Gioseffo 25 n.71, 282, 285
Giunto mha Amor 285, 2867
Mentre chel cor 285
Occhi fiamme damore 285, 288
Haar, James 29, 33, 55, 92 n.82, 100, 266,
270 n.56
hard B 234, 54, 60, 75, 106, 115, 214,
220, 229, 267, 290
hard concepts 1920, 234, 28, 38, 39, 58
n.54, 78, 84, 107, 115, 11617,
193, 214, 217, 227, 229, 235, 245,
252, 253, 255, 257, 264, 267, 268,
285, 290, 2934
hard hexachord 234, 28, 229 n.13, 290
harmonic rhythm 16, 47, 48 n.17, 63, 75,
76, 78, 83, 95, 107, 121, 217, 249,
250, 252, 258, 262, 271, 272, 285,
287, 290
harmonic sonority
accidental major 45 n.8, 87, 11617,
199, 220 n.28, 227, 242, 245, 258,
282, 285, 290
contrasted five-three and six-three
2022, 25, 28, 67, 87, 106, 108,
115, 12021, 192, 258, 261, 267,
290
313
contrasted major and minor qualities

1314, 20, 245, 28, 39, 63, 67,
736, 78, 83, 956, 107, 11617,
123, 199, 217, 220, 231, 2357,
24041, 242, 250, 258, 261, 264,
267, 282, 29094
definitions of (major, minor, dubious)
6061
emphasis of major 16, 22, 76, 78, 100,
103, 105, 115, 118, 121, 123, 206,
214, 217, 220, 223, 227, 22931,
2445, 249, 25052, 253, 255, 258,
262, 264, 268, 2712, 274, 278,
279, 282, 285, 287, 290, 2923
emphasis of minor 78, 102, 1034,
105, 1067, 1089, 119, 120, 121,
123, 217, 220, 227, 24950, 2568,
264, 274, 279, 282, 293
prolongation of 23, 35, 61, 63, 216, 245,
249, 250, 253, 255, 258, 262, 264,
268, 2712, 279, 285, 287, 290
Hatten, Robert 19
Henry VIII 5
incitato; see under Vicentino
interval affect; see affective associations;
theory of interval affect
Jesus Christ 216, 217, 220, 227, 235
Johannes Affligemensis 11 n.35
Josquin des Prez 3, 22, 56 n.49
Judd, Cristle Collins 6, 242, 257 n.39, 266
n.50
Kaufmann, Henry 53 n.31, 226
Lassus, Orlande de 212, 101 n.12, 119
n.51, 261 n.43
Psalmus Tertius Poenitentialis 21
Laura; see under Petrarch
Lester, Joel 47
Lusitano, Vicente 910
Luzzasco, Luzzaschi 9
McClary, Susan 30, 31, 32, 78, 105 n.18,
106 nn.2021, 1079
Mace, Dean 25, 28, 29, 111, 290
Malatesta, Carlo 16 n.53
314
Maniates, Maria Rika 8, 9, 51

median; see under mode
Meier, Bernhard 12 n.37, 22, 56, 106 n.21,
116 n.47, 120 n.52, 258 n.41
Meier, Helga 85, 193 n.6, 27071, 274,
281
Meyer, Leonard 191
mi contra fa 61, 231
Miller, Jonathan 29, 334
mode 6, 7, 30, 378, 66, 97 n.4, 100, 103,
105 n.18, 115, 120, 2056, 226,
242, 244; see also tonal type
expressive manipulation of 30, 54, 67,
72, 73, 94, 1034, 106 n.21, 107,
1089, 257, 262, 2923
harmonic quality in 4750
final of 11 n.35, 47, 48 n.18, 49, 50, 60,
67, 73, 100, 108, 262, 292
median of 47, 48 n.19, 50, 292
modal ethos 1112, 47 n.14, 73 n.66,
119, 122, 205, 241, 2567, 262,
2923
module; see under Willaert, style, modular
compositional technique
molle, incitato and; see under Vicentino
Monteverdi, Claudio 4
Monteverdi, Giulio Cesare 4, 104 n.17
Mouton, Jean 3
Musica nova; see under Willaert
natural hexachord 17, 229 n.13
Newcomb, Anthony 22, 108
nota cambiata 35, 121, 192, 198, 202
Nutter, David 2930
Ongaro, Giulio 312, 279
Owens, Jessie Ann 68 n.61
Palisca, Claude 25, 28, 29, 70, 256 n.35, 290
Parabosco, Girolamo 3, 20, 312, 63, 90,
214, 272, 2748, 279
Aspro cor 63, 85, 867, 87, 89
Cantai mentre chi arsi del mio foco 89
Solo e pensoso 89 n.79, 2748, 2757
parallel imperfect consonances 579, 199
parallel major thirds/tenths 25, 28, 35,
579, 66, 72, 73, 76, 87 n., 90, 192,
199, 202, 206, 212, 214, 220, 223,
249, 255, 258, 261, 264, 268, 271,

272, 274, 278, 279, 281, 285, 292
Pecorina, Polissena 1989, 205
Perkins, Leeman 1417
Petrarch, Francesco 1, 2, 7, 24, 32, 389,
57, 72, 214, 266, 268, 274, 285,
290
Cantai: hor piango 11720, 119
I piansi; hor canto 11721, 11819
I vidi in terra angelici costumi
1049, 105
I vo piangendo 25662, 256, 281
Laura 38, 72, 73, 76, 78, 989, 102,
104, 105, 1068, 113, 115, 11617,
123, 205, 217, 258
Laura mia sacra 98109, 98
Mentre chel cor da gli amorosi
vermi 11017, 11213, 285
Voi chascoltate in rime sparse il
suono 11314
Rerum vulgarium fragmenta 38, 98,
110, 112, 113, 117
Rime sparse; see previous entry
Petrarchan 20, 34, 199, 217, 241, 264, 266
Petrarchism 36, 110
Phrygian motion/gesture 39, 99, 102, 103,
104, 106, 115, 116 n.44, 117, 121,
123, 206, 220, 223 245, 253, 274,
282
definition of 39 n.115
piacevolezza; see under Bembo
Pike, Lionel 24, 119 n.51
Planchart, Alejandro 19
Plantinga, Leon 17
Plato 11 n.33
Pontio, Pietro 48 n.15, 54 n.37, 73 n.67
Porta, Costanzo 3
Io pensai dolce e grato 52 n.28
positions, definition of 5960
Powers, Katherine 217
Prosdocimo de Beldomandi 13
Rifkin, Joshua 31
Rivera, Benito 5 n.12, 30, 33
Rore, Cipriano de 3, 4, 5, 6, 20, 25 n.71, 31
n.89, 52, 98 n., 106 n.21, 206 n.,
212, 214, 224, 2658, 281 n.83
Cantai mentre chi arsi del mio foco 89
Index
Da le belle contrade 104 n.17
Mia benigna fortuna el viver lieto 52,
267 n.53
O sonno 2678 n.53
Quanto pi mavicino 267, 267
Quel sempre acerbo et honorato giorno
268, 269
Sfrondate, o sacre dive 8990, 90
Strane ruppi, aspri monti 92, 92, 94,
293 n.101
San Marco 3, 5, 6, 9, 265, 270, 272, 279,
280, 281, 285, 287
Sannazaro, Jacopo 216
Schick, Hartmut 72 n.65
Schick, Paul Christopher 2930, 34
Schiltz, Katelijne 31, 32 n.92, 39 n.115, 224
Schubert, Peter 31, 33, 68 n.61
Scuola Grande di San Rocco 287
65 motion 612, 63, 83, 92, 94, 95, 229,
249, 264, 274
soft B 234, 39, 54, 60, 66, 756, 106, 267,
290
soft concept 1920, 234, 28, 38, 39, 78,
845, 102, 1067, 108, 11617,
122, 217, 220, 227, 229, 235, 240,
245, 257, 264, 267, 285, 290, 2934
soft hexachord 234, 28, 106, 199 n.10,
229 n.13, 290
soggetto 30, 33, 34, 723, 268, 293
solmization pun 229
sonority; see harmonic sonority
sonorous number; see under Zarlino
Spataro, Giovanni 5, 10
spiritual madrigal 21623, 2279, 235,
24952, 25662, 281
Strozzi, Filippo 202, 2056
Rompi de lempio cor 205
Strozzi, Ruberto 30, 205, 2656
suspension 21, 43, 58, 63, 712, 90, 945,
99, 108, 116, 12021, 206, 217,
227, 229, 241, 242, 249, 253, 255,
261, 278, 279, 285
chain 63, 66, 73, 85, 87, 89, 92, 94,
268
double 45, 108 n.24, 220, 223, 255
triple 229
315
text-music relations 1423, 97; see also

affective/expressive associations
theory of interval affect; see also under
Vicentino; Willaert; Zarlino
definition of 1, 412
efficacy and validity of 559
novelty of 1114, 24
priority of harmonic over melodic
intervals 56, 667, 95 n.83
relationship to gamut 5963
transformation of 29094
tonal type 48, 94, 99, 1034, 105, 109, 118,
119, 206, 240, 241, 256, 2578
n.39, 262, 268, 274, 282, 293; see
also mode
definition of in this study 48 n.18
tonal types for Musica nova madrigals
49
Vanneus, Stephanus 13, n.41
varietas/variety 28, 29, 57, 59, 66, 73 n.65,
111, 290
Verdelot, Phillipe 20, 31 n.89, 1923, 202,
224
vertical six-five 35, 115, 116 n.44, 192, 202
Vicentino, Nicola 12, 3, 6, 811, 15, 20,
45 n.8, 556, 60, 73, 75, 90, 95,
22542, 244, 245, 252, 2645
Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna
prattica 2, 6, 8, 10, 368, 42,
5054, 62, 226, 229 nn.1213, 231,
235, 268 n.54
compositions
Alma gentil 22931, 230
Amor ecco 227 n.7
Amor io son si lieto 24041
Capitolo de la passione di Christo
623, 2279, 228, 235, 2367,
241 n.16
Da quei begli occhi 241 n.16
Deh cosi potessio 241 n.16
Donna sio miro 52
Fiamma gentil 235, 237, 2389, 240
Fin che mamasta mai arsi 229
n.13, 2315, 2324, 241 n.16
Laura che il verde lauro 227 n.8,
241 n.16
316
Vicentino, Nicola (continued)

Madonna che per voi semprardo
241 n.16
Mentre chio guardo fiso 231 n.13
Occhi lucenti e belli 2412, 243
Quandol desir 229 n.13, 241 n.16
Se la mia donna miro 227 n.7
Si grand la piet 24041
Solo e pensoso 274 n.73, 89 n.79
harmonic style 2267, 2645
incitato and molle 512, 55 n.43
on interval affect 1, 1011, 13, 21,
378, 412, 5054, 56, 63, 73 n.66,
76, 95, 97, 99, 102, 123, 199, 225,
231, 258, 266, 29091
Madrigali a cinque voci, libro primo
53, 62, 22541, 244, 264, 265, 272
Madrigali a cinque voci, libro quinto
52, 225, 227, 2412, 265
on parallel imperfect consonances 57,
59
Victoria, Toms Luis de 22
Viola, Francesco dalla 3, 206 n., 2789, 285
Deh perche non credete 278, 279
Gionto mha Amor 2789
In qual parte del ciel 2789
Poi che nostro servir 279, 280
Siepi chel bel giardin 279, 281
Talhor massale in mezzo 2789
Vivo sol di speranza 2789
voice-leading models 613, 73, 76, 92
n.82, 94, 95, 120, 249, 264, 268,
2712, 274, 2923; see also 56;
565; 65
Walker, D.P. 41, 56, 266 n.51, 2913
Wert, Giaches de 20, 109 n.26
Aspro cor 85, 879, 88
Dura legge dAmor 925, 93
Solo e pensoso 89 n.79
Wexler, Richard 5 n.10
Wiering, Frans 103
Willaert, Adrian
and Bembo 12, 25, 29, 11017
compositions
Amor, Fortuna 49
Amor mi fa morire 192
Aspro core e selvaggio e cruda

voglia 248, 267, 30, 41, 42,
46, 49, 54, 578, 638, 645,
7076, 745, 83, 84 n.74, 85
90, 92, 946, 106 n.19, 107,
109, 118, 120, 214, 229, 245,
249, 268, 272, 274, 278, 293
Ave regina caelorum 31 n.88
Cantai: hor piango 49, 101,
11723, 17790, 202, 241
Che fai, alma? 49
Con doglie con piet 192 n.4
Confitebor tibi Domine/In
quacumque die/Si ambulavero
39, 39, 261 n.42
Gi mi godea felice 202, 2034
Giunto mha Amor 30, 46, 49,
768, 77, 7980, 83, 84, 101,
106 n.19, 109, 214, 251, 270,
274, 285
I begli occhi 49, 101
Ingrata la mia donna 231 n.13
In qual parte del ciel 49, 75 n.68,
84 n.74, 103 n.16, 257 n.39,
278
I piansi, hor canto 49, 68 n.62, 84
n.74, 91 n.80, 11722, 16476,
193, 202, 241
Io amai sempre 30, 49, 68, 69
Io mi rivolgo 49, 84 n.74, 101, 278
I vidi in terra angelici costumi 46,
49, 73 n.66, 83, 84 n.74, 100
n.11, 101, 1049, 115, 116,
122, 13850, 217, 235, 245,
256, 262
Lasso, chi ardo 46, 49
Laura mia sacra 33, 49, 84 n.74,
98109, 115, 116, 122, 12437,
206 n., 217, 235, 245,
Liete e pensose 1314, 14, 23, 49,
63 n.60, 76, 84 n.74, 118, 123,
267, 271, 282
Madonna, il bel desire 1928,
1947
Mentre chel cor 2 n.3, 49, 84 n.74,
100 n.11, 101, 103, 11017,
122, 15163, 205, 235, 285
Index
Ne lamare freddonde 21416,
215
O admirabile commercium 58 n.54
Occhi piangete 49, 84 n.74
O invidia, nemica di virtute 30, 48
n.19, 49, 78, 812, 83, 84 n.74,
229
Onde tolse Amor 49, 258 n.39,
Ove chi posi gli occhi 46, 49, 63
n.60, 83, 84 n.74, 108 n.24
Passa la nave 49, 101
Piangetegri mortali 22 n.66,
21623, 21819, 2213, 250
Pien dun vago pensier 49, 101
n.12
Pi volte gi 49
Qual dolcezza giamai 1989,
200201
Quando fra laltre donne 46, 49, 83
Quando i begli occhi 192 n.4
Quando nascesti, Amor? 49
Questanima gentil 49, 231 n.13
Quid non ebrietas 45
Rompi de lempio cor 202, 2056,
20711
Se la gratia divina 212, 21213
Sel veder voi mancide 192 n.4
Victimae paschali laudes/Dic nobis
Maria 36 n.109
influence of 24, 13, 1516, 412, 53,
567, 73, 845, 925, 226, 229,
235, 241, 245, 249, 26490, 294
life 16, 8, 312, 1912, 1989, 2056,
21416, 2656, 272, 278, 27980,
282
madrigals 1, 1314, 15, 20, 248,
2931, 337, 412, 489, 579,
6385, 97123, 191224, 244, 290
motets 1, 3, 25 n.71, 29 n.81, 30, 31,
35, 369, 46, 58 n.54, 67 n.61, 98,
108 n.26, 118 n.49, 199, 224
Musica nova
historical and cultural context of
13, 5, 589, 1912, 1989,
205, 214, 278
reception of 7, 29, 314, 37, 41, 46,
578, 834
scholarship on 2934
317
style of; see under style (below)

style
harmonic 3, 1920, 223, 35, 39,
49, 61, 73, 1912, 202, 224
melodic 334
modular compositional technique
6773, 120
of Musica nova madrigals 13,
1314, 28, 329, 51, 54, 58,
835, 91, 97123, 1912,
193, 1989, 202, 2056, 212,
21416, 217, 220, 223, 224,
225, 227, 241, 256, 257 n.39,
258, 262, 264, 265, 267, 274,
278, 29091, 293 n.100
of Musica nova motets 30, 31, 35,
369, 58 n.54, 108 n.26, 199,
224
of other madrigals 191224
private vs. public 356, 1912,
216, 224, 225
theory of interval affect 1, 1314,
238, 73, 845, 956, 117, 265,
282, 29094
word-sound 24, 25, 29, 334, 76 n.71,
11015, 117
Zantani, Antonio 214, 216
Zantani, Helena Barozza 21415
Zarlino, Gioseffo 12, 3, 4, 58, 9, 1011,
15, 25 n.75, 36, 56, 60, 73, 75, 87,
90, 94, 106, 109, 225, 242, 24465,
272, 278, 279, 280, 282
arithmetic/harmonic division 478, 262
compositions
Amor mentre dormia 45 n.9,
2459, 2468
Cantin con dolce gratiosi accenti
245 n.22
Come si maccendete 244 n.20
Donna che quasi cigno 229 n.13,
249 n.24, 255
forse il mio ben 245 n.23, 2556
questol legno 245 n.22, 24952,
251, 255
I vo piangendo 22 n.66, 206 n.,
245 nn.223, 25662, 25961,
2634
318
Zarlino, Gioseffo (continued)

Lauro gentile 252, 253
Mentre del mio buon Caro 245
n.23, 255
Spentera gi lardor 245 n.22,
2535, 254
exemplar of harsh harmony 445, 45,
84, 95, 245
harmonic numbers 50
harmonic style 2445, 2645
madrigals 20, 24465
motets 242, 244, 257 n.39
on interval affect 1, 1011, 21, 37,
4154, 62, 63, 73, 75, 76, 845, 95,
97, 99, 102, 123, 199, 214, 225,

241, 258, 266, 29092
on parallel imperfect consonances 57,
59, 2234, 249 n.24
on soggetto 30, 72 n.64
sonorous number 479
theoretical works
Dimostrationi harmoniche 7, 278
Le istitutioni harmoniche xv, 2, 4,
6, 7, 11, 37, 427, 76, 835,
103, 104, 119, 2056, 249,
2512, 2567, 266 n.50, 292
Sopplimenti musicali 7, 312, 285

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