NUCLEAR ENGINEERING AND DESIGN 8 (1968) 171-185. NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMP..

AMSTERDAM

S H A K E D O W N INVESTIGATIONS ON PARTIAL P E N E T R A T I O N
WELDED NOZZLES IN A SPHERICAL SHELL
E. P R O C T E R a n d R. F. F L I N D E R S

Central Electricity Generating Board,

Berkeley Nuclear Laboratories, Berkeley, Glos., England
Received 18 M a r c h 1968

The elastic a n a l y s i s of r a d i a l and oblique nozzles in a spherical shell, subject to internal p r e s s u r e ,

has been d e s c r i b e d and d i s c u s s e d in an e a r l i e r paper. This paper d e s c r i b e s t e s t s on the same vessel, to
investigate the shakedown behaviour at the nozzle to shell junctions.
T h r e e basic designs of partial penetration welded nozzles were investigated, one of each design mounted
r a d i a l l y and the o t h e r at 45 obliquity. F o r the purpose of the elastic a n a l y s i s and to observe the effects
of i n c r e a s i n g plasticity on s t r e s s die-away, four hundred E . R . s t r a i n gauges were fixed to the inner and
outer s u r f a c e s of the shell plate and nozzles. To monitor the shakedown behaviour, however, it was only
n e c e s s a r y to o b s e r v e the gauges at the f i r s t yield positions, although other gauges did prove of value in
c e r t a i n a s p e c t s , which a r e d i s c u s s e d in the paper. Strain plots indicating the s h a k e d o ~ behaviour of
each nozzle a r e shown in the paper.
The r e s u l t s a r e c o m p a r e d with theoretical predictions and it is d e m o n s t r a t e d that, for low carbon
steels, shakedown loads can be calculated provided the plastic s t r e s s at f i r s t yielding positions can be
determined.

i. INTRODUCTION
A p r e v i o u s p a p e r [1] d e s c r i b e s , i n s o m e d e tail, the reasons underlying this experimental
w o r k . It i s s t a t e d t h a t t h e o v e r a l l r e q u i r e m e n t
of t h e t e s t p r o g r a m m e i s to p r o v i d e e x p e r i m e n t a l
i n f o r m a t i o n f o r two m a i n r e a s o n s :
1. V e r i f i c a t i o n of t h e o r e t i c a l s o l u t i o n s .
2. P r e d i c t i o n of t h e b e h a v i o u r of t y p i c a l c o m ponents which cannot at present be theoretically a n a l y s e d , a s s i s t i n g b o t h d e s i g n e r s of f u t u r e
p l a n t a n d o p e r a t o r s of e x i s t i n g p l a n t .
One suggested design concept, which has res u l t e d f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s , i s t h a t of s h a k e down. T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t s t r u c t u r e s c o n t a i n i n g
discontinuities such as nozzle attachments, can
be repeatedly pressurized beyond first yield without y i e l d i n g c o n t i n u i n g i n d e f i n i t e l y . In t h e o r y , t h e
s h a k e d o w n s t a t e i s a c h i e v e d w h e n on d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n , a s e t of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s a r e s e t up w i t h in t h e s t r u c t u r e s u c h t h a t , on a l l s u b s e q u e n t c y c l e s , t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l b e h a v e in a p u r e l y e l a s t i c
manner.
A r m s t r o n g a n d F r e d e r i c k [2] h a v e p o i n t e d out
t h a t in i d e a l c a s e s ( s p e c i f i e d g e o m e t r i e s a n d
f o r m s of l o a d i n g a n d a s s u m i n g e l a s t i c - p e r f e c t l y
plastic materials behaviour) shakedown will occ u r on t h e f i r s t l o a d c y c l e a t l o a d s up to t w i c e
t h o s e to c a u s e f i r s t y i e l d . L e c k i e [3], L e c k i e a n d

P e n n y [4] a n d L e c k i e a n d P a y n e [5] h a v e c a l c u lated shakedown pressures for protruding and

flush nozzles, radially mounted, in spherical
pressure vessels. For nozzles with dimensional
r a t i o s s i m i l a r to t h o s e b e i n g t e s t e d , t h e c a l c u lated values are appreciably lower than twice
first yield pressure.
Six p r o t r u d i n g n o z z l e s , t h r e e r a d i a l a n d t h r e e
a t 45 o b l i q u i t y , m o u n t e d i n a s p h e r i c a l s h e l l a n d
m a n u f a c t u r e d i n low c a r b o n s t e e l , h a v e b e e n
t e s t e d i n o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e t h e i r s h a k e d o w n b e haviour and compare this with the theoretical
predictions.
2. D E S C R I P T I O N O F T E S T V E S S E L AND
NOZZLES
A detailed description is given in the earlier
p a p e r a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y only b r i e f d e t a i l s a r e p r o vided here.
2.1. M a t e r i a l s and weld p r o c e d u r e s
To a l l o w c o m p a r i s o n s to b e m a d e w i t h full s i z e
prototype vessels the materials were specially
s e l e c t e d to h a v e m a t c h i n g p r o p e r t i e s . T h e m a n u facturers analysis for the shell plate and nozzle
m a t e r i a l s a r e g i v e n i n t a b l e 1.
Nozzle weld procedures were carefully develo p e d s o t h a t t h e y a l s o w e r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of f u l l

172

E. PROCTER and R. F. FLINDERS

Table 1
Plate to
BS1501(1958)-161-C

Forged B a r to
BS1503(1958)-161-B

0.22%

0.21%

Si

0.2%

0.233%

0.02%

0.038%

0.024%

0.028%

Mn

0.78%

0.72%

Ni

0.1%

Cr

0.08%

Mo

0.01%

Cu

0.12%

YP

17.7 tsi

17.17 tsi

31.4 t s i

31.9 tsi

UTS
Elongation

24% on 8 in.
gauge length

Reduction
of A r e a

4...3
|

liar

-,

~'~'~

~J~J

~ i "0"196

0,01441

35% on 4 A

61%

s c a l e p r a c t i c e . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n w a s p a i d to
t h e h a r d n e s s a n d w i d t h of h e a t a f f e c t e d z o n e s a n d
t h e h a r d n e s s of d e p o s i t e d w e l d m a t e r i a l .

2"875"DIA. .~

2.2. Manufaclure
T h e n o z z l e s w e r e p o s i t i o n e d in t h e v e s s e l
such that there was negligible elastic stress interference between them. Nozzle sections are
s h o w n in f i g s . 1-3.
Fig. 1 s h o w s t h e t h i c k e s t p a i r of n o z z l e s
f i t t e d in t h e v e s s e l . T h e s e a r e n o m i n a l l y t r u e
to s c a l e of r e a c t o r v e s s e l s t a n d p i p e n o z z l e s d e s i g n e d to BS 1500, in w h i c h d e s i g n a l l r e i n f o r c e ment for the opening in the shell plate is provided
by t h e n o z z l e . Fig. 2 s h o w s n o z z l e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of r e a c t o r v e s s e l s t a n d p i p e a t t a c h m e n t s , d e s i g n e d to BS 1500, b u t w h e r e t h e w h o l e of t h e
u p p e r p a r t of t h e v e s s e l i s m a d e in t h i c k e r p l a t e
t h a n r e q u i r e d by n o r m a l m e m b r a n e s t r e s s c a l c u l a t i o n s , i.e. p a r t r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r t h e o p e n i n g s
i s p r o v i d e d by the n o z z l e a n d p a r t by the u s e of
t h i c k e r s h e l l p l a t e . Fig. 3 s h o w s t h e f i n a l p a i r
of n o z z l e s . It w a s d e s i r e d to d e s i g n t h e s e on a
p u r e p r e s s u r e s t r e n g t h b a s i s , i.e. n o z z l e t h i c k n e s s 0.035 in. O w i n g to o b v i o u s w e l d i n g p r o b l e m s
t h e n o z z l e s w e r e m a d e ~zn. t h i c k . T h e r a d i a l
n o z z l e i s s l i g h t l y t h i c k e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d by
DS 3915 ( t = 0.07 in.) a n d t h e o b l i q u e n o z z l e
s l i g h t l y t h i n n e r (BS 3915, l = 0.21 in.).
Care was taken before and during manufacture
to e n s u r e t h a t t o l e r a n c e s w o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ,
a t t h i s s c a l e , of r e a c t o r p r a c t i c e . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t t e s t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e a n g l e s of t h e o b l i q u e
1

Fig. 1. Sections through nozzles 1 and 4.

n o z z l e s c o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d w i t h i n +2 . In t h e
test vessel the maximum deviation from nominal
w a s 1. T h e t e s t p l a t e p r o f i l e w a s c h e c k e d by
templates. The maximum deviation from true
s h a p e , m e a s u r e d o v e r a 4 ft c h o r d a l l e n g t h w a s
0 . 0 5 0 i n . , a n d o v e r a ] ft c h o r d a l l e n g t h 0.025 in.
These tolerances are well within acceptable
limits, even when considering the scale factor.
T h e n o z z l e s w e r e m a c h i n e d to a n a c c u r a c y of
+0.005 in. o n d i a m e t e r . Two h o l e s of ~ i n . d i a m eter were drilled through each nozzle wall and
located between the inner and outer filled welds
( s e e f i g s . 1-3). T h e s e w e r e to f a c i l i t a t e l e a k
t e s t s on t h e r o o t r u n s . Any f l a w s a l l o w i n g l e a k age rates greater than 1 cusec were repaired
before further welding. After completion, the

SHAKEDOWN INVESTIGATIONS

i 2s~'

175

NOZZLE. 2.

"~

V"

VJ

NOZZLE 3

,,,
%,

. ~

o
. o.o,,~,

320 ~

NOZZLE 5.
~T m 0"217
~D( ~ 0"0148

; ~

~ i ~ O'il4

~./~l

//

NOZZLE a

- O.H
blO| -- 0"0i48
I~
0 04]4

t/T

Fig. 2. Sections through nozzles 2 and 5.

n o z z l e welds w e r e u l t r a s o n i c a l l y e x a m i n e d and
found to be f r e e of any flaws. A t h i c k n e s s s u r v e y
on the t e s t p l at e at 3 in. p i t c h e s , indicated t h i c k n e s s v a r i a t i o n s between 1.125 in. and 1.135 in.

3. INSTRUMENTATION
Full d e t a i l s of the i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and p o s i t i o n s
of the s t r a i n gauges a r e p r o v i d e d in the p r e v i o u s
paper.
The s t r a i n gauges used w e r e Budd type HE 121,
having ~ in. gauge length and 120 ohm n o m in a l
resistance. Laboratory tests demonstrated these
gauges to be s a t i s f a c t o r y for m e a s u r i n g s t r a i n s
up to at l e a s t 7~o when used with Budd type GA 5
adhesive.

Fig. 3. Sections through nozzles 3 and 6.

4. T E S T PROCEDURE
In o r d e r to i n v e s t i g a t e shakedown b e h a v i o u r ,
the v e s s e l was p r e s s u r e cycled at a n u m b e r of
p r e d e t e r m i n e d p r e s s u r e i n c r e m e n t s . On the i n i tial p r e s s u r e cycle, s t r a i n s w e r e r e c o r d e d at
n o m i n a l p r e s s u r e i n c r e m e n t s up to the p a r t i c u l a r
t e s t p r e s s u r e , and on unloading, at mid t e s t p r e s
s u r e and z e r o . On subsequent p r e s s u r e c y c l e s ,
s t r a i n s w e r e r e c o r d e d at z e r o , t e s t p r e s s u r e ,
and mid t e s t p r e s s u r e on both the loading and unloading p a r t of the cycle. To d e t e r m i n e the n u m b er of c y c l e s n e c e s s a r y at each t e s t p r e s s u r e ,
the s t r a i n s f r o m gauges located at the m a x i m u m
equivalent s t r e s s p o s i t i o n s w e r e plotted during
the t e s t s , and it was c o n s i d e r e d that the s t r u c t u r e had shaken down when i d e n t i c a l s t r a i n s w e r e
recorded during three successive cycles.

174

E. PROCTER and R. F. FLINDERS

1.0

CREEP18HRS, /
& 8 CYCLES~/

09

f
PROOFTEST

~/
/

0.8

0"7

,';'LO,
DESIGN.

/--

(~)
O-16%

22%

0-6

(i)

CYCLESTO"SHAKEDOWN"AND

05

04

0-3

02

O.I

[
OO5

I .........
OI

J____
O'15
% STRAIN

[
0"2

. . . . .

0.2.5

0!3

Fig. 4. Shakedo~'n behaviour, thick radial nozzle.

P r e s s u r e c y c l i n g w a s c a r r i e d out a t t e s t p r e s s u r e s r a n g i n g f r o m 450 to 700 p s i g a t 50 p s i i n c r e m e n t s . W h e n t h e p r e s s u r e w a s i n c r e a s e d to
750 p s i g t i m e d e p e n d e n t c r e e p w a s o b s e r v e d . T h e
p r e s s u r e w a s m a i n t a i n e d f o r 18 h o u r s w h e n it
was considered that the creep has ceased; however, when recommencing pressure cycling the
creep was reintroduced. After eight cycles,
l i t t l e r e d u c t i o n w a s o b s e r v e d in t h e i n c r e m e n t a l
strains, thus the test was terminated.
T o o b s e r v e t h e e f f e c t s of p r e s s u r e c y c l i n g a t
design pressure, after having subjected the vess e l to a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e , r e p r e s e n t i n g a p r o o f
t e s t , t h e n e x t s e r i e s of p r e s s u r e c y c l e s w e r e
c a r r i e d out b e t w e e n z e r o a n d 600 p s i g .
S u b s e q u e n t t e s t s i n v o l v e d 10 p r e s s u r e c y c l e s
a t e a c h 50 p s i i n c r e m e n t b e t w e e n 750 a n d 900 p s i g ,

i.e. o n e 50 p s i i n c r e m e n t b e y o n d m e m b r a n e
pressure.

yield

5. R E S U L T S
T h e b e h a v i o u r of e a c h n o z z l e a t t h e e s t i m a t e d
f i r s t y i e l d p o s i t i o n d u e to p r e s s u r e c y c l i n g i s
s h o w n i n f i g s . 4 - 9 . T h e s e a r e p l o t s of hoop
s t r a i n , w h i c h i s t h e m a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n in
each case, against the ratio
test pressure
membrane yield pressure
At e a c h p r e s s u r e i n c r e m e n t , t h e n u m b e r of c y c l e s
to a c h i e v e a s h a k e d o w n c o n d i t i o n i s s h o w n , a s i s
t h e w i d t h of t h e h y s t e r e s i s loop a s a p e r c e n t a g e of

175

SHAKEDOWN INVESTIGATIONS

I'O
CREEP
18 HRS,
8 CYCLES~

AND
0'9

TEST

0-8
~

O'8 %

0"7

/
//
O'6 I-

~ 0 . 8

--

I-0

l/

is.r
////

0.7

/~

//

9uJ

0'5

//

Y-

()

,//

CYCLES T O *SHAKEDOWN"
L O O P WIDTH
o/o
YIELD STRAIN

i.O%

//

uJ
:r

AND

0"4
h
/t
//
/i
/I
//

0"3

js~Y l ~

/
l/
#
//
//

"r R

o.i

~/T"

O'29

~T--

86

/
!

i/
- 0'05

g i,

I
O.OS

I
0.1

I
O.IS

I
0.2

I
0.25

0.3

0"4

e/o STRAIN

Fig. 5. Shakedo~m behaviour, medium radial nozzle.

yield s t r ai n . It was c o n s i d e r e d that a shakedown
condition had been a c h i e v e d when the s t r a i n s at
m a x i m u m and z e r o p r e s s u r e w e r e r e p e a t e d on
t h r e e s u c c e s s i v e c y c l e s . In a ll c a s e s , t h e r e f o r e ,
the total n u m b e r of p r e s s u r e c y c l e s applied to
the v e s s e l at any one i n c r e m e n t was at l e a s t two
m o r e than the n u m b e r shown. The f i r s t y i e l d
p r e s s u r e m a r k e d on th e s e plots was d e t e r m i n e d
by applying the p r i n c i p a l e l a s t i c s t r a i n r a t i o s to
Von M i s e s y i el d c r i t e r i o n and equating this to the
uniaxial y i el d s t r a i n f o r the n o z z l e m a t e r i a l .
The design and p r o o f t e s t p r e s s u r e s r e l a t e to
BS 3915, i.e. d e s i g n s t r e s s = ~ y i e l d s t r e s s and
proo f t e s t p r e s s u r e = 1.25 design p r e s s u r e .
To indicate the effect of p r o o f t e s t i n g at p r e s -

s u r e s in e x c e s s of the shakedown l i m i t , p r e s s u r e
c y c l e s of 0-600 psig w e r e applied a f t e r the 750
psig test. Fig. 10 shows the s t r a i n b eh av i o u r at
the f i r s t y i e l d i n g position in the thin oblique
nozzle. This is typical of al l the other c a s e s .

6. DISCUSSION

6.1. Experimental behaviour

Figs. 6-9 showing the m a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l
s t r a i n s plotted ag ai n st t e s t p r e s s u r e , show that,
when p r e s s u r e cycling to beyond f i r s t y i e l d p r e s s u r e , s t r a i n h y s t e r e s i s loops a r e f o r m e d . As
would be expected, width of the loops i n c r e a s e as

176

E. PROCTER

and R. F. FLINDERS

CYCLES

NO

SHAKEDOWN,

9-

-PROOF

TEST

3-

7-DESIGN

CYCLES

TO

LOOP
YIELD

0 6%

SHAKEDOWN
WIDTH
STRAIN

P
o,
a

6-

5-

IST YIELD
S.F.=
2-15
(EQUIVALENT)

$-

l-

>_

I
005

I
01

I
0 15
%

Fig. 6. Shakedown behaviour,

the pressure
range increases.
At any one pressure, however, the loop width remains nominally
constant from the first cycle. Also, the width of
loop appears to a certain extent to be independent
of strain magnitude and strain range. For instance,
the plots for the thin and medium oblique nozzles
(figs. 8 and 9) show nominally the same strain
magnitude and range, at approximately
twice first
yield pressure
in each case, while the loop widths
are grossly different.
This is probably connected
with the size of the plastic zones and the restraint
provided by the surrounding
elastic material.
The hysteresis
loops do not prevent the determination of a shakedown condition. As previously
described,
shakedown was considered to have oc-

0.2

0.25

03

0.1,

/,

86

I
0.35

I
04

STRAIN

thin radial nozzle.

curred when the recorded strains were identical

at the maximum and zero pressure
on three successive cycles.
The two nozzles having the largest equivalent
SCFs * demonstrated
a shakedown condition,
after 4 cycles in each case, at pressures
nominally twice those to cause first yielding,
i.e. the
thin oblique nozzle, equivalent SCF 2.78, achieved
a shakedown condition at 1.98 times first yield
pressure
and the medium oblique, equivalent
SCF 2.56, at 1.96 times first yield pressure.
At
* SCF = stress concentration factor; stress magnitude
divided by the corresponding
stress in an unpierced
sphere of the same radius and thickness.

SHAKEDOWN INVESTIGATIONS

I.o--

177

NO SHAKEDOWN77
~
8 CYCLES~ / / /
CREEP18HRS.~+ ~ y

(~

0"9--

+-"

i.s /o

PROOF TEST

0'8--

I-2 o~

(~)C YCLES TO
SHAKELooP
WIDTHDOWNAND
0"46 /o YIELD STRAIN

0"7-- -

0-46

DESIGN

0"34 lo-~'~,~

0'6--

/
0'5--

IS!YIELD
SC_JE2.16
(EQUIVALENT)

," / / /

4,//~//
~//

0-4--

///

0,3--

///
0"2

R
~,/tE

*'/T

~/T

"

0"24
0"6
86

0-I

//

I
0.05

O'1

O.15

0"2
% STRAIN

I
0"25

I
0"3

I
0"35

I
0"4

Fig. 7. Shakedown behaviour, thick oblique nozzle.

the next p r e s s u r e i n c r e m e n t s , 2.14 and 2.1 t i m e s
f i r s t y i el d r e s p e c t i v e l y , shakedown was not
achieved. The ad v an c e in peak s t r a i n , i.e. the i n c r e m e n t a l d i s t o r t i o n , o c c u r r i n g on each p r e s s u r e
cycle was r e a s o n a b l y consistent.
The r e m a i n i n g four n o z z l e s d e m o n s t r a t e d
shakedown b eh av i o u r at all the i n c r e m e n t s of p r e s s u r e up to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7/8 m e m b r a n e y i e l d
p r e s s u r e , when t i m e dependent c r e e p was obs e r v e d . This was exhibited in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s by
the m a j o r i t y of s t r a i n g a u g e s , although it was not
d e m o n s t r a t e d by those gauges on the s h e l l plate
r e m o t e f r o m the n o z z l e s , i.e. the gauges i n d i c a t ing m e m b r a n e s t r a i n v a l u e s . A f t e r m a i n t a i n i n g the
p r e s s u r e for 18 h o u r s it was c o n s i d e r e d that c r e e p

had ceased. However, when r e c o m m e n c i n g p r e s s u r e cycling c r e e p continued and showed no signs

of d i m i n i s h i n g a f t e r eight cycles. This was g e n uine t i m e dependent b e h a v i o u r , as opposed to i n c r e m e n t a l d i s t o r t i o n , such as o c c u r r e d on the
thin and m e d i u m oblique n o z z l e beyond t h ei r shake.
down p r e s s u r e . At this p r e s s u r e , the thick oblique
and thin r a d i a l n o z z l e s w e r e nominally 1.9 t i m e s ,
the m e d i u m r a d i a l 1.55 t i m e s , and the thick r a d i a l
1.25 t i m e s the p r e s s u r e to cause f i r s t yielding, in
each case.
The s t r a i n plots for the m a x i m u m r e a d i n g
gauges in the m e d i u m and thick r a d i a l n o z z l e s
(figs. 4 and 5) d e m o n s t r a t e nominally constant
s t r a i n as p r e s s u r e is i n c r e a s e d beyond f i r s t yield,

o.I

O-2

03

04

o. :" 0 5

0"6

O '

0'8

O"9

tO

L-

0'05

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I!ffYIELD
S.C.F."2"S6
[EQUIVALENT]

DESIGN

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PROOF TEST

OI

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4//

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O'15

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4"

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i%

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Fig.

0"2

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///

8.

/ '/

7/ / '
/ /
/ /
/

/, / /

2'3%

//

/ ,
/

//"

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/
/

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medium

O'35

iT YIELD

/ / /" /

?.1%

% STRAIN

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behaviour,

03

l/

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/ /
/ /

Shakedown

0"25

/,
/
,/ /,

// /
/,'

2.6%

=029

oblique

0.4

R = B6
T

nozzle.

0-45

0"5

CYCLES TO SHAKEDOWN &

LOOP WIDTH o
YI----EED~N /o

=o2,0

/5//

2'3/

//
/'7

//

11"4%

o.55

8 CYCLES
NO SHAKEDOWN

0.6

065

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0

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bl

Ii

--

O'1

0"2

0"3

o-,

O S

DESIGN

PROOF TEST

I/
O" I

0"O5

_ _ _ _ lit'YiELD
S.C,E = 2"78 [EQUIVALENT]

0'6 --

0.7 -

0-8

09

I'O

/
O'15

/
I___~

//

O/o

0"25

/7

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/7

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/7

/7

/7
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02

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//

0"3

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/+///

STRAIN

/z

//

I
O3S

O. II

04

.-8

T =

2.9%

~x

~?~:
0202,

i it YIELD

~/"

,z

//"

Fig. 9. S h a k e d o ~ behaviour, thin oblique nozzle.

./7

//
,7

"

<9

0.920/0

2.9%

6.70/0

045

W,OT,

O5

YIELD STRAIN

,oop

CYCLES TO SHAKEDOWN &

8 CYCLES
/
NO SHAKEDOWN

'

055

"

p.a
-..]
.O

m
r~

in

O.I

O-;

0-3

O',~

O-S

O'~

0"7

0'8

O.j

I.O

I~1"YIELD

-DESIGN

0"1

I /

PROOF TEST

I
/

02

Ii
I

If

0-3

o 4

o.s

/o

STRAIN

0.6

/
ov

Fig. 10. Reduced p r e s s u r e cycling, thin oblique nozzle.

//

J
0"8

0"9

SHAKEDOWN AT
FIRST CYCLE.
[ l ' g x l ~t YIELD P R E S S U R E / / /

t0

C R.EEP

oo
o

SHAKEDOWN INVESTIGATIONS
until membrane yield pressure is approached.
The most probable explanation for this behaviour
is that the strain gauges were not attached at the
true first yielding positions. Since the axial positioning was correct it was considered that the
nozzles were not located symmetrically in the
openings in the shell plate, resulting in small
s t r e s s g r a d i e n t s a r o u n d t h e n o z z l e s . To d e m o n strate this, strain gauges were attached around
t h e i n n e r c i r c u m f e r e n c e of e a c h r a d i a l n o z z l e in
a second test vessel which is being prepared for
creep testing. Strains were recorded during a
preliminary pressure test at ambient temperature. Variations in circumferential strain were
d e t e c t e d up to t h e o r d e r of 4~0. S i m i l a r b e h a v i o u r
w a s i n d i c a t e d by n u m e r o u s g a u g e s , in a n d l o c a l
to a l l t h e n o z z l e s , t h a t w e r e o b v i o u s l y n o t f i x e d
at first yield positions.
6.2. Comparisons with theory
6.2.1. Plastic analysis
A r m s t r o n g a n d F r e d e r i c k [2] h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e V-on M i s e s y i e l d c r i t e r i o n to t h e s h a k e d o w n t h e o r e m . T h e y s h o w e d t h a t
provided plastic collapse does not occur first, the
shakedown limit will be twice first yield pressure
s o l o n g a s t h e r a t i o s of t h e m a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s e s a n d t h e i r d i r e c t i o n s r e m a i n c o n s t a n t . If
the stress ratio changes, the shakedown limit will
b e l o w e r , but c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d . F o r a b i a x i a l
stress system, i.e., when the third principal
s t r e s s i s z e r o , c h a n g e s in t h e s t r e s s r a t i o s c a n
b e e x p r e s s e d a s a n g u l a r r o t a t i o n of t h e s t r e s s
v e c t o r on t h e V-on M i s e s e l l i p s e a n d if e l a s t i c
perfectly plastic materials behaviour can be considered, the shakedown limit is simply demonstrated.
In t h e c a s e of t h e n o z z l e / s h e l l i n t e r s e c t i o n s ,
geometrical symmetry ensures that the directions
of p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s do n o t c h a n g e . T h u s , if t h e
plastic stresses can be calculated the shakedown
limits can be confirmed.
Stresses have been calculated, from the experi m e n t a l l y r e c o r d e d s t r a i n s , by t h e m e t h o d s h o w n
i n A p p e n d i x I [6]. It w a s a s s u m e d t h a t a n y r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s d u e to w e l d i n g w e r e r e d u c e d to z e r o
during stress relief. Also, elastic perfectly plastic materials behaviour was assumed: this is a
good a p p r o x i m a t i o n s i n c e t h e s t r e s s s t r a i n c u r v e s
for both the shell plate and nozzle material are
t y p i c a l of t h o s e f o r low c a r b o n s t e e l s , r e a c h i n g
0.8Yo to 1'~o p l a s t i c s t r a i n b e f o r e s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g
commences, which is greater than any recorded
strains at the maximum shakedown conditions.
On d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n t h e s t r a i n h y s t e r e s i s w a s
ignored, perfectly elastic strain behaviour being
assumed.

181
O"H

STRESS A T MAXIMUM\
51"IAKEDOWN PRESSURE

~--'~'~,,~

tNITIAL LOADING
TO FIRST yIELD

-, o

i b--

%
%

AT ZERO PRESSURE

Fig. 11. Rotation of s t r e s s vector at maximum s h a k e down p r e s s u r e , thin oblique nozzle.

The stress behaviour at the first yield position

in the thin oblique nozzle is shown plotted on the
Von Mises ellipse in fig. 11. Since it is assumed
that the structure was stress free before initial
pressurization the elastic co-ordinates are
plotted from the origin "0" reaching first yield
at point 'A' on the ellipse. Further pressurization, into the plastic region, results in a change
of r a t i o of p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s , i.e. r o t a t i o n of t h e
stress vector. When a pressure has been reached
s u c h t h a t t h e s t r e s s v e c t o r h a s r o t a t e d to OB,
t h e e l a s t i c s t r e s s on d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n r e a c h e s
p o i n t ' C ' , i.e. t h e r e v e r s e y i e l d s t r e s s . T h u s t h e
p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d to c r e a t e t h e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n
at B is the maximum possible shakedown press u r e . P r o v i d e d t h i s p r e s s u r e i s not e x c e e d e d in
subsequent cycles, the stresses will remain
e l a s t i c a n d c y c l e on t h e l i n e BC. In t h i s c a s e t h e
s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n a t p o i n t ' B ' w a s c a l c u l a t e d to o c c u r a t a p r e s s u r e of 1.99 t i m e s t h a t to c a u s e f i r s t
yielding, which compares extremely well with
t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s h a k e d o w n o b t a i n e d a t 1.98 t i m e s
first yield pressure.
For the medium oblique
n o z z l e a s h a k e d o w n l i m i t of 1.96 t i m e s f i r s t y i e l d
pressure was calculated. Again, this was confirmed by the tests.
In t h e c a s e of t h e t h i n r a d i a l n o z z l e , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e l i t t l e r o t a t i o n of t h e s t r e s s v e c tor before the time dependent creep was observed,
i.e. 1.9 t i m e s f i r s t y i e l d p r e s s u r e . B e y o n d t h i s ,

182

SHAKEDOWN INVESTIGATIONS

h o w e v e r , t h e r o t a t i o n a p p r o a c h e s 30 . A s a n a c a demic exercise, the instantaneous strain readi n g s , i.e. t h o s e r e c o r d e d i m m e d i a t e l y on a t t a i n ing p r e s s u r e , w i t h o u t a l l o w i n g t i m e f o r c r e e p to

h a v e any s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t , w e r e u s e d in t h e
s t r e s s c a l c u l a t i o n s . R o t a t i o n of the s t r e s s v e c t o r
w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d , r e s u l t i n g in a m a x i m u m s h a k e d o w n p r e s s u r e of 1.98 t i m e s t h a t to
first yield.
These results suggest that provided plastic
s t r e s s e s c a n b e a c c u r a t e l y c o m p u t e d f o r the
f i r s t y i e l d i n g p o s i t i o n of a n y s t r u c t u r e , t h e m a x i mum shakedown loads can be calculated. Except i o n to t h i s will b e c a s e s w h e r e p l a s t i c c o l l a p s e
o c c u r s w i t h o u t c h a n g e s in t h e r a t i o of p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s e s , v i z . : in a u n i a x i a l l y s t r e s s e d s t r u c t u r e .
In s u c h c a s e s , h o w e v e r , the c o m p u t e d p l a s t i c
s t r a i n s will i n d i c a t e t h a t c o l l a p s e h a s o c c u r r e d .

t a i n e d b e c a u s e of t h e c h o i c e of p a r a m e t e r s for
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s w h i c h o c c u r on
depressurisation.
It i s a s s u m e d t h a t f i r s t y i e l d
o c c u r s in t h e s h e l l p l a t e , a d j a c e n t to t h e n o z z l e .
T h e m e m b r a n e s t r e s s e s a r e s u b t r a c t e d f r o m the
calculated peak stresses, leaving the local inc r e a s e of s t r e s s d u e to e d g e f o r c e s c r e a t e d by
t h e r e s t r a i n t of t h e n o z z l e . It is t h e n p o s t u l a t e d
t h a t t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s a r e d u e e n t i r e l y to
e q u a l but o p p o s i t e e d g e f o r c e s . T h e e f f e c t s of t h e
elastic shell plate material surrounding the enlarged plastic zone is ignored.
W h i l e a p u r e l y e l a s t i c a n a l y s i s of t h i s t y p e i s
v e r y a t t r a c t i v e , b e c a u s e of i t s c o m p a r a t i v e s i m p l i c i t y , i t s v a l u e i s o b v i o u s l y l i m i t e d by v i r t u e of
t h e a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h h a v e to b e m a d e , to r e t a i n
the more simple analysis methods.

6.3. R e & w e d p r e s s a ~ c cycli~g

6.2.2. E l a s t i c a n a l y s i s
L e c k i e a n d P e n n y [4] h a v e c a l c u l a t e d l o w e r
b o u n d s h a k e d o w n f a c t o r s , on a n e l a s t i c b a s i s ,
f o r a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r a n g e of r a d i a l n o z z l e s in
s p h e r i c a l s h e l l s . T h e r e s u l t s w e r e o b t a i n e d by
u s i n g M e l a n ' s S h a k e d o w n T h e o r e m in c o n j u n c t i o n
w i t h t h e r e s u l t s of a p r e v i o u s l y c o m p u t e d e l a s t i c
a n a l y s i s [7 I"
T h e c a l c u l a t e d s h a k e d o w n f a c t o r s, K 2 = P 2 / P l kl
are shown plotted against the geometrical parame t e r ( r / R ) v r R / T , w h e r e P l = p r e s s u r e to c a u s e
f i r s t y i e l d , P2 = s h a k e d o w n p r e s s u r e , k 1 = s t r e s s
concentration factor.
F o r t h e t h i n r a d i a l n o z z l e ( t / T = 0.11) a t r u e
v a l u e for k 2 c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e L e c k i e ,
P e n n y p l o t s s i n c e t / T v a l u e s < 0.25 h a v e n o t b e e n
c o n s i d e r e d . H o w e v e r , it c a n b e s e e n t h a t k 2
would not e x c e e d 0.8. W h e n a p p l i e d to t h e m a x i m u m e q u i v a l e n t S C F (k 1) of 2.15, t h e m a x i m u m
s h a k e d o w n p r e s s u r e i s c a l c u l a t e d to b e 1.72 t i m e s
first yield pressure. The experimental results
have shown that shakedown occurs at pressures
in e x c e s s of t h i s . F o r t h e o b l i q u e n o z z l e s , c o m p a r i s o n s c a n b e m a d e only if t h e " e q u i v a l e n t
r a d i a l " n o z z l e i s c o n s i d e r e d . T h i s is a r a d i a l
n o z z l e of d i a m e t e r e q u a l to t h e l e n g t h of t h e m a j o r
a x i s of t h e e l l i p s e f o r m e d a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of
the oblique nozzle with the shell plate. Stress
c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r e q u i v a l e n t r a d i a l c a s e s of t h e
o b l i q u e n o z z l e s t e s t e d , s h o w good a g r e e m e n t
w i t h r e g a r d to m a x i m u m e q u i v a l e n t S C F , t h u s
s u p p o r t the c o m p a r i s o n s . T h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d
by L e c k i e a n d P e n n y [41 s u g g e s t t h a t m a x i m u m
s h a k e d o w n p r e s s u r e i s of the o r d e r of 1.6 to 1.7
t i m e s t h a t to f i r s t y i e l d , c o m p a r e d to a l m o s t 2.0
obtained experimentally.
These conservative values are probably ob-

In p r a c t i c e , v e s s e l s a r e p r o o f t e s t e d b e f o r e
b e i n g put i n t o s e r v i c e . In t h e c a s e of v e s s e l s d e s i g n e d to BS 3915 the p r o o f t e s t p r e s s u r e is n o m i n a l l y 1.25 t i m e s d e s i g n p r e s s u r e . If d e s i g n s a r e
to be b a s e d on s h a k e d o w n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e
m a x i m u m a d v a n t a g e i s to be g a i n e d if t h e v e s s e l s
a r e a l l o w e d to o p e r a t e a t p r e s s u r e s a p p r o a c h i n g
the m a x i m u m s h a k e d o w n p r e s s u r e v a l u e . In s u c h
c a s e s , p r o o f t e s t p r e s s u r e would e x c e e d m a x i mum shakedown value and normal shakedown beh a v i o u r w o u l d h a v e to o c c u r on t h e s u b s e q u e n t
o p e r a t i o n a l c y c l e s . Fig. 10 i n d i c a t e s b e h a v i o u r
t y p i c a l of a l l t h e g a u g e s a t p e a k s t r a i n p o s i t i o n s
in t h e t e s t v e s s e l . T h e ' p r o o f t e s t ' p r e s s u r e in
this case was approximately 7/8 membrane yield
p r e s s u r e . A s s h o w n in t h e g r a p h , a p p r e c i a b l e
c r e e p o c c u r r e d at t h i s p r e s s u r e . H o w e v e r , on
s u b s e q u e n t p r e s s u r e c y c l e s to 1.9 t i m e s t h e f i r s t
yield pressure a shakedown condition was
a c h i e v e d on t h e f i r s t c y c l e .

6.4. P r a c l i c a l implicalio~ls
Research at the Berkeley Nuclear Laboratories
is l e a d i n g to d e s i g n m e t h o d s , for p r e s s u r e r e t a i n ing s t r u c t u r e s , b a s e d on:
a) R e s t r i c t e d d i s t o r t i o n a t p r o o f t e s t p r e s s u r e ,
as a safeguard against plastic collapse.
b) T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s h a k e d o w n c o n d i t i o n s
at operating pressures.
So f a r a s a n a l y t i c a l d e s i g n m e t h o d s a r e c o n c e r n e d
t h e r e a r e two p o s s i b l e a p p r o a c h e s ; s i m p l i f i e d
t h e o r i e s c a n be a p p l i e d s e p a r a t e l y to d e t e r m i n e
collapse pressures (limit analysis) and shakedown
pressures,
o r , fully c o m p r e h e n s i v e p l a s t i c a n a l y s i s c a n b e u s e d to c o v e r b o t h a s p e c t s . W h a t ever methods are chosen, ideal materials behav-

SHAKEDOWN INVESTIGATIONS
iour is a s s u m e d , i.e. the s t r e s s s t r a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e c o n s i d e r e d as being e l a s t i c p e r f e c t l y
p l a s t i c and B a u s c h i n g e r effect, cyclic h y s t e r e s i s
and c r e e p e f f e c t s a r e ignored.
The a s s u m e d m a t e r i a l s b e h a v i o u r does not a p p e a r to i m p o s e p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e r e s t r i c t i o n s
on the a n a l y s i s of mild s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s for use
at a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s . As shown by the p r e s s u r e s t r a i n plots in figs. 5-9 the peak s t r a i n s at
0.88 m e m b r a n e y i el d p r e s s u r e a r e all l e s s than
1.0 ~ and s t r a i n h ar d e n in g is g e n e r a l l y not e x h i bited by these m a t e r i a l s until s t r a i n s of this o r d e r
of magnitude a r e r e a c h e d . F o r mild s t e e l s at e l e vated t e m p e r a t u r e s and low alloy and s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l s , which exhibit s t r a i n h a r d e n in g i m m e d i a t e ly beyond yield, the c o l l a p s e a n a l y s i s m e t h o d s
will be m o r e s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d than those for
shakedown. This is b e c a u s e c o l l a p s e is r e l a t e d
to absolute s t r a i n l e v e l s , w h e r e a s shakedown
a n a l y s i s is r e l a t e d to p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n r a t i o s o r ,
in the m o r e s i m p l i f i e d m e t h o d s , to purely e l a s t i c
a n a l y s i s . Obviously, t h e r e is much to be gained
if it can be d e m o n s t r a t e d that component b e h a v iour can be r e l a t e d to type and d i m e n s i o n a l p r o p o r t i o n s within the type group, allowing d e s i g n s
to be based on s i m p l e e l a s t i c a n a l y s i s m e th o d s
as used at p r e s e n t , i.e. by r e s t r i c t i n g the e l a s t i c
s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s to a safe m a x i m u m .
In the case of the p r e s e n t study of n o z z l e s in
s p h e r i c a l s h e l l s , the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s in d i cate this a p p r o a c h to be r e a l i s t i c .
Fo r the p u r p o s e of this d i s c u s s i o n it is a s sume d that m e m b r a n e d e s i g n s t r e s s is 2 /3 unia xi a l yield s t r e s s and p r o o f test p r e s s u r e will be
1.25 t i m e s the design p r e s s u r e . Thus design
p r e s s u r e and p r o o f t e s t p r e s s u r e will be 0.66 and
0.833 t i m e s m e m b r a n e y ie ld p r e s s u r e r e s p e c t i v e l y .
In the t e s t s , e x c e s s i v e d i s t o r t i o n only o c c u r r e d
at p r e s s u r e s in e x c e s s of 0.833 t i m e s that to m e m br a ne yield. The f i r s t indication of s t r a i n b e h a v iour which could be likened to p l a s t i c c o l l a p s e ,
was the t i m e dependent c r e e p , which o c c u r r e d at
0.88 t i m e s m e m b r a n e y ie ld p r e s s u r e . This was
d e t e c t e d on and local to all the n o z z l e s at this
s a m e p r e s s u r e . Thus, although the c r e e p s t r a i n
r a t e s w e r e r e l a t e d to SCF, the onset of c r e e p was
not. T h i s m e a n s that c o l l a p s e a n a l y s i s is not r e quired for n o z z l e s of this type and s i z e group.
For p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s shakedown o c c u r s at
all p r e s s u r e s up to twice f i r s t y ie ld v a l u e . (This
disc o u n t s the c a s e s w h e r e the S C F ' s a r e so low
that " c o l l a p s e " o c c u r s f i r s t and, consequently,
a r e of no i m p o r t a n c e so far as design is concerned. ) Thus design can be continued on an e l a s tic b a s i s , by simply r e s t r i c t i n g the e l a s t i c S C F
to a safe m a x i m u m . It has been shown that proof

183

t e s t i n g to beyond the shakedown l i m i t does not

affect the subsequent shakedown behaviour at
lower p r e s s u r e s , thus, design p r e s s u r e can be
c o n s i d e r e d as the r e q u i r e d shakedown l i m i t , i.e.
twice p r e s s u r e to f i r s t yield. Since this is equal
to 2 / 3 m e m b r a n e y i el d p r e s s u r e a m a x i m u m
e l a s t i c SCF of 3.0 can be allowed. As a s a f e g u a r d
a g a i n s t design and m a n u f a c t u r i n g co n t i n g en ci es
this should be fixed at, say, 2.8.
It is i m p o r t a n t that the SC F is based on the
true equivalent s t r e s s at the f i r s t y i el d position.
The Von M i s e s c r i t e r i o n was used as a b a s i s for
the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of equivalent s t r e s s e s in the
t e s t v e s s e l with c o m p l e t e sat i sf act i o n . In the
r a d i a l n o z z l e s , f i r s t yield o c c u r r e d on the inner
s u r f a c e of the n o z z l e s , coincident with the outer
fillet weld. Also, as d i s c u s s e d in the p r e v i o u s
p ap er [1] the design of oblique n o z z l e s based on
the equivalent r a d i a l case was shown to be a d e quate.
B e f o r e this approach can be extended to include
all n o z z l e s , f u r t h e r work is obviously r e q u i r e d
and this should include both t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l studies. Some shakedown e x p e r i m e n t s
on m i l d s t e e l cylinder to cylinder connections a r e
a l r e a d y in p r o g r e s s at the B e r k e l e y N u c l e a r Lab o r a t o r i e s and f u r t h e r work is being c o n s i d e r e d
on l a r g e r n o z z l e s in s p h e r i c a l s h e l l s to i n v e s t i gate both shakedown and collapse. Work on s t r a i n
h ar d en i n g m a t e r i a l s is a l s o r e q u i r e d , p a r t i c u l a r ly in connection with collapse a n a l y s i s .
Additionally, the t e s t s d e m o n s t r a t e d that a c tual m a t e r i a l s exhibit s t r a i n h y s t e r e s i s on all
p r e s s u r e c y c l e s beyond f i r s t yield. This i m p l i e s
that t h e r e may be c a s e s w h e r e shakedown would
not be a s a f e g u a r d ag ai n st high s t r a i n fatigue. In
the case of the g e o m e t r i e s t e s t e d , c u m u l a t i v e
d a m a g e effects at the shakedown l i m i t s w e r e n e g ligible. Also, it is c o n s i d e r e d that design with
r e s p e c t to " c o l l a p s e " will p r o v i d e a s a f e g u a r d
ag ai n st this a s p e c t , si n ce l a r g e p l a s t i c s t r a i n
r a n g e s would not be expected to o ccu r at low
s t r a i n l e v e l s . It is expected that the t e s t s on the
cylinder to cylinder connections will p r o v i d e inf o r m a t i o n supporting this view.

7. CONCLUSIONS
The design of mild s t e e l p r e s s u r e v e s s e l c o m ponents, o p e r a t i n g below the c r e e p r a n g e , can be
based on the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of shakedown at d e sign p r e s s u r e t o g e t h e r with the av o i d an ce of p l a s tic c o l l a p s e at p r o o f t e s t p r e s s u r e .
So far as shakedown is c o n c e r n e d , it has been
shown that if p l a s t i c s t r e s s e s o c c u r r i n g at f i r s t

184

E. P R O C T E R and R. F. F L I N D E R S

yielding p o s i t i o n s can be calculated, then the

shakedown l i m i t s can also be calculated. The
t e s t s have a l s o shown, h o w e v e r , that a c o m p r e he ns i v e a n a l y s i s of this n a t u r e will r a r e l y be
r e q u i r e d since shakedown behaviour can be r e lated to component type and d i m e n s i o n a l p r o p o r tions within the type group. F o r i n s t a n c e , within
the r an g e of p r o t r u d i n g n o z z l e s te s te d ,

[ ( r / R ) ~ f R / T < 0.24] ,
the shakedown l i m i t was shown to be n o m in a l ly
twice f i r s t y i el d p r e s s u r e . Since shakedown has
to be e s t a b l i s h e d at design p r e s s u r e , e l a s t i c
design methods can be maintained by r e s t r i c t i n g
the m a x i m u m e l a s t i c S C F ' s a c c o r d i n g l y . Where
the shakedown l i m i t is twice f i r s t y i e l d p r e s s u r e
and m e m b r a n e design s t r e s s for the s t r u c t u r e is
2/3 yield, then a l i m it of 2.8 on the m a x i m u m
e l a s t i c S C F will include an adequate safety m a r gin to c o v e r design and m a n u f a c t u r i n g contingencies. This m a x i m u m S C F m u s t be based on the
t r u e equivalent s t r e s s at the f i r s t y ie ld positions.
Also, within this s i z e r a n g e , c o l l a p s e p r e s s u r e s
a r e in e x c e s s of any p r e s s u r e that v e s s e l s will
e x p e r i e n c e during s e r v i c e , thus shakedown will
be the sole design c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
For l a r g e r n o z z l e s than those t e s t e d , it may
be that the shakedown l i m i t b e c o m e s l e s s than
twice f i r s t y i el d p r e s s u r e . Also, it may be that
p l a s t i c c o l l a p s e takes o v e r as the m a j o r d e s i g n
limitation. W h i c h e v e r is the case it will be p o s sibel to r e l a t e the b e h a v io u r to e l a s t i c SCF,
thus maintaining s i m p l e design methods. To in v e s t i g a t e t h es e a s p e c t s , t e s t s on c y l i n d e r , cylinder i n t e r s e c t i o n s a r e in p r o g r e s s at the B e r ke l ey N u c l e a r L a b o r a t o r i e s .
The work also r e q u i r e s extending to include
simimr investigations on strain hardening materials. To this end it is hoped to test a low alloy
vessel and further, to carry out similar work on
vessels made from austenitic materials.

APPENDIX I. CALCULATION O F POST YIELD

STRESSES
Notation

= Young's modulus
= Poisson's ratio
= yield stress

aX

= stress in X direction

(ry

= stress in Y direction

a'XM

= mean d e v i a t o r i c X s t r e s s

a'yM

= mean d e v i a t o r i c Y s t r e s s

a' X

= prime deviatoric X stress

a'y

= prime deviatoric Y stress

da X

= i n c r e m e n t of s t r e s s in X d i r e c t i o n

day

= i n c r e m e n t of s t r e s s in Y d i r e c t i o n

de X

= i n c r e m e n t of s t r a i n in X d i r e c t i o n

dey

= i n c r e m e n t of s t r a i n in Y d i r e c t i o n

dgp

= i n c r e m e n t in equivalent p l a s t i c s t r a i n

The calculation of post yield s t r e s s e s in a

biaxial s t r e s s field r e q u i r e s the solutions of the
two P r a n d t l - R e u s s equations at each load step,
a s s u m i n g the i n c r e m e n t s in s t r a i n a r e small. In
the l i m i t these equations a r e l i n e a r ; but si n ce
load st ep s or s t r a i n i n c r e m e n t s a r e finite the
equations cannot be a c c u r a t e l y solved by a single
solution. The two P r a n d t l - R e u s s equations a p p l y ing a r e :

dex

dey-

_ 3 a'XM
1
v
2 ~
d~-p +-~ da X - ~ d a y ,

(1)

3 a'YM d~-p +
day
da X
2 ~
E
--~
,

(2)

a' X and a ' y r e f e r to the m e a n d e v i a t o r i c s t r e s s e s

between two a d j a c e n t load i n c r e m e n t s .
Since t h e r e a r e t h r e e unkowns in the above two
equations (i.e. dg~; dax; day) a t h i r d equation is
r e q u i r e d for t h e i r solution. If an e l a s t i c - p e r f e c t l y
p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l , which obeys the Von M i s e s yield
c r i t e r i a is a s s u m e d , all post y i el d s t r e s s e s obey
the following equation:
= 4aX2 +a y 2 - aXa Y .

(3)

An implicit differential of this equation will

give the linear equation:
0 = 3a' X dax+ 3a'y d a y .

(4)

In the limit equation (4) is correct but for finite increments in load this equation will not
yield accurate results.
An accurate solution of eqs. (i), (2) and (3)
can be obtained by repeating their solution and
by "up-dating" after each solution until a defined
degree of accuracy is obtained. In detail these
equations would then take the form:
3 a'XM
1
v
~ dJp + ~ daX - ~ d a y ,

dex- 2

(5)

SHAKEDOWN INVESTIGATIONS
3 Cr'yM dgp + 1 d(~y /) dffx
de y = 2 ~
-E
- -E

(6)

185

If the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s after unloading a r e

within the yield e l l i p s e , as specified by yon M i s e s
c r i t e r i a , then the load can be said to have been
below the shakedown limit.

0 = (3(~'X + dcrx-dCr Y) d(~x

+ (3(~'y+dffy) dffy ,

(7)

where the true m e a n d e v i a t o r i c s t r e s s in eqs. (5)

and (6) a r e given by:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is published by p e r m i s s i o n of the
Central E l e c t r i c i t y G e n e r a t i n g Board.

(~'XM = ~ ( (~X + 0" 5 d(xx) - ~ ( (~ y+ 0. 5 d~y) etc.

RE F E R E N C E S
Eq. (7) is c o r r e c t for finite i n c r e m e n t s in s t r e s s .
For the f i r s t solution of any load step d~X and d~y
a r e zero and for subsequent solutions they take
the values last calculated.
Once the post yield s t r e s s e s have been obtained the calculation of shakedown f a c t o r s is a
s t r a i g h t forward g e o m e t r i c calculation based on
the a s s u m p t i o n that unloading takes place e l a s t i cally (see example in fig. 11).

[1] E. Procter and R. F. Flinders, Nucl. Eng. Design 7

(1968) 73.
[2] P.J. Armstrong and C.O. Frederick, C.E.G.B.
Report RD/B/N430 (1965).
[ 3] F.A. Leckie, J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 7 {1965) 367.
[4] F.A. Leckie and R.K. Penny, private communication (1965).
[5] F.A. Leckie and D. J. Payne, Inst. Mech. Eng. Proc.
180, Part I, No.20 (1966).
[6] R.J.Crisp, C.E.G.B.Report RD/B/N912 (1967).
[7] F.A. Leckie and R. K. Penny, Bull. Welding Res.
Council No. 90 (1963).