Ecotourism (Georges 2014)

JARAMOGI OGINGA ODINGA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
BACHELOR OF INTERNATIONAL TOURISM MANAGEMENT
BTM 3214: ECOTOURISM - 42 Hours
Lecturer: Mr George Otieno
0708598511
Email: georgeotieno50@yahoo.com Mobile:
Course Description
Introduction to eco-tourism; Eco-tourism policy, organisations and the ecotourist; Eco-tourism development: International, national and regional
perspective; Economics of Eco-tourism Management and Marketing of Ecotourism; Eco-tourism and the environment
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the course, learners should:
1. Acquire an eco-thinking mind set when analysing tourism issues
2. Differentiate Ecotourism from other forms of sustainable tourism
3. Apply Ecotourism principles in tourism projects
4. Identify Ecotourism best practices in the tourism market
Development and the

Semantic debate
3. Policy, Principles and

Guidelines of
Ecotourism and
Sustainable tourism
Week 1,2 & 3
Week
Week 4,5,6 & 7
2. Ecotourism
Details
Origin and Historical development of
Ecotourism
Ecotourism Concepts and Definitions
Components of Ecotourism
Ecotourism Product
Ecotourism and sustainable
development
International, national and regional
perspective of ecotourism
Mass and alternative tourism;
Nature based tourism versus
Ecotourism;
Soft and hard Ecotourism;
Natural-unnatural Ecotourism;
Exploitive-passive and active
Ecotourism- Orams continuum of
Ecotourism types
Ecotourism and sustainable tourism
Ecotourism Policy
Characteristics of Ecotourism and
guidelines;
Principles of sustainable tourism;
Negative impacts of Ecotourism and
mitigative measures
Week 8, 9 & 10
COURSE CONTENT
Topic
1. Introduction to
Ecotourism
Ecotourism Notes by George Otieno (2016) | 1
5. Overview of legislative
and management
frameworks for
Ecotourism in Kenya
Ecotourism management and

marketing
Benchmarking versus best practice
of Ecotourism
Accreditation and auditing for
Ecotourism;
Eco-rating schemes in Kenya
Case studies of Ecotourism best
practice in Kenya
Tourism Policy and Draft wildlife
policy
Environmental Management and Coordination Act, 1999
Voluntary Initiatives
Week 11 & 12
Week 13 & 14
4. Ecotourism best
practices and tourism
business
COURSE DELIVERY MODE

Face to face
SUGGESTED READINGS
Martha, H., 1999, Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who owns
paradise? Island Press, Washington DC
Stephen, W. and Neil, J., 2000, Ecotourism: Impacts, Potentials and
Possibilities, Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd, Great
Britain
Sindiga, I., 2002, Tourism and African Development: Change and
Challenges of Tourism in Kenya, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Burlington,
USA
Swarbrooke, J. 1997, The Development and Management of visitor
attractions 2nd. Edition
The International Ecotourism Society (TIES): www.ecotourism.org
COURSE EVALUATION
Type
Points
Attendance
Assignments #1 and #2 and
presentations
Continuous Assessment Test CAT # 1
and # 2
Final Exam
50 (5 each)
100 (50
each)
60 (30
each)
70
Total
280
Percenta
ge
5%
10%
15%
70%
Due Date
Each class
Check
details
Week 5 & 7
End of
semester
100%
ATTENDANCE
Each absence that is not excused by a lecturer in advance will reduce 5 points
from your attendance score of 50. If a student misses more than 5 classes (25
points deduction), additional 5 points per each additional absence will be
deducted from the final score of course without limit.
Up to 2 absences will NOT be penalized.
Excuses to miss class will be considered only when family or health

emergency occurs and only that is documented.
Leaving class early due to a special occasion should be notified to your
instructor prior to the beginning of classes. Attendance credit will be given
based on the length of hours stayed in a class.
It will be the students responsibility to sign in on attendance sheets for
each class.
ASSIGNMENTS
Students are required to submit each assignment to the lecturer and ensure that
s/he sign against their names that they have submitted. Each assignment should
be typed and printed on size A4 paper (font style: times new roman, black,
spacing 1.5; text alignment should be justified and be between 10 and 15
pages). Assignments will be submitted in the next two weeks once given. Late
submission will not be accepted.
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION TO ECOTOURISM
Origin and Historical Development of Ecotourism

In an effort to reduce the negative impacts of conventional tourism, more
environmentally and socially conscientious approaches to tourism have been
promoted, typically referred to as ecotourism and sustainable tourism, though
other terms such as responsible tourism, nature based tourism, green tourism,
and alternative tourism are also used.
The earliest known use of the term ecotour, undefined, seems to have been by
Parks Canada in the 1960s (Fennell, 1999). The birth of ecotourism was marked
by successful campaigns undertaken by conservationists and scientists for the
protection of humpback whales in 1966. The ecotourism movement continued to
gain momentum since the beginning of the global environmental movement in
the 1970s and the subsequent focus on sustainable development in the 1980s.
About a decade after Hector Ceballos-Lescurian coined the term ecotourism, The
Ecotourism Society (TES) now the International Ecotourism Society (TIES) was
founded in early 1990s in the USA as a non-profit organisation, fully dedicated to
finding the resources and building the expertise to make tourism a viable tool for
conservation and sustainable development.
It was until then that the sustainable tourism movement began to take off, in
part due to the establishment of the International Ecotourism Society (TIES) in
1990, and the 1992 United Nations Rio Earth Summit in which 178 governments
signed onto a number of environmental initiatives, including Agenda 21, a
comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by
organizations of the United Nations System, Governments, and Major Groups in
every area in which human impacts on the environment. More recently, the
United Nations declared 2002 as the International Year of Ecotourism, and held
a World Ecotourism Summit in Quebec, Canada which brought together some
1,200 participants from around the world. The society is documenting the best
techniques for implementing ecotourism principles by collaborating with a
growing network of active professionals in the field.
Ecotourism is nature-based tourism; it is low impact tourism (based on the
principles of green productivity and ecology); but it is, importantly, both an
enjoyable and learning experience for the tourists (that is, the tourists want
interpretation of the environment they are in); it is tourism which respects local
cultures (however, it is not cultural tourism where the prime focus is culture);
and it gives something back to the community in recognition of the satisfaction
gained by the tourists.
This new found concept of ecotourism was believed, would transform tourism
practice into an economic activity that, apart from bringing benefits to the
investor, would also bring benefits to the local people and contribute to
conservation of the natural resources upon which tourism is dependent
Ecotourism Concepts and Definitions
A number of definitions trying to explain what ecotourism is all about exist. In
development terms, ecotourism is tourism that meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet
their needs from the same resources.
IUCN (now called the World Conservation Union) states in 1996 that ecotourism:
is environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed
natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and any accompanying
cultural features - both past and present) that promotes conservation, has low
negative visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active socio-economic
involvement of local populations.
An official international definition of ecotourism was adopted during the UN
International Year of Ecotourism in 2002 (UNEP and WTO, 2002). Ecotourism,
according to The International Ecotourism Society (TIES), is responsible travel
to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of
local people.
Sustainable tourism, as defined by the UNWTO, is tourism that takes full
account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts,
addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and the host
communities."
The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines sustainable travel as
tourism that meets the needs of present tourist and host regions while protecting
and enhancing opportunities for the future.
Ecotourism as a Concept
Ecotourism is a sub-component of the field of sustainable tourism. Figure 1 offers
a reflection of where ecotourism can be placed within the process of developing
more sustainable forms of tourism. This figure also provides a demonstration of
how ecotourism is primarily a sustainable version of nature tourism, while
Business Tourism
Ecotourism
Beach Tourism
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Irresp
onsibl
e
forms
of
touris
m
including rural and cultural tourism elements.
Rural Tourism
Nature Based Tourism
Cltural Tourism
Principles of Ecotourism
According to TIES, ecotourism is based on the following principles:
Minimizing impact of activities
Building environmental and cultural awareness and respect
Providing positive experiences for both visitors and hosts by encouraging
travel to natural areas
Providing direct financial benefits for conservation
Supports development of local economies by providing financial benefits
and empowerment for local people
Respects local culture by raising sensitivity to host countries' political,
environmental, and social climate
Components of Ecotourism
Contributes to conservation of biodiversity.
Sustains the well-being of local people.
Includes an interpretation / learning experience.
Involves responsible action on the part of tourists and the tourism
industry.
Is delivered primarily to small groups by small-scale businesses.
Requires lowest possible consumption of non-renewable resources of
energy.
Stresses local participation, ownership and business opportunities,

particularly for rural people.
The Ecotourism Product
Ecotourism can include nature-based tourism, community-based tourism,
homestays, visits to world heritage sites and other forms of responsible travel.
While the term ecotourism is often used to refer to smaller-scale businesses and
operations, the principles of sustainable tourism are applicable to all forms of
tourism in all types of destinations, from mass tourism to small niche markets.
The ecotourism product should be socially and environmentally low impact but
rich in interpretations. It should be:
Economically viable
Attractive
Accessible
Offer quality service
Well designed
Observe ethical business practices
Meet market standards
Minimal environmental input
Assignment 1
Applying the practices of ecotourism to an urban environment is a
relatively new concept but a concept that merits development in multiple
cities including Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu in Kenya. Discuss.
Ecotourism and Sustainable Development
Ecotourism has been lauded as an attractive sustainable development
alternative to mass tourism because it is perceived to have fewer negative
impacts on the natural and cultural resources while providing incentives to adopt
practices that conserve and potentially enhance the very resources it is
dependent on (Farrel and Runyan, 1991; Wight, 1993). The natural environment
is central to ecotourism which has a focus on biological and physical features.
The conservation of natural areas and sustainable resource management is
therefore essential to the planning, development and management of ecotourism.
Valentine (1991b) draws attention to the two-way interaction between

ecotourism and the environment upon which it depends, by suggesting that one
characteristic of ecotourism is that it is both contributory to conservation as well
as enjoyment of nature. That is, ecotourism involves a focus on nature as the
primary motivation for travel, to further knowledge and awareness of nature.
However, it also involves the notion that the activity of ecotourism must
positively contribute to conservation in the destination area or host community.
Planning for ecotourism is based on resource limitations as ecotourism
opportunities will be lost if resilience of an area and the ability of its
communities to absorb impact are exceeded, or if its biodiversity and physical
appearance are altered significantly.
Thus, an essential feature of ecotourism is sustainability and sustainable
development by implication. The concept of sustainability is fundamental to the
positioning of any tourism experience. The Bruntland report introduced the
concept of sustainable development, defining it as: development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs (Mieczkowski, 1995: 457). A working definition of
sustainable development in the context of tourism is: Tourism which is developed
and maintained in an area (community, environment) in such a manner and at
such a scale that it remains viable for an indefinite period and does not degrade
or alter the environment. Clearly, from the foregoing, it can be said without any
uncertainty that properly planned and executed ecotourism is a tool for achieving
sustainable development. Ideally, most countries ought to apply ecotourism as a
development strategy so as to achieve their goals in a sustainable manner.
Ecotourism is seen as a potential vehicle to provide environmental, socioeconomic and cultural benefits at both local and national. Claims for ecotourism's
potential are generally based on three key assumptions, that:
Offer a source of financing nature-tourism which is small and limited ;
Serve as a catalyst for local economic development; and
Provide needed foreign exchange and national level benefits.
More specifically, conservationist see ecotourism as one of the more promising

strategies for providing funds for conservation and justifying ecotourisms
importance. Ecotourism is not just a tool for conservation. It should be used to
promote the philosophy of sustainable development (Sudarto, 1999). By
involvement of, and economic benefits delivered to, the local community, the
sense of tourist developments belonging to the local community is realised.
Setting up ecotourism businesses requires careful planning and management. If
tourism is to contribute to sustainable development, then it must be economically
viable, ecologically sensitive and culturally appropriate (Wall, 1997).
CHAPTER TWO:
ECOTOURISM AND THE SEMANTIC DEBATE
Ecotourism has evolved into a type of specialty travel incorporating a diverse

array of activities and tourism types, from bird watching, scientific study,
photography, driving, bushwalking, to regeneration of damaged ecosystems. It
therefore appears to be a loose garment. For some it is a subset of nature based
tourism activities, for others it is a niche market, a specific type of special
interest tourism. The numerous definitions of Ecotourism can be attributed to
highly divergent views on the part of scientists and practitioners. Farrel and
Runyan (1991), caution that the danger inherent in allowing definitions of
Ecotourism such a scope is that the term can fall a prey to indiscriminate use as
a catchword for almost anything that links tourism with nature.
Trends Leading to Ecotourism
According to the Ecotourism Society (1995), the following are attributed to the
ecotourism trend
1. Increases in the overall travel market.
2. Growth in popularity of vacations to natural areas particularly dramatic
growth rates to parks in developing countries.
3. Massive dissatisfaction with the simplistic travel packages offered by
travel firms and a desire for more educative and challenging vacations
4. Urgent need to generate funding and human resources for the

management of protected areas in ways that meet the needs of local rural
populations.
5. Recognition of the importance of tourism within the field of sustainable
development.
6. Provide employment and other avenues of income to rural communities
where ecotourism resources are often located.
The following concepts are used to imply some sort of shift from mass to
ecotourism or sustainable tourism practice. It would be important to differentiate
and where possible make a critique of the usage of these concepts with regards to
ecotourism and tourism in general.
Mass and alternative tourism;
Mass tourism focuses on strictly economic returns, frequently abandoning
the need for conservation, and causing pollution and social/cultural damage,
such as marginalisation of the locals and moral degradation (Nepal,
1997).
Nature tourism does not necessarily address income distribution to local people,
and it often requires considerable foreign expertise.
Nature based tourism versus Ecotourism

The concept of nature-based tourism mushroomed in the early 1900s with the
Sierra Club outings in the United States. In the early 1980s, the concept of
ecotourism was developed by conservationists, such as Hector Ceballos
Lascurain who started to use the term ecotourism while lobbying to conserve
wetlands in northern Yucatan for a breeding ground for the American flamingo.
To persuade developers not to build marinas, he argued that tourist activities
such as bird watching would boost the economy of the rural community
and help conserve the fragile ecosystem at the same time. Accordingly,
ecotourism was
branded
as
means
to
give
nature
value
so
that
conservation can be achieved without sacrificing economic growth.

The definition of ecotourism is still evolving. According to Australias National
Ecotourism Strategy, ecotourism is defined as nature-based tourism that
involves interpretation and education of the natural environment and is

managed
to
be
ecologically
sustainable.
The Ecotourism Society defines
ecotourism as responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the

environment and improves the benefits of local people. Honey expands the social
characteristics of ecotourism to include aspects of ethics and democracy
(1999, pp, 2224).
According to the broad definition suggested by Honey, genuine ecotourism has
the following characteristics:
involves travel to natural destinations;
minimises impact;
builds environmental awareness;
provides direct financial benefits for conservation;
provides financial benefits and employment for local people;
respects local culture; and
Supports human rights and democratic movements.
In essence, the key elements that distinguish ecotourism from other
tourism operations are: a focus on the natural environment, ecological
sustainability, education and interpretation, and local and regional benefits. As
one of the fastest growing sectors in the tourism industry, ecotourism is charged
with a mission to promote sustainable tourism practices.
Strengths and weaknesses of ecotourism compared to mass and nature

tourism
Activity
Strengths
Mass tourism
a large number of tourists
large leakage of money
large earnings
the income is not evenly
fast development of
infrastructure
Weaknesses
distributed
many employees
serious negative impacts on the

environment
need highly skilled employees,

importing a large number of
foreign experts for top

Nature
low number of
management
large leakage of money
tourists/visitations
income is not evenly distributed
large earnings
small negative impact on the
does not need massive
tourism
development of
environment
infrastructure
Ecotourism
high standard, needs foreign

experts for top management
small number of employees
needs monitoring and evaluation
number of visitors is based
continual law enforcement

small leakage
on carrying capacity
need time so that the concept is
high income
accepted by parties (the all
need lots of employees and
government, community, and the
at the grass roots level
private sector)
Soft and hard Ecotourism;

Natural-unnatural Ecotourism;
Exploitive-passive and active Ecotourism- Orams continuum of
Ecotourism types
Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism
Sustainable tourism is frequently associated with Ecotourism and nature-based
tourism (Boo, 1990; Whelan, 1991). Although Hill (1992), indicates that
sustainable tourism allows visitors to enjoy the touristic assets in such a way
that the local culture and environment is not impaired, he acknowledges that a
zero impact tourism is not realistic as any amount of tourism results in some
impact on the environment. The question of how much impairment to the natural
and cultural environment is acceptable has brought along with it several
terminologies. Cazes (1989, p.123) cited in Godfrey (1993), observes that some of
those advocating for sustainable tourism simply want to avoid the conventional
tourism label. He says that in trying to be different, several authors have used
terms such as soft tourism (Kariel, 1989: Krippendorf, 1982); post industrial
tourism (SEEDS, 1989); alternative tourism (Gonsalves and Holden, 1985);
responsible tourism (WTO, 1990); appropriate tourism (Singh et al., 1989); green
tourism (Brawell, 1991); low impact tourism (Lillywhite and Lillywhite, 1991);
nature-based tourism (Fennel and Eagles, 1990) and Ecotourism (Boo, 1990).
Some scholars point out that this form of tourism is not a recent phenomenon
(Mieczkowski, 1990: 35-57; Jones, 1992:102). They maintain that the recent
environment movements have simply reinvented the term in the wake of
globally growing nature awareness.
In an attempt to distinguish sustainable tourism from conventional tourism,
Krippendorf (1982); and Lane (1988, 1990) considers sustainable tourism to be
consisting of several tourism product choices (product approach) that are
available to the consumer. Butler (1990) seems to deviate from the product
approach when he contends that conventional tourism is inevitable, due to the
sheer tourist demand and will probably stay so indefinitely. He says that what is
needed is to make conventional tourism sustainable. Wheeler (1991, 1992),
argues that the various tourism products existing in the market could be used to
reform conventional tourism to a more sustainable form. In this regard, Wight
(1993) looks at Ecotourism as one product that could be used to reform
conventional tourism from within. She nevertheless cautions that Ecotourism
should not be represented as an alternative to mass tourism but should be
viewed as one approach to responsible, conservation-oriented, sustainable
tourism.
CHAPTER 3:
PRINCIPLES OF ECOTOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Ecotourism Principles and Guidelines

We did highlight some of the principles of ecotourism in chapter one.
Because ecotourism was originally just an idea, not a discipline, many
business and governments promoted it without an understanding of its
most basic principles. As a result, throughout the 1990s, stakeholders
from many regions, disciplines and backgrounds proceeded with the
establishment of internationally and nationally accepted principles,
guidelines and certification approaches. The results of these meetings has
been tracked by The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) since 1991
and developed a set of basic ecotourism principles as shown below:
That ecotourism should:
a) Minimize the negative impacts on nature and culture that can
damage a destination
b) Educate the traveller on the importance of conservation
c) Stress the importance of responsible business, which works
cooperatively with local authorities and people to meet local needs
and deliver conservation benefits.
d) Direct revenues to the conservation and management of natural and
protected areas.
e) Emphasize the need for regional tourism zoning and for visitor
management plan designed for either regions or natural areas that
are slated to become eco-destinations.
f) Emphasize use of environmental and social base-line studies, as well
as long-term monitoring programs, to asses and minimize impacts.
g) Strive to maximize economic benefit for the host country, local
business and communities particularly peoples living in and
adjacent to natural and protected areas.
h) Seek to ensure that tourism development does not exceed the social
and environmental limits of acceptable change as determined by
researchers in cooperation with local residents.
i) Rely on infrastructure that has been developed in harmony with the
environment, minimizing use of fossil fuels, conserving local plants
and wildlife, and blending with the natural and cultural environment.
However, various authors have come up with a number of principles as
indicated in Table 1 below
Table 1. Principles of Ecotourism

Wight (1994)
The Ecotourism Society

(Lindberg and Hawkins, 1993)
It should not degrade the resource

and should be developed in an
environmentally friendly manner
Prepare travellers to minimise their

negative impacts while visiting
sensitive environments and cultures
before departure
National Ecotourism
Accreditation Program (NEAP),
Australia.
Eligibility principles
Focuses on personally experiencing
natural areas in ways that lead to
greater understanding and
appreciation
It should provide long-term benefits

to the resource, to the local
community and industry
Prepare travellers for each encounter

with local cultures and with native
animals and plants
Integrates opportunities to
understand natural areas into each
experience
It should provide first-hand

participatory and enlightening
experience
Minimize visitor impacts on the

environment by offering literature,
briefings, leading by example, and
taking corrective actions
Represents best practices for

ecologically sustainable tourism
It should involve education among all

parties: local communities,
government, NGOs, industry and
tourists (before, during and after the
trip)
Minimize visitor impacts on cultures

by offering literature, briefings,
leading by example, and taking
corrective actions
Positively contributes to the ongoing

conservation of natural areas
Martha Honey
Involves travel to natural

destinations which are often remote
areas, whether inhabited or
uninhabited, and are usually under
some kind of environmental
protection.
It minimize the adverse effects of
hotels, trails, and other
infrastructure by using either
recycled materials or local building
materials, renewable sources of
energy, recycling and safe disposal
of waste and garbage, and
environmentally and culturally
sensitive architectural design.
Builds environmental awareness
through education, for both tourists
and residents of nearby
communities. Well before
departure tour operators should
supply travellers with reading
material about the country,
environment and local people, as
well as a code of conduct for both
the traveller and the industry itself.
Provides direct financial benefits for
conservation: Ecotourism helps
raise funds for environmental
protection, research and education
through a variety of mechanisms,
including park entrance fees, tour
company, hotel, airline and airport
It should encourage all-party

recognition of the intrinsic values of
the resource
Use adequate leadership, and

maintain small enough groups to
ensure minimum group impact on
destinations. Avoid areas that are
under-managed and over-visited
Provide constructive ongoing

contributions to local communities
It should involve acceptance of the

resource in its own terms, and in
recognition of its limits, which
involve supply-oriented management
Ensure managers, staff and contact

employees know and participate in
all aspects of company policy to
prevent impacts on the environment
and local cultures
Is sensitive to, interprets and

involves different cultures,
particularly indigenous culture
It should promote understanding and

involve partnerships between many
players, which could involve
government, NGOs, industry,
scientists and locals (before and
during operations)
It should promote moral and ethical
responsibilities and behaviour
towards the natural and cultural
environment by all
Give managers, staff and contact

employees access to programmes
that will upgrade their ability to
communicate with and manage
clients in sensitive natural and
cultural settings
Be a contributors to conservation of
the region
Consistently meets clients

expectations
taxes and voluntary contributions.

Provides financial benefits and
empowerment for local people: The
local community must be involved
with and receive income and other
tangible benefits (potable water,
roads, health clinics, etc.) from the
conservation area and its tourist
facilities. Facilities and other
concessions should be run by or in
partnership with the surrounding
communities.
Respects local culture: It should be
less culturally intrusive and
exploitative. Part of being a
responsible Eco tourist is learning
beforehand about the local
customs, respecting dress codes
and other social norms and not
intruding on the community unless
either invited or as part of a wellorganized tour.
Marketing is accurate and leads to

realistic expectations
Provide competitive, local

employment in all aspects of
business operations
Offer-site sensitive accommodations
that are not wasteful of local
resources or destructive to the
environment, which provide ample

opportunity for learning about the
environment and sensitive
interchange with local communities
Ecotourism Guidelines and Practices

Guidelines for Nature Tour Operators
I. Pre-departure Programs --Visitor Information and Education Guideline
1. Prepare travellers to minimize their negative impacts while
visiting sensitive environments and cultures before departure by
offering literature, briefings, leading by example, and taking
corrective actions. Techniques to consider include:
Offer visitors the educational materials they need to learn
about the places and people to be visited and introduce the
importance of contributing to the conservation of places
being visited.
Educate visitors about the full range of natural and cultural
phenomenon to be observed.
Educate visitors to consider the effects of their visit in
advance and to modify their behaviour while traveling, with
the objective of minimizing impacts.
Provide introductory information on the people and
ecosystems to be visited in pre-departure packages. Stress
the importance of reading pre-departure information, such
as selected bibliographies, and review additional resources
for each destination.
Keep information objective and well-grounded using
examples of phenomenon visitors might encounter.
Provide general travel ethics addressing standards for
behaviour in natural areas and with local cultures.
Provide information on the equipment, clothing and
personal supplies suitable to the regions being visited.
Warn against bringing disposable goods that contribute to
the solid waste burden in the region.
Provide information on products to avoid that are illegally
traded.
Provide information, as required, on avoiding the accidental
transport of foreign, exotic species into isolated
ecosystems being visited.
Visitor Benefits:
Visitor is attuned to the full range of opportunities for viewing
wildlife and learning about different cultures.
Awareness of personal responsibility to minimize impacts on the
environment and local cultures before departure.
Visitor has proper gear and clothing for environments and cultures
to be visited.
II. Guiding Programs --Prevention of Cultural Impacts

1. Minimize traveller impacts on local cultures by offering literature,
briefings, leading by example, and taking corrective actions.
Refer to the hand out on continuation notes..
Negative Impacts of Ecotourism and Mitigative Measures

Negative Impacts of Ecotourism
The impacts of ecotourism depend on what ecotourism is. Definitions and
characteristics have already been reviewed in the previous topics. The
critical issue is that ecotourism should involve deliberate steps to
minimize impacts, through choice of activity, equipment, location and
timing; group size; education and training; and operational environmental
management. Under these circumstances, which are regrettably more of
an ideal than practical reality in most cases, the impacts of ecotourism
should therefore be those of nature tourism and recreation which
incorporates best-practice environmental management. Ecotourism has a
variety of inter-related impacts on a destination classified under
ecological, economic and socio-cultural.
A. Ecological Impacts
From ecological perspective, it is critical to note that impacts of
ecotourism on the natural environment depend on the ecosystem as well
as the activity. Different activities, under various management regimes,
cause different impacts in different ecosystems. For example, damage to
plants by hikers boots is far more significant on an alpine (mountainous)
meadow (field) than in subtropical rainforests, but weed seeds and soil
pathogens in mud on hikers boots are more significant in rainforest than
alpine environments. Small alpine lakes or desert waterholes are far more
easily polluted by human waste than an ocean or a large turbid river.
Human voices can be a major disturbance to fauna in forests and
woodland, but not on bare mountain-tops.
Classification of Ecological Impacts
The ecological impacts of ecotourism can be classified by many different
criteria:
By the type of activity, such as hiking or helitouring;
By ecosystem type, such as forest or aquatic;
By ecosystem component, such as wildlife or water quality; or
By the scale, duration and significance of impact.
In addition, some type of impacts is very commonplace, direct and
obvious, such as trampling of vegetation. Others are indirect and far less
obvious, so it is largely unknown how significant they may be. For

example, tourists may carry pathogenic micro-organisms in their gut
fauna, which may be leached into watercourses from human waste, and
then transmitted by native wildlife to other watercourses where they are
ingested by other people. Another example of indirect impact is in form of
repeated disturbance to wildlife, such as bears, whales, eagles, turtles,
lions, and cheetahs. The disturbance may interfere with their ability to
feed and breed, causing long term-population decline.
1. Ecological Impacts of Travel
Nature-based tourism often involves travel in a variety of motorized
vehicles, by land, sea and air. In some cases, there is little
alternative means of transport available, e.g. in a 1000-km four
wheel drive safari across Kenya. As long as minimal-impact
practices are followed, this may still be considered as ecotourism. In
other cases, there is readily available non-motorized alternative:
hiking instead of an off-road vehicle (ORV), sea kayaking instead of
motorboat. We can distinguish between:
a) Cases where motorized transport is used to reach a site for
low impact activity; e.g. a boat shuttle for a sea kayak trip ,
or a car shuttle for a river rafting trip;
b) Cases where motorized travel is used to transport physically
impaired clients who would be unable to use an unmotorized
alternative, as in some boat and coach tours
c) Cases where using the motorized vehicle is in itself the
recreational activity, as in jetskis, bash-the bush 4 WD tours
Clearly category 3 is not ecotourism; categories 1 and 2 may be,
depending on the definition adopted and the way the tour is run.
Impacts, however, depend on how and where a vehicle is operated,
not why.
- Roads and formed tracks, if not well designed and
constructed, can interrupt surface drainage and cause soil
erosion, sometimes on a massive scale.
- They cause local vegetation clearance and can act as barriers
to some animals, particularly smaller vertebrates and nonflying invertebrates.
- Mud on vehicle tyres may contain weed seeds and fungal
spores.
- Fast moving vehicles cause roadkill, and engine and tyre noise
can disturb animals considerable distance away.
- Vehicles driving off-track cut and crush the soil, damage
vegetation, crush burrowing animals such as crabs and
worms. Motorized boats and aircraft can cause widespread

noise and visual disturbance to wildlife.
Even balloons may cause feeding wildlife herds to scatter.
Boat engine exhausts cause air and water pollution.
Leaks or spills at helicopter and light-aircraft refueling depots
can cause severe soil and water contamination.
2. Accommodation Impacts
Ecotourism accommodation may range from barely detectable
overnight bivouac by the bushwalker or climber to large ecolodges
and ecoresorts. The latter are simply hotels that have adopted best
principles and practices of environmental design and management.
Between these extremes lie a wide range of accommodation types:
hiking tents, car tents, tented camps, huts, cabins and lodges. Some
have ancillary infrastructure such as access roads, car parks,
maintenance plant, generators and sewage treatment systems;
others do not. Depending on scale and components, impacts may
include:
Crushing or clearance of vegetation;
Soil modifications
Introduction of weeds and pathogens
Water pollution from human waste, spent washing and cleaning
water, engine fuel and oil residues, and cleaning products
Air pollution from generator
exhausts; noise from machinery,
vehicles and voices
Visual impacts; and
Disturbance to wildlife through all of the above, and through food
scraps and litter, etc.
The most significant issues which apply for all scales and types of
accommodation are location and degree of disturbance; disposal of
human waste and used washing water; and noise.
Activities
Precisely which types of tourist activity constitute ecotourism, and under
what circumstances, is always debatable. Criteria for inclusion here are:
1. Little or no fixed infrastructure
2. Motorized vehicles , if used for transport only, not as the primary
recreational activity
Thus a group of tourists travelling slowly in a 4WD to view and learn about
wildlife may be considered ecotourism, if other criteria are satisfied;
whereas tourists driving a 4WD off-road for excitement of the drive would
not. The latter would be more appropriately be classified as adventure

tourism.
There is a wide range of outdoor activities that may variously be
considered as outdoor recreation, outdoor education, outdoor sport,
adventure tourism, or ecotourism, depending on how they are carried out.
These include bird watching, boating, bush walking, canoeing and
kayaking, climbing, fishing and hunting, mountain biking, off-road driving
and touring, photography, sailing, skiing, whale watching, wildlife viewing
and other activities which can take place in protected areas, other public
lands and natural environments. Some of the activities may use vehicles,
helicopters, balloons, motorized boats etc. Others use horses, mules,
mountain bikes, skis. All these, even hiking boots, leave some impact.
Many of these activities may also include overnight camping, including
cooking, heating and washing, with associated impacts.
Impact of ecotourism activities on:
Soils tourist vehicles, hiking both on and off trails can modify soils
in a number of ways, for example by removing litter and reducing
organic matter and nutrient content; disintegrating soil aggregates;
reducing porosity, permeability, penetrability and infiltration; and
increasing surface runoff and erosion. Soil compaction can also
modify soil temperature profiles. These changes affect soil microbes
and invertebrates, plant roots and animal burrows; and these in turn
affect aboveground vegetation and animals.
Vegetation The effects of trampling on vegetation have been

studied far more intensively than any other recreational impact,
probably because they are easily quantified experimentally. The
degree of damage depends on the pressure applied, the number of
passes, the time of the year, the type of vegetation, and the
individual plant species concerned. Even a low-intensity impact,
such as people brushing against plants as they walk by, has been
shown to produce physiological and biochemical changes, which
may be delayed some time after the initial impact (Hylgarrd and
Liddle, 1981). In most vegetation types, even relatively light
trampling causes considerable initial reduction in plant cover, as the
more susceptible species are killed. Heavier trampling eventually
removes even the most resistant species, but more slowly. The
following are some conclusions based on trampling studies:
The sensitivity of different ecosystems to trampling varies
enormously
If trampling is heavy enough in any ecosystem, plant cover

will die and local soil erosion, sometimes considerable depth,
will occur
If trampling ceases, soil and vegetation will generally recover
at least to some degree, over various timescales, which may
be very long
4WD vehicles , trail bikes, mountain bikes and particularly
horses cause vastly greater impacts than hikers
With very few exceptions, the direct impacts of trampling itself
do not continue beyond the actual track, and do not continue
to grow if trampling ceases.
Birds Numerous studies worldwide have shown that a wide range

of birds species, in a wide range of environments, may be disturbed
by noise or visual sightings of tourists, or even at low intensity.
Some species are more susceptible than others, and while some
may become habituated to disturbance, others do not (Blakesley
and Reese, 1988). Bird species assemblages, populations and
behaviour may also be changed in areas used for camping, fishing
and recreational boating (Bell and Austin, 1985; Keller, 1989) and in
areas used for hunting and by recreational vehicles and aircraft
(Belanger and Bedard, 1989). Repeated disturbance by tourists
causes substantial reduction in the breeding success of a wide
range of shorebirds, often o < 50%. Examples include relatively
restricted and endangered species such as brown pelican and
Hermans gull (Anderson and Keith, 1980). Nesting success of large
hawks and eagles, which are often major tourist attractions, is also
reduced dramatically by tourist disturbance.
B. Economic Impacts
1. Fiscal impacts (Taxes, fees, expenditure)
Tourism not only generates government revenue through business
and other general taxes, but also through industry-specific channels
such as payment of occupancy and departure taxes. Conversely,
tourism generates fiscal costs in the form, for example funding for
infrastructure. Of particular interest in the ecotourism context are
fiscal impacts on protected areas. Ecotourism has substantial
potential to financially contribute to the creation and maintenance
of protected areas, and this potential has been increasingly realized
during the past decade. However, many still charge little or no fees,
and at such sites ecotourism may cause a net negative fiscal impact
due to the costs involved in providing the ecotourism experience.
2. Reduced access to resources

Tourism utilizes various resources as inputs into the products and
services provided to visitors. In the case of ecotourism, one of these
products is nature in partially or totally preserved state.
Preservation of natural areas often involves reduced local access to
resources.
3. Inflation
Many destinations have experienced increased prices for goods,
services and land due to tourism development, and this is a cost
borne by the residents of the area who purchase these items.
4. Revenue sharing
At some ecotourism destination, residents benefit from revenuesharing programmes that either provide cash payments or, more
commonly, funding for community projects such as wells, schools,
hospitals, etc. For example, Nepals Wildlife conservation Act
provides for the distribution of 30 50% of protected area fee
revenue to surrounding communities.
Whether the above impacts are good or bad will depend on ones
perspective. For example, some may desire continuity in local
economic relationship, while others may desire reductions in income
inequalities. Persons wishing to sell land would welcome increased
land prices, while those who wish to buy land or retain land they
own (and on which they may pay property taxes) would oppose
increased prices. Likewise, tourism is said to compete with other
sectors, notably agriculture, for land, labour and finance. The
desirability of this competition depends on ones perspective;
workers earning a higher wage or investors receiving a higher return
from tourism may disagree with members of the community who
lament the transition away from traditional agricultural activities.
5. Leakage
Leakage is often listed as a negative impact, but it is more
appropriately viewed as the absence of a positive impact. Rather
than causing economic harm, it simply does not provide the benefit
of foregone jobs. Similarly, the instability and, in some cases,
undesirability of tourism jobs is often seen as a negative impact, but
can alternatively be viewed as the lack of positive impacts (stable,
desirable employment). It is true that tourism typically involves
high levels of leakage, but that does not necessarily mean it is
undesirable as a development strategy. Appropriate questions in this

context are:
i.
ii.
Whether leakages can be reduced and, if so, at what expense; and

Given current or reduced leakages, combined with other benefits
and costs, whether tourism remains more desirable than alternative
development options.
Consider the example of an American tourist wishing to visit Amboseli

National Park in Kenya. She might buy a tour from a US outbound tour
operator, which in turn has arranged for an inbound operator to lead the
tour in Kenya. The inbound tour operator will in turn purchase admission
to the park, which is managed by Kenya Wildlife Service. Alternatively, the
tourist may choose to arrange the trip directly with an inbound tour
operator, either to save money or because she is already in Kenya. It is
also possible that she might forgo using an operator in favour of traveling
to the park directly by herself.
Many observes voice the concern that much of the trip cost, and thus the
economic benefit, remains with the outbound operators and source
country airlines. To some extent, this is simply due to the nature of the
tourism industry; substantial funds are spent on marketing, commissions
and transport before tourists even reach the destinations.
A consistent finding of economic impact studies, particularly in developing
countries is that there is high level of leakage. Much of the initial tourist
expenditure leaves the destination country, and especially the destination
site itself, to pay for imported goods and services used in the tourism
industry.
Socio-Cultural Impacts (Figuerola, cited in Pearce, 1989)
1. Impacts on population structure
a. Size of population
b. Age/sex composition
c. Modification of family size
d. Rural-Urban transformation of population
2. Transformation of types of occupation
a. Impact on/of language and qualification level
b. Impact on occupation distribution by sector
c. Demand for female labour
d. Increase in seasonality of employment
3. Transformation of values
a. Political
b. Social
c. Religiosus
d. Moral
4. Influence on traditional way of life
a. Art, music and folklore
b. Habits and customs
c. Daily living
5. Modification of consumption patterns
a. Qualitative alterations
b. Quantitative alterations
CHAPTER FOUR:
OVERVIEW OF LEGISLATIVE AND MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
FOR ECOTOURISM IN KENYA
Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act, 1999
The Act defines environmental management as the protection,
conservation and sustainable use of the various elements or components
of the environment (environmental resources). It calls for appropriate
environmental planning and monitoring to achieve sustainable resource
use and sustainable development.
Environmental planning means both long-term and short-term planning
that takes into account environmental exigencies. Environmental
monitoring on the other hand means the continuous or periodic
determination of actual and potential effects of any activity or
phenomenon on the environment whether short-term or long-term;
Environmental resources here includes the resources of the air, land, flora,
fauna and water together with their aesthetical qualities.
Sustainable use means present use of the environment or natural
resources which does not compromise the ability to use the same by
future generations or degrade the carrying capacity of supporting
ecosystems. Sustainable development means development that meets

the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needs by maintaining the carrying
capacity of the supporting ecosystems.
General Principles of the Act
Article 3 of the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act, 1999
provide the following general principles:
1.) Every person in Kenya is entitled to a clean and healthy
environment and has the duty to safeguard and enhance the
environment.
2.) The entitlement under subsection (1) includes the access by any
person in Kenya to the various public elements or segments of the
environment for recreational, educational, health, spiritual and
cultural purposes.
3.) If a person alleges that the entitlement conferred under subsection
(1) has been, is being or is likely to be contravened in relation to
him, then without prejudice (bias) to any other action with respect
to the same matter which is lawfully available, that person may
apply to the High Court for redress and the High Court may take
such orders, issue such writs (summonses) or give such directions
as it may deem appropriate to
a) prevent, stop or discontinue any act or omission deleterious
(harmful, injurious, damaging etc.) to the environment;
b) compel any public officer to take measures to prevent or
discontinue any act or omission deleterious to the
environment;
c) require that any on-going activity
be subjected to an
environment audit in accordance with the provisions of this
Act, notably by the National Environment Management
Authority (NEMA)
d) compel the persons responsible for the environmental
degradation to restore the degraded environment as far as
practicable to its immediate condition prior to the damage;
and
e) provide compensation for any victims of pollution and the cost
of beneficial uses lost as a result of an act of pollution and
other losses that are connected with or incidental to the
foregoing.
4.) A person proceeding under subsection (3) of this section shall have
the capacity to bring an action notwithstanding that such a person
cannot show that the defendants act or omission has caused or is
likely to cause him any personal loss or injury provided that such
action
a) is not frivolous (perky, playful) or vexations (aggravations,
upsets, annoyance); or
b) is not an abuse of the court process.
5.) In exercising the jurisdiction conferred upon it under subsection (3),
the High Court shall be guided by the following principles of
sustainable development;
a) The principle of public participation in the development of
policies, plans and processes for the management of the
environment;
b) The cultural and social principle traditionally applied by any
community in Kenya for the management of the environment
or natural resources in so far as the same are relevant and are
not repugnant to justice and morality or inconsistent with any
written law;
c) The principle of international co-operation in the management
of environmental resources shared by two or more states;
d) The principles of intergenerational and intragenerational
equity. intragenerational equity means that all people within
the present generation have the right to benefit equally from
the exploitation of the environment, and that they have an
equal entitlement to a clean and healthy environment;
e) The polluter-pays principle; and the pre-cautionary principle.
polluter-pays principle means that the cost of cleaning up
any element of the environment damaged by pollution,
compensating victims of pollution, cost of beneficial uses lost
as a result of an act of pollution and other costs that are
connected with or incidental to the foregoing, is to be paid or
borne by the person convicted of pollution under this Act or
any other applicable law.
f) The pre-cautionary principle. The principle that where there
are threats of damage to the environment, whether serious or
irreversible, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as
a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation.
Environmental Planning
Article 37 of the Act establishes the National Environment Action Plan
Committee which shall, after every five years, prepare a national
environment action plan for consideration and adoption by the National
Assembly. According to article 38 of the Act, the national environment

action plan shall
a) contain an analysis of the natural resources of Kenya with an
indication as to any pattern of change in their distribution and
quantity over time;
b) contain an analytical profile of the various uses and value of the
natural resources incorporating considerations of intergenerational
and intragenerational equity;
c) recommend appropriate legal and fiscal incentives that may be used
to encourage the business community to incorporate environmental
requirements into their planning and operational processes;
d) recommend methods for building national awareness through
environmental education on the importance of sustainable use of
the environment and natural resources for national development;
e) set out operational guidelines for the planning and management of
the environment and natural resources;
f) identify actual or likely problems as may affect the natural resources
and the broader environment context in which they exist;
g) identify and appraise trends in the development of urban and rural
settlements, their impacts on the environment, and strategies for
the amelioration of their negative impacts;
h) propose guidelines for the integration of standards of environmental
protection into development planning and management;
i) identify and recommend policy and legislative approaches for
preventing, controlling or mitigating specific as well as general
adverse impacts on the environment;
j) prioritise areas of environmental research and outline methods of
using such research findings;
k) without prejudice to the foregoing, be reviewed and modified from
time to time to incorporate emerging knowledge and realities; and
l) be binding on all persons and all government departments,
agencies, state corporations or other organs of Government upon
adoption by the National Assembly.
Protection and Conservation of the Environment
Article 42 of the Act provides that
1.) No person shall, without prior written approval of the DirectorGeneral given after an environmental impact
assessment, in
relation to a river, lake or wetland in Kenya, carry out any of the
following activities
a) erect, reconstruct, place, alter, extend, remove or demolish
any structure or part of any structure in, or under the river,
lake or wetland;
b) excavate, drill, tunnel or disturb the river, lake or wetland;

c) introduce any animal whether alien or indigenous in a lake,
river or wetland;
d) introduce or plant any part of a plant specimen, whether alien
or indigenous, dead or alive, in any river, lake or wetland;
e) deposit any substance in a lake, river or wetland or in, on, or
under its bed, if that substance would or is likely to have
adverse environmental effects on the river, lake or wetland;
f) direct or block any river, lake or wetland from its natural and
normal course; or
g) drain any lake, river or wetland.
2.) The Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare a lake shore,
wetland, coastal zone or river bank to be protected area and impose
such restrictions as he considers necessary, to protect the lake
shore, wetlands, coastal zone and river bank from environmental
degradation. In declaring a lake shore, wetland, coastal zone or river
bank a protected area, the Minister shall take into consideration the
following factors
a) the geographical size of the lake shore, wetland, coastal zone
or river bank; and
b) the interests of the communities resident around the lake
shore, wetland, coastal zone or river bank concerned.
3.) The Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, issue general and
specific orders, regulations or standards for the management of
river banks, lake shores, wetlands or coastal zones and such orders,
regulations or standards may include management, protection, or
conservation measures in respect of any area at risk of
environmental degradation and shall provide for
a) the development of an overall environmental management
plan for a lake, river, wetland or coastal area, taking into
account the relevant sectoral interests;
b) measures for the prevention or control of coastal erosion;
c) the conservation of mangrove and coral reef ecosystems;
d) plans for the harvesting of minerals within the coastal zone,
including strategies for the restoration of mineral sites;
e) contingency plans for the prevention and control of all
deliberate and accidental discharge of pollutants into the sea,
lakes or rivers;
f) plans for the protection of wetlands;
g) the regulations of harvesting of aquatic living and non-living
resources to ensure optimism sustainable yield;
h) special guidelines for access to and exploitation of living and

non-living resources in the continental shelf, territorial sea
and the Exclusive Economic Zone;
i) promotion of environmentally friendly tourism; and
j) the management of biological resources;
4.) The Authority shall, in consultation with the relevant lead agencies,
issue guidelines for the management of the environment of lakes
and rivers.
5.) Any person who contravenes or fails to comply with any orders,
regulations or standards issued under this section shall be guilty of
an offence.
The Tourism Act of 2011
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JARAMOGI OGINGA ODINGA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

Email: georgeotieno50@yahoo.com Mobile:

Development and the

3. Policy, Principles and

Week 1,2 & 3

Week 4,5,6 & 7

Ecotourism Notes by George Otieno (2016) | 1

Ecotourism management and

COURSE DELIVERY MODE

Excuses to miss class will be considered only when family or health

Origin and Historical Development of Ecotourism

Ecotourism Notes by George Otieno (2016) | 3

including rural and cultural tourism elements.

Ecotourism Notes by George Otieno (2016) | 5

Ecotourism Notes by George Otieno (2016) | 6

Stresses local participation, ownership and business opportunities,

Valentine (1991b) draws attention to the two-way interaction between

Ecotourism Notes by George Otieno (2016) | 8

More specifically, conservationist see ecotourism as one of the more promising

Ecotourism has evolved into a type of specialty travel incorporating a diverse

4. Urgent need to generate funding and human resources for the

Nature based tourism versus Ecotourism

conservation can be achieved without sacrificing economic growth.

involves interpretation and education of the natural environment and is

The Ecotourism Society defines

ecotourism as responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the

Strengths and weaknesses of ecotourism compared to mass and nature

a large number of tourists

large leakage of money

the income is not evenly

serious negative impacts on the

need highly skilled employees,

Ecotourism Notes by George Otieno (2016) | 11

foreign experts for top

income is not evenly distributed

small negative impact on the

does not need massive

high standard, needs foreign

small number of employees

needs monitoring and evaluation

number of visitors is based

continual law enforcement

need time so that the concept is

accepted by parties (the all

need lots of employees and

government, community, and the

at the grass roots level

Soft and hard Ecotourism;

Ecotourism Notes by George Otieno (2016) | 13

Ecotourism Principles and Guidelines

Table 1. Principles of Ecotourism

The Ecotourism Society

It should not degrade the resource

Prepare travellers to minimise their

It should provide long-term benefits

Prepare travellers for each encounter

It should provide first-hand

Minimize visitor impacts on the

Represents best practices for

It should involve education among all

Minimize visitor impacts on cultures

Positively contributes to the ongoing