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The investigation determined that the failure mechanism was a result of multiple site
fatigue cracking of the skin adjacent to rivet holes along the lap joint upper rivet row and tear
strap disbond which negated the fail-safe characteristics of the fuselage. Finally, the fatigue
cracking initiated from the knife edge associated with the countersunk lap joint rivet holes;
the knife edge concentrated stresses that were transferred through the rivets because of lap
joint disbanding.
ANALISIS KEGAGALAN
Why structure fail ???
The cause of most structural failures generally falls into one of the following
categories:
1. Negligence during design, construction or operation of the structure.
2. Application of a new design or material, which produces an unexpected (and
undesirable) result.
Failure analysis
Failure analysis is an engineering approach to determining how and why equipment or a
component has failed.
ANALISIS KEGAGALAN
Why structure fail ???
The cause of most structural failures generally falls into one of the following
categories:
1. Negligence during design, construction or operation of the structure.
2. Application of a new design or material, which produces an unexpected (and
undesirable) result.
Failure analysis
Failure analysis is an engineering approach to determining how and why equipment or a
component has failed.
Failure Theories
Failure under load can occur due to excessive elastic deflections or due to
excessive stresses.
Failure prediction theories due to excessive stresses fall into two classes:
1. Failure when the loading is static or the number of load cycles is one or
quite small, and
2. Failure due to cyclic loading when the number of cycles is large often in
thousands of cycles.
Failure under static load
Parts under static loading may fail due to:
a) Ductile behavior:
behavior: Failure is due to bulk yielding causing permanent
deformations that are objectionable. These failures may cause noise, loss
of accuracy, excessive vibrations, and eventual fracture. In machinery,
bulk yielding is the criteria for failure. Tiny areas of yielding are OK in
ductile behavior in static loading.
b) Brittle behavior:
behavior: Failure is due to fracture. This occurs when the
materials (or conditions) do not allow much yielding such as ceramics,
grey cast iron, or heavily cold-worked parts
Initial necking.
Small cavity
formation
Coalescence of
cavities to form a
crack
Cup-and-cone fracture in
aluminum.
Crack
propagation
Final shear
fracture.
11
Growth of voids
to join
each other as
the applied
stress increases.
Linkage or
coalescence
of these voids to
form free fracture
surface.
If materials is stretched, it
firstly deforms uniformly.
Measuring
the energy
Tear test
Impact test
INTRODUCTION TO
FRACTURE MECHANICS
The fracture strength of a solid material is a function of the
cohesive forces that exist between atoms.
surface energy
STRESS CONCENTRATION
STRESS CONCENTRATORS
the magnitude of this localized stress
diminishes with distance away from the crack tip
stress
concentration
factor
PROBLEM
1. Consider a circular hole in a plate loaded in tension. When will material near
the hole yield?
2. A plate with a rectangular section 500 mm by 15
mm carries a tensile load of 50kN. It is made of a
ductile metal with a yield strength of 50 MPa. The
plate contains an elliptical hole of length 100 mm
and a minimum radius of 1 mm, oriented as shown
in the diagram.
What is
(a) the nominal stress
(b) The maximum stress in the plate?
(c) Will the plate start to yield?
(d) Will it collapse completely?
THEORETICAL STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR
CURVES
28
Thermodynamic criterion:
There are two energies to be taken into
account when a crack propagates:
(1) New surfaces should be created and
a certain amount of energy must be
provided to create them;
(2) Elastic strain energy stored in the
stressed material is released during
crack propagation.
G 2
2
PROBLEM
A relatively large plate of a glass is subjected to a tensile stress of 40 MPa. If
the specific surface energy and modulus of elasticity for this glass are 0.3
J/m2 and 69 GPa, respectively,
determine the maximum length of a surface flaw that is possible without
fracture.
31
32
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Fracture toughness of a material is obtained by determining
the ability of a material to withstand the load in the presence
of a sharp crack before failure.
FT is a material property;
property
Value is independent of the way it is measured;
Can be used for design
G 2
35
PROCESS ZONE
A plastic zone forms at the
crack tip where the stress
would otherwise exceed
the yield strength
Size of process zone:
36
DAMAGE TOLERANCE
Critical crack lengths are a measure of the
damage tolerance of a material
FRACTURE RESISTANCE
The ability of a material to resist the growth of a crack
depends on a large number of factors:
Larger flaws reduce the permitted stress.
The ability of a material to deform is critical.
Increasing the rate of application of the load, such as
that encountered in an impact test, typically reduces
the fracture toughness of the material.
Increasing the temperature normally increases the
fracture toughness.
VARIABLES AFFECTING
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Metallurgical factors
Microstructure, inclusions,
impurities
Composition
Heat treatment
Thermo-mechanical processing
Transition crack length plotted on chart values can range from nearatomic dimensions for ceramics to almost a meter for ductile metals
FAIL-SAFE DESIGN
Yield-before-break
Requires that the crack will
not propagate even if the
stress causes the part to yield
44
Leak-before-break
Requires that a crack
just large enough to
penetrate both the inner
and outer surface of the
vessel is still stable
wall stress
47
Stress based on
maximum design
pressure
Stress at which a plate with the given K1c
will fail with a 10 mm crack
48
DUCTILE-TO-BRITTLE TRANSITION
At low temperatures some metals and all polymers become
brittle
As temperatures decrease, yield strengths of most materials
increase leading to a reduction in the plastic zone size
Only metals with an FCC structure remain ductile at the lowest
temperatures
The ductile to brittle transition temperature is the temperature at
which the failure mode of a material changes from ductile to brittle
fracture.
The sinking of the Titanic was caused primarily by the brittleness of the
steel used to construct the hull of the ship.
In the icy water of the Atlantic, the steel was below the ductile to brittle
transition temperature.
INSPECTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Visual
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
Eddy Current
X-ray
INSPECTIONS
1. VISUAL INSPECTION
Most basic and common
inspection method.
Tools include fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.
Portable video inspection unit
with zoom allows inspection
of large tanks and vessels,
railroad tank cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or tight
areas, such as air ducts, reactors,
pipelines.
INSPECTIONS
2. LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to
the surface of the part and allowed time to seep into surface
breaking defects.
INSPECTIONS
3. MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment
are then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux
leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting
conditions.
INSPECTIONS
Magnetic Particle Crack Indications
INSPECTIONS
4. RADIOGRAPHY
The radiation used in radiography testing is a
higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of
the electromagnetic waves that we
see as visible light. The radiation can come
from an X-ray generator or a radioactive
source.
X-ray
Generator or
Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
Exposure Recording Device
INSPECTIONS
5. EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but can also be
used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a small
surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack
INSPECTIONS
6. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION (PULSE-ECHO)
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are reflected back
from surfaces or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can visualize a cross
section of the specimen showing the depth of features that reflect sound.
initial
pulse
crack
echo
back surface
echo
crack
0
10
plate
Oscilloscope, or
flaw detector screen
ULTRASONIC IMAGING
High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal
strength or time-of-flight using a computer-controlled scanning
system.
INSPECTION FOLLOWING
SECONDARY PROCESSING
Machining
Welding
Grinding
Heat treating
Plating
etc.
INSPECTION FOR
IN-SERVICE DAMAGE
Cracking
Corrosion
Erosion/Wear
Heat Damage
etc.
Probe
Signals produced by
various amounts of
corrosion thinning.
AIRCRAFT INSPECTION
Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the manufacturing
of aircraft.
NDT is also used to find cracks and
corrosion damage during operation
of the aircraft.
A fatigue crack that started at the site
of a lightning strike is shown below.
RAIL
INSPECTION
Special cars are used to inspect
thousands of miles of rail to
find cracks that could lead to a
derailment.
BRIDGE INSPECTION
The US has 578,000 highway
bridges.
Corrosion, cracking and other
damage can all affect a bridges
performance.
The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in loss
of 47 lives.
Bridges get a visual inspection
about every 2 years.
Some bridges are fitted with
acoustic emission sensors that
listen for sounds of cracks
growing.
PIPELINE INSPECTION
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to
prevent leaks that could damage the
environment. Visual inspection,
radiography and electromagnetic testing
are some of the NDT methods used.
SPECIAL MEASUREMENTS
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of evaluating
the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods
were used to measure the electrical conductivity of the Bell's bronze
casing at various points to evaluate its uniformity.
REFERENCES
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