ABSTRACT

The fear of theft and burglary always annoys many people. When lock and keys become
less safe, one can seek the help of electronic security systems.
Such a portable security system is described here.
This electronic setup auto activated whenever the intruder enters to the unauthorized no
entry area. It auto activate the landline number and redial the last dialed number from the
conventional telephone. All we need is to do minor changes to activate this telephone as it
works as to become auto dialer circuit.
Thus whenever the intruder enters to the area, it activates the sensor circuit of either sound
activation or infrared light beam obstruction circuit, the redial circuit become active and
give a ring tone to the receiving end. It may be a mobile phone or any landline phone or
even police control room.

CHAPTER :- 1
Introduction of Project
Introduction
The objective of this project is to make a controller based model to count number of
persons visiting particular room and accordingly light up the room. Here we can use sensor
and can know present number of persons.
In todays world, there is a continuous need for automatic appliances with the increase in
standard of living, there is a sense of urgency for developing circuits that would ease the
complexity of life.Also if at all one wants to know the number of people present in room so
as not to have congestion. This circuit proves to be helpful.
This Project Automatic Room Light Controller with Visitor Counter using Microcontroller
is a reliable circuit that takes over the task of controlling the room lights as well us counting
number of persons/ visitors in the room very accurately. When somebody enters into the
room then the counter is incremented by one and the light in the room will be switched ON
and when any one leaves the room then the counter is decremented by one. The light will
be only switched OFF until all the persons in the room go out. The total number of persons
inside the room is also displayed on the seven segment displays.
The microcontroller does the above job. It receives the signals from the sensors, and this
signal is operated under the control of software which is stored in ROM. Microcontroller
AT89S52 continuously monitor the Infrared Receivers, When any object pass through the
IR Receiver's then the IR Rays falling on the receiver are obstructed , this obstruction is
sensed by the Microcontroller.

CHAPTER :- 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS DESCRIPTION

2.1

Basic Block Diagram

Enter
Enter Sensor

Exit Sensor

Exit

Signal
Conditioning

Relay Driver

7
4
F
1
9
2

Signal
Conditioning

Power Supply

LCD
INTERFACING

Figure 2.1:- Basic Block Diagram of Visitor Counter

Light

2.2 Block Diagram Description

The basic block diagram of the bidirectional visitor counter with automatic light controller
is shown in the above figure. Mainly this block diagram consist of the following essential
blocks.
(i) Power Supply
(ii) Entry and Exit sensor circuit
(iii)

74ls192 up/down decade counter

(iv) Relay driver circuit

2.2.1 Power Supply:Here we used +12V and +5V dc power supply. The main function of this block is to provide
the required amount of voltage to essential circuits. +12 voltage is given. +12V is given to
relay driver. To get the +5V dc power supply we have used here IC 7805, which provides
the +5V dc regulated power supply.

2.2.2 Enter and Exit Circuits:This is one of the main part of our project. The main intention of this block

is to sense

the person. For sensing the person and light we are using the light dependent register
(LDR).

2.2.3 74LS192 UP/DOWN DECADE COUNTER:It is an up/down modulo -16 binary counter. It uses up/down clocks in either
counting mode and the circuit operates synchronously . The o/p change the state
4

synchronous with the low to high transitions on the clock inputs .

Separate terminal count up and terminal count down o/p are provided which are
used as a clocks for a subsequent stages without extra logic,
thus simplifying counter designs. Individual preset inputs allow the circuit to be
used as a programmable counter . Both the parallel load and the master reset inputs
asynchronously override clocks .

a) Low Power : 95 mw
b) High Speed :40MHz
c) Synchronous counting
d) Asynchronous Master Reset and parallel Load
e) Individual preset inputs
f) Cascading Circuitry Internally

Figure 2.2:- Up/Down Decade Counter

2.2.4 Relay Driver Circuit:6

This block has the potential to drive the various controlled devices. In this block mainly we
are using the transistor and the relays. One relay driver circuit we are using to control the
light. Output signal from AT89S52 is given to the base of the transistor, which we are
further energizing the particular relay. Because of this appropriate device is selected and it
do its allotted function

CHAPTER 3:COMPONENTS USED-PART A

3.1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage
regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control
loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on
the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where
they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control
the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be
installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage
independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

Measures of regulator quality

The output voltage can only be held roughly constant; the regulation is specified by two
measurements:
a)

Load regulation is the change in output voltage for a given change in load current
(for example: "typically 15 mV, maximum 100 mV for load currents between 5 mA and
1.4 A, at some specified temperature and input voltage").

b)

Line regulation or input regulation is the degree to which output voltage changes
with input (supply) voltage changes - as a ratio of output to input change (for example
"typically 13 mV/V"), or the output voltage change over the entire specified input voltage

~8~

range (for example "plus or minus 2% for input voltages between 90 V and 260 V, 5060 Hz").

Other important parameters are:

a)

Temperature coefficient of the output voltage is the change with temperature

(perhaps averaged over a given temperature range).

b)

Initial accuracy of a voltage regulator (or simply "the voltage accuracy") reflects the
error in output voltage for a fixed regulator without taking into account temperature or
aging effects on output accuracy.

c)

Dropout voltage is the minimum difference between input voltage and output voltage
for which the regulator can still supply the specified current. A low drop-out (LDO)
regulator is designed to work well even with an input supply only a volt or so above the
output voltage. The input-output differential at which the voltage regulator will no longer
maintain regulation is the dropout voltage. Further reduction in input voltage will result
in reduced output voltage. This value is dependent on load current and junction
temperature.

d)

Absolute maximum ratings are defined for regulator components, specifying the
continuous and peak output currents that may be used (sometimes internally limited), the
maximum input voltage, maximum power dissipation at a given temperature, etc.

e)

Output noise (thermal white noise) and output dynamic impedance may be
specified as graphs versus frequency, while output ripple noise (mains "hum" or switchmode "hash" noise) may be given as peak-to-peak or RMS voltages, or in terms of their
spectra.

f)

Quiescent current in a regulator circuit is the current drawn internally, not available
to the load, normally measured as the input current while no load is connected (and hence
a source of inefficiency; some linear regulators are, surprisingly, more efficient at very
low current loads than switch-mode designs because of this).

g)

Transient response is the reaction of a regulator when a (sudden) change of the load
current (called the load transient) or input voltage (called the line transient) occurs. Some
regulators will tend to oscillate or have a slow response time which in some cases might

~9~

lead to undesired results. This value is different from the regulation parameters, as that is
the stable situation definition. The transient response shows the behaviour of the regulator
on a change. This data is usually provided in the technical documentation of a regulator
and is also dependent on output capacitance.
h)

Mirror-image insertion protection means that a regulator is designed for use when a
voltage, usually not higher than the maximum input voltage of the regulator, is applied to
its output pin while its input terminal is at a low voltage, volt-free or grounded. Some
regulators can continuously withstand this situation; others might only manage it for a
limited time such as 60 seconds, as usually specified in the datasheet. This situation can
occur when a three terminal regulator is incorrectly mounted for example on a PCB, with
the output terminal connected to the unregulated DC input and the input connected to the
load. Mirror-image insertion protection is also important when a regulator circuit is used
in battery charging circuits, when external power fails or is not turned on and the output
terminal remains at battery voltage.

3.1.1 ELECTRONIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A simple voltage regulator can be made from a resistor in series with a diode (or series of
diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across the diode
changes only slightly due to changes in current drawn or changes in the input. When precise
voltage control and efficiency are not important, this design may work fine.
Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some fixed
reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element in
such a way as to reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback control loop;
increasing the open-loop gain tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability
(stability is avoidance of oscillation, or ringing, during step changes). There will also be a
trade-off between stability and the speed of the response to changes. If the output voltage is
too low (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the regulation
element is commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher output voltageby dropping less of

~ 10 ~

the input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck switching regulators), or to draw input
current for longer periods (boost-type switching regulators); if the output voltage is too
high, the regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage.
However, many regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely stop
sourcing current (or limit the current in some way) if the output current is too high, and some
regulators may also shut down if the input voltage is outside a given range
7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear
voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not
give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide.
7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at
input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Pin
No
1
2
3

Function

Name

Input voltage (5V-18V)

Ground (0V)
Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V)

Input
Ground
Output

~ 11 ~

Figure3.1 :- Voltage Regulator

3.2 NE555 TIMER

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation,
and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and
as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package.
Introduced in 1971 by Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread use due to its ease of use, low
price, and stability. It is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and also in
low-power CMOS types. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured
every year.

Design

~ 12 ~

The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans Camenzind under contract to Signetics, which was
later acquired by Philips (now NXP).
Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors,
2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package
(DIP-8). Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip),
and the two 558 & 559s (both a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS
& THR connected internally, and TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).
The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 C to +70 C, and the SE555 part
number designated the military temperature range, 55 C to +125 C. These were available
in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package)
packages. Thus the full part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T. It has
been hypothesized that the 555 got its name from the three 5 k resistors used within, but
Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary.
Low-power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and CMOS TLC555. The
7555 is designed to cause less supply noise than the classic 555 and the manufacturer claims
that it usually does not require a "control" capacitor and in many cases does not require
a decoupling capacitor on the power supply. Those parts should generally be included,
however, because noise produced by the timer or variation in power supply voltage might
interfere with other parts of a circuit or influence its threshold voltage.
The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows:

Pi
Name Purpose
n
1

GND

Ground reference voltage, low level (0 V)

TRIG

The OUT pin goes high and a timing interval starts when this input falls below
1/2 of CTRL voltage (which is typically 1/3 ofVCC, when CTRL is open).

OUT

This output is driven to approximately 1.7 V below +VCC or GND.

~ 13 ~

A timing interval may be reset by driving this input to GND, but the timing
RESE
does not begin again until RESET rises above approximately 0.7 volts.
T
Overrides TRIG which overrides THR.

CTRL Provides "control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).

THR

The timing (OUT high) interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than
that at CTRL (2/3 VCC if CTRL is open).

DIS

Open collector output which may discharge a capacitor between intervals. In

phase with output.

VCC

Positive supply voltage, which is usually between 3 and 15 V depending on the

variation.

Pin 5 is also sometimes called the CONTROL VOLTAGE pin. By applying a voltage to the
CONTROL VOLTAGE input one can alter the timing characteristics of the device. In most
applications, the CONTROL VOLTAGE input is not used. It is usual to connect a 10 nF
capacitor between pin 5 and 0 V to prevent interference. The CONTROL VOLTAGE input
can be used to build an astable with a frequency modulated output.

3.1 Modes
The 555 has three operating modes:
a)

Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch
switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM)
and so on.

~ 14 ~

b)

Astable (free-running) mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses

include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms,pulse position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC,
converting an analog value to a pulse length. E.g. selecting a thermistor as timing resistor
allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is
determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then
convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means.

c)

Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin
is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

3.1.1Monostable
In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a "one-shot" pulse generator. The pulse begins
when the 555 timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls below a third of the voltage
supply. The width of the output pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC network,
which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The output pulse ends when the voltage
on the capacitor equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse width can be lengthened
or shortened to the need of the specific application by adjusting the values of R and C.
The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply
voltage, is given by
.(3.1)
where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads.
While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the main disadvantage is that the time span
between any two triggering pulses must be greater than the RC time constant.

~ 15 ~

Figure 3.1:-Monostable 555 Timer & its Waveform

~ 16 ~

3.1.2 Bistable

Figure 3.2 :-Schematic of a 555 in bistable mode

In bistable (also called Schmitt trigger) mode, the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The
trigger and reset inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via Pull-up
resistors while the threshold input (pin 6) is simply floating. Thus configured, pulling the
trigger momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high
state). Pulling the reset input to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the output pin to
ground (low state). No timing capacitors are required in a bistable configuration. Pin 5
(control voltage) is connected to ground via a small-value capacitor (usually 0.01 to 0.1 uF);
pin 7 (discharge) is left floating.

3.1.3 Astable

Figure 3.3:-Standard 555 astable circuit

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a
specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7) and

~ 17 ~

another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2)
and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is charged through
R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during
output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor.
In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and C:

.(3.2)

The high time from each pulse is given by:

..(3.3)
and the low time from each pulse is given by:
.(3.4)
where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor
in farads.

The power capability of R1 must be greater than

Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of

must be avoided so that the output stays
saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the above equation. Otherwise the
output low time will be greater than calculated above. The first cycle will take appreciably
longer than the calculated time, as the capacitor must charge from 0V to 2/3 of V CC from
power-up, but only from 1/3 of VCC to 2/3 of VCC on subsequent cycles.
To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a small diode (that is fast enough for the
application) can be placed in parallel with R2, with the cathode on the capacitor side. This
bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the high interval depends approximately
only on R1 and C. The presence of the diode is a voltage drop that slows charging on the
capacitor so that the high time is longer than the expected and often-cited ln(2)*R 1C = 0.693
R1C. The low time will be the same as without the diode as shown above. With a diode, the
high time is

..(3.5)

~ 18 ~

where Vdiode is when the diode has a current of 1/2 of V cc/R1 which can be determined from its
datasheet or by testing. As an extreme example, when Vcc= 5 and Vdiode= 0.7, high time = 1.00
R1C which is 45% longer than the "expected" 0.693 R1C. At the other extreme, when Vcc= 15
and Vdiode= 0.3, the high time = 0.725 R1C which is closer to the expected 0.693 R1C. The
equation reduces to the expected 0.693 R1C if Vdiode= 0.
The operation of RESET in this mode is not well defined, some manufacturers' parts will hold
the output state to what it was when RESET is taken low, others will send the output either
high or low.

Specifications
These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have different specifications
depending on the grade (military, medical, etc.).

Supply voltage (VCC)

4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V)

3 to 6 mA

Supply current (VCC = +15 V)

10 to 15 mA

Output current (maximum)

200 mA

Maximum Power dissipation

600 mW

Power consumption (minimum operating)

30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V

Operating temperature

0 to 70 C

~ 19 ~

3.2 RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum
tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor
diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches.
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power
supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve
in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted,
detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used
to detect presence of flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone
produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many
applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer
equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In
these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter to produce a
steady current.
A more complex circuitry device that performs the opposite function, converting DC to AC,
is called an inverter.

3.2.1 Rectifier circuits

Rectifier circuits may be single-phase or multi-phase (three being the most common number
of phases). Most low power rectifiers for domestic equipment are single-phase, but threephase rectification is very important for industrial applications and for the transmission of
energy as DC (HVDC).
A).Full-wave rectification

~ 20 ~

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output voltage.
Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configurationand any
AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed.[3] Single semiconductor
diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are
manufactured as single components.

Figure 3.4:-Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4

diodes.
For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back
(cathode-to-cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity required) can form a
full-wave rectifier. Twice as many turns are required on the transformer secondary to obtain
the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier, but the power rating is unchanged.

Figure 3.5:- Full-wave rectifier using a center tap transformer

and 2 diodes.

~ 21 ~

Figure 3.6:- Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two

anodes.
The average and root-mean-square no-load output voltages of an ideal single-phase full-wave
rectifier are:
...(3.6)

..(3.7)

Very common double-diode rectifier vacuum tubes contained a single common cathode and
two anodes inside a single envelope, achieving full-wave rectification with positive output.
The 5U4 and 5Y3 were popular examples of this configuration.

Three-phase bridge rectifier

Figure 3.7 :-Disassembled automobilealternator, showing the six diodes that

comprise a full-wave three-phase bridge rectifier.

For an uncontrolled three-phase bridge rectifier, six diodes are used, and the circuit again has
a pulse number of six. For this reason, it is also commonly referred to as a six-pulse
bridge.For low-power applications, double diodes in series, with the anode of the first diode
connected to the cathode of the second, are manufactured as a single component for this
purpose. Some commercially available double diodes have all four terminals available so the
user can configure them for single-phase split supply use, half a bridge, or three-phase
rectifier.

~ 22 ~

For higher-power applications, a single discrete device is usually used for each of the six
arms of the bridge. For the very highest powers, each arm of the bridge may consist of tens or
hundreds of separate devices in parallel (where very high current is needed, for example
in aluminium smelting) or in series (where very high voltages are needed, for example
in high-voltage direct current power transmission).

Figure 3.8:-Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit using

thyristors as the switching elements, ignoring supply inductance
For a three-phase full-wave diode rectifier, the ideal, no-load average output voltage is
(3.8)
If thyristors are used in place of diodes, the output voltage is reduced by a factor cos():
(3.9)
Or, expressed in terms of the line to line input voltage.
.(3.10)
Where: VLLpeak, the peak value of the line to line input voltages,
Vpeak, the peak value of the phase (line to neutral) input voltages,
, firing angle of the thyristor (0 if diodes are used to perform rectification)
The above equations are only valid when no current is drawn from the AC supply or in the
theoretical case when the AC supply connections have no inductance. In practice, the supply
inductance causes a reduction of DC output voltage with increasing load, typically in the
range 1020% at full load.The effect of supply inductance is to slow down the transfer
process (called commutation) from one phase to the next. As result of this is that at each
transition between a pair of devices, there is a period of overlap during which three (rather
than two) devices in the bridge are conducting simultaneously. The overlap angle is usually
referred to by the symbol (or u), and may be 20 30 at full load.
With supply inductance taken into account, the output voltage of the rectifier is reduced to:

~ 23 ~

.
(3.11)
The overlap angle is directly related to the DC current, and the above equation may be reexpressed as:
.
(3.12)
Where: Lc, the commutating inductance per phase
Id, the direct current

Three-phase Graetz bridge rectifier at

alpha=0 without overlap

~ 24 ~

Three-phase Graetz bridg

alpha=0 with overlap a

CHAPTER :- 4
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
There are two main parts of the circuits.
1. Transmission Circuits (Infrared LEDs)
2. Receiver Circuit (Sensors)
4.1Transmission Circuit:

~ 25 ~

Figure 4.1:- Transmitter circuit

This circuit diagram shows how a 555 timer IC is configured to function as a basic
monostable multivibrator. A monostable multivibrator is a timing circuit that changes state
once triggered, but returns to its original state after a certain time delay. It got its name from
the fact that only one of its output states is stable. It is also known as a 'one-shot'.
In this circuit, a negative pulse applied at pin 2 triggers an internal flip-flop that turns off pin
7's discharge transistor, allowing C1 to charge up through
R1. At the same time, the flip-flop brings the output (pin 3) level to 'high'. When capacitor
C1 as charged up to about 2/3 Vcc, the flip-flop is triggered once again, this time making the
pin 3 output 'low' and turning on pin 7's discharge transistor, which discharges C1 to ground.
This circuit, in effect, produces a pulse at pin 3 whose width t is just the product of R1 and
C1, i.e., t=R1C1.
IR Transmission circuit is used to generate the modulated 36 kHz IR signal. The IC555 in the
transmitter side is to generate 36 kHz square wave. Adjust the preset in the transmitter to get
a 38 kHz signal at the o/p. around 1.4K we get a 38 kHz signal. Then you point it over the
sensor and its o/p will go low when it senses the IR signal of 38 kHz.

4.2Receiver Circuit:

~ 26 ~

Figure 4.2:- Receiver circuit

The IR transmitter will emit modulated 38 kHz IR signal and at the receiver we use
TSOP1738 (Infrared Sensor). The output goes high when the there is an interruption and it
return back to low after the time period determined by the capacitor and resistor in the circuit.
I.e. around 1 second. CL100 is to trigger the IC555 which is configured as monostable
multivibrator. Input is given to the Port 1 of the microcontroller. Port 0 is used for the 7Segment display purpose. Port 2 is used for the Relay Turn On and Turn off Purpose.LTS 542
(Common Anode) is used for 7-Segment display. And that time Relay will get Voltage and
triggered so light will get voltage and it will turn on. And when counter will be 00 that time
Relay will be turned off. Reset button will reset the microcontroller.

~ 27 ~

CHAPTER :- 5
HARDWARE DESIGN& DESCRIPTIONS

Hardware Design:-

UP/DOWN
COUNTER
74LS192

~ 28 ~

Infrared Sensor
TSOP1738

Relay
Timer IC
555

7-Segment
Display

Figure 5.1:- Snapshot of the entire circuit

5.1 Procedure Followed While Designing:

In the beginning I designed the circuit in DIPTRACE software. Dip trace is a circuit
designing software. After completion of the designing circuit I prepared the layout.
Then I programmed the microcontroller using TOPVIEW SIMULATOR software using hex
file.
Then soldering process was done. After completion of the soldering process I tested the
circuit.

~ 29 ~

Still the desired output was not obtained and so troubleshooting was done. In the process of
troubleshooting I found the circuit aptly soldered and connected and hence came to
conclusion that there was error in programming section which was later rectified and the
desired results were obtained.

5.2 List of Components:

Following is the list of components that are necessary to build the assembly of the Digital
Speedometer Cum Odometer:
a) 74LS192
b) IC 7805
c) Sensor TSOP 1738 (Infrared Sensor)
d) Transformer 12-0-12, 500 mA
e) Preset 4.7K
f) Disc capacitor 104,33pF
g) Reset button switch
h) Rectifier diode IN4148
i) Transistor BC 547, CL 100
j) 7-Segment Display

CHAPTER:-6
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION- PART B
6.1

TSOP1738 (INFRARED SENSOR)

~ 30 ~

Figure 6.1:- Infrared Sensor

Description:
The TSOP17.. Series are miniaturized receivers for infrared remote control systems. PIN
diode and preamplifier are assembled on lead frame, the epoxy package is designed as IR
filter. The demodulated output signal can directly be decoded by a microprocessor. TSOP17..
is the standard IR remote control receiver series, supporting all major transmission codes.
Features:
a) Photo detector and preamplifier in one package
b) Internal filter for PCM frequency
c) Improved shielding against electrical field disturbance
d) TTL and CMOS compatibility
e) Output active low
f) Low power consumption
g) High immunity against ambient light
h) Continuous data transmission possible (up to 2400 bps)
i) Suitable burst length .10 cycles/burst

Block Diagram:
~ 31 ~

Figure 6.2:- Block Diagram of TSOP 1738

6.2 555 ( TIMER IC):

Figure 6.3:- Timer IC(555)

Description:
~ 32 ~

The LM555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation.
Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay
mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For
astable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately
controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and
reset on falling waveforms, and the output circuit can source or sink up to 200mA or drive
TTL circuits.

Features:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Direct replacement for SE555/NE555

Timing from microseconds through hours
Operates in both astable and monostable modes
Adjustable duty cycle
Output can source or sink 200 mA
Output and supply TTL compatible
Temperature stability better than 0.005% per C
Normally on and normally off output

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Precision timing
Pulse generation
Sequential timing
Time delay generation
Pulse width modulation
Pulse position modulation
Linear ramp generator

Applications:

6.3 LTS 542 (7-Segment Display)

Description:
The LTS 542 is a 0.52 inch digit height single digit seven-segment display. This device utilizes
Hi-eff. Red LED chips, which are made from GaAsP on GaP substrate, and has a red face and
red segment.

~ 33 ~

Figure 6.4:- 7 Segment Display

Features:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Common Anode
0.52 Inch Digit Height
Continuous Uniform Segments
Low power Requirement
Excellent Characters Appearance
High Brightness & High Contrast
Wide Viewing Angle

~ 34 ~

6.3 LM7805 (Voltage Regulator)

Figure 6.5:- Voltage Regulator

Description:
The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are available in the TO220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and
safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed
voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents.

Features:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Output Current up to 1A
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
Thermal Overload Protection
Short Circuit Protection
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

6.3 RELAY CIRCUIT:

~ 35 ~

Figure 6.6:- Relay

A single pole dabble throw (SPDT) relay is connected to port RB1 of the microcontroller
through a driver transistor. The relay requires 12 volts at a current of around 100ma, which
cannot provide by the microcontroller. So the driver transistor is added. The relay is used to
operate the external solenoid forming part of a locking device or for operating any other
electrical devices. Normally the relay remains off. As soon as pin of the microcontroller goes
high, the relay operates. When the relay operates and releases. Diode D2 is the standard diode
on a mechanical relay to prevent back EMF from damaging Q3 when the relay releases. LED
L2 indicates relay on.

6.6 CAPACITOR
A capacitor (originally

known

as

a condenser)

is

a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy electro statically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e., insulator). The conductors can be thin films of metal aluminum foil or disks,
etc. The 'non conducting' dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A
dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are widely used
as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor
does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic
field between its plates.

~ 36 ~

6.6.1 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

An electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses an electrolyte (an ionic conducting liquid)
as one of its plates to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types. The large
capacitance of electrolytic capacitors makes them particularly suitable for passing or
bypassing low-frequency signals and storing large amounts of energy. They are widely used
in power supplies ,and interconnecting stages of amplifiers at audio frequencies. An
electrolytic capacitor will generally have higher leakage current than a comparable (dry)
capacitor, and may have siginificant limitations in its operating temperature range, parasitic
resistance and inductance, and the stability and accuracy of its capacitance value.

Figure 6.7:- Electrolytic Capacitor

6.6.2 CERAMIC CAPACITOR

A ceramic capacitor is a fixed value capacitor in which ceramic material acts as
the dielectric. It is constructed of two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer
acting as the electrodes. The composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical
behavior and therefore applications. Ceramic capacitors are divided into two application
classes:
a)

Class 1 ceramic capacitors offer high stability and low losses for resonant circuit
applications.

b)

Class 2 ceramic capacitors offer high volumetric efficiency for buffer, by-pass and
coupling applications.

~ 37 ~

Figure 6.8:- Ceramic Capacitor

6.7 DIODE
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance;
it has low (ideally zero) resistance to currentin one direction, and high (ideally infinite)
resistance in the other.
Main functions
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check
valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio
receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action, due to
their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting
electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward
direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a
forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature;
this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.
Most diodes today are silicon junction diodes. A junction is formed between the p and n
regions which is also called a depletion region.

~ 38 ~

6.7.1 pn junction diode

A pn junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor. Impurities are added to it to
create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-type
semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes),
called p-type semiconductor. When two materials i.e. n-type and p-type are attached together,
a momentary flow of electrons occur from n to p side resulting in a third region where no
charge carriers are present. It is called Depletion region due to the absence of charge carriers
(electrons and holes in this case). The diode's terminals are attached to each of these regions.
The boundary between these two regions, called a pn junction, is where the action of the
diode takes place. The crystal allows electrons to flow from the N-type side (called
the cathode) to the P-type side (called the anode), but not in the opposite direction.

Schottky diode
Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metalsemiconductor
junction rather than a pn junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed.

6.7.2 Currentvoltage characteristic

Figure 6.9:- I-V Characteristic

A diode's IV characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation:

~ 39 ~

1. At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process
called reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large
number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction)
that usually damages the device permanently. At reverse biases more positive than the
PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a
normal PN rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the A
range). However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures,
a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more).
2. With a small forward bias, where only a small forward current is conducted, the
currentvoltage curve is exponential in accordance with the ideal diode equation.
There is a definite forward voltage at which the diode starts to conduct significantly.
This is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage and is equal to the barrier potential of
the p-n junction.
3. At larger forward currents the current-voltage curve starts to be dominated by the
ohmic resistance of the bulk semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential; it is
asymptotic to a straight line whose slope is the bulk resistance. This region is
particularly important for power diodes. The effect can be modeled as an ideal diode
in series with a fixed resistor.
In a small silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop is about 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value
is different for other diodes.
At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is
typical at full rated current for power diodes.

Figure 6.10:- Diode

~ 40 ~

6.8 RESISTOR
A resistor is

a passive two-terminal electrical

component that

implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act
to lower voltage levels within circuits. Resistors may have fixed resistances or variable
resistances,

such

as

those

found

in thermistors, varistors, trimmers, photoresistors, humistors and potentiometers.The current t

hrough a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This
relationship is represented by Ohm's law:
I=V/R
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms (symbol: ).
The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the
circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the
voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after George Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 10 3 ), kilohm (1
k = 103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured
in siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, siemens is the reciprocal of an

~ 41 ~

ohm:. Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors
are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

6.8.1 Potentiometers
A common element in electronic devices ia a three-terminal resistop with a continuously
adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of shaft or knob.
These variable resistors are known as potentiometer which act as potential divider.

Accurate, high-resolution panel-mounted potentiometers (or "pots") have resistance elements

typically wirewound on a helical mandrel, although some include a conductive-plastic
resistance coating over the wire to improve resolution. These typically offer ten turns of their
shafts to cover their full range. They are usually set with dials that include a simple turns
counter and a graduated dial. Electronic analog computers used them in quantity for setting
coefficients, and delayed-sweep oscilloscopes of recent decades included one on their panels.

Figure 6.11:- Resistor

~ 42 ~

Color code
The axial lead carbon resistors measured by the color codes marked on them. Information
such as resistance value, tolerance, temperature co-efficient measured by the color codes, and
the amount of power (wattage) identified by the size.
The color bands of the carbon resistors can be four, five or, six bands, for all the first two
bands represent first two digits to measure their value in ohms. The third band of a fourbanded resistor represents multiplier and the fourth band as tolerance. Whereas, the five and
six color-banded resistors, the third band rather represents as third digit but the fourth and
fifth bands represent as multiplier and tolerance respectively. Only the sixth band represents
temperature co-efficient in a six-banded resistor.

6.9 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source that resembles a
basic pn-junction diode, except that an LED also emits light. [7] When an LED's anode lead

~ 43 ~

has a voltage that is more positive than its cathode lead by at least the LED's forward voltage
drop, current flows. Electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be
used to shape its radiation pattern.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted lowintensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in
remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer
electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red.
Modern LEDs are available across the visible,ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very
high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of sevensegment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising,general lighting, traffic signals, and camera
flashes. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and
require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.
LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

~ 44 ~

6.9.1 Ultraviolet and blue LEDs

Current bright blue LEDs are based on the wide band gap semiconductors GaN (gallium
nitride) and InGaN (indium gallium nitride). They can be added to existing red and green
LEDs to produce the impression of white light. Modules combining the three colors are used
in bigvideo screens and in adjustable-color fixtures.
The first blue LEDs using gallium nitride were made in 1971 by Jacques Pankove at RCA
Laboratories. These devices had too little light output to be of practical use and research into
gallium nitride devices slowed. In August 1989, Cree Inc. introduced the first commercially
available blue LED based on the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide.[ SiC LEDs
had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the
visible light spectrum.
In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping ushered in
the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, in 1993
high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated. High-brightness blue LEDs invented by Shuji
Nakamura of Nichia Corporation using gallium nitride revolutionized LED lighting, making
high-power light sources practical.
By the late 1990s, blue LEDs had become widely available. They have an active region
consisting of one or more InGaN quantum wellssandwiched between thicker layers of GaN,
called cladding layers. By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the
light emission can in theory be varied from violet to amber. Aluminium gallium
nitride (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and
quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of
efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices. If un-alloyed GaN
is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device will emit nearultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm. Green LEDs manufactured
from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced
with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for
high-brightness applications.

~ 45 ~

With nitrides containing aluminium, most often AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter
wavelengths are achievable. Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are becoming
available on the market. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 375395 nm are already
cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of
anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in some documents and paper currencies. Shorterwavelength diodes, while substantially more expensive, are commercially available for
wavelengths down to 240 nm. As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately
matches the absorption spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at
250270 nm are to be expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent
research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective
disinfection and sterilization devices.
Deep-UV

wavelengths

were

obtained

in

laboratories

using aluminium

nitride (210 nm), boron nitride (215 nm) and diamond (235 nm).[
White light
There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes (WLEDs), LEDs that
generate high-intensity white light. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary
colorsred, green, and blueand then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to
use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broadspectrum white light, much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works.
There are three main methods of mixing colors to produce white light from an LED:
a)

blue LED + green LED + red LED (color mixing; can be used as backlighting for
displays)

b)

near-UV or UV LED + RGB phosphor (an LED producing light with a wavelength
shorter than blue's is used to excite an RGB phosphor)

c)

blue LED + yellow phosphor (two complementary colors combine to form white
light; more efficient than first two methods and more commonly used)

Because of metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white.
However, the appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies.

~ 46 ~

6.9.2 Phosphor-based LEDs

This method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN)
with phosphors of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called
phosphor-based or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs) A fraction of the blue light
undergoes the Stokes shift being transformed from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending
on the color of the original LED, phosphors of different colors can be employed. If several
phosphor layers of distinct colors are applied, the emitted spectrum is broadened, effectively
raising the color rendering index (CRI) value of a given LED.
Phosphor-based LED efficiency losses are due to the heat loss from the Stokes shift and also
other phosphor-related degradation issues. Their luminous efficacies compared to normal
LEDs depend on the spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original
wavelength of the LED itself. For example, the luminous efficacy of a typical YAG yellow
phosphor based white LED ranges from 3 to 5 times the luminous efficacy of the original
blue LED because of the human eye's greater sensitivity to yellow than to blue (as modeled in
the luminosity function). Due to the simplicity of manufacturing the phosphor method is still
the most popular method for making high-intensity white LEDs. The design and production
of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is
simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system, and the majority of high-intensity white
LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion.
Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light
sources is the development of more efficient phosphors. As of 2010, the most efficient yellow
phosphor is still the YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stoke shift loss. Losses attributable to
internal optical losses due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself
account typically for another 10% to 30% of efficiency loss. Currently, in the area of
phosphor LED development, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher
light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be raised by
adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Conformal
coating process is frequently used to address the issue of varying phosphor thickness.
Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated
epoxy. Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed
polycarbonate piece coated with the phosphor material. Remote phosphors provide more

~ 47 ~

diffuse light, which is desirable for many applications. Remote phosphor designs are also
more tolerant of variations in the LED emissions spectrum. A common yellow phosphor
material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce3+:YAG).
White LEDs can also be made by coating near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of
high-efficiency europium-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and
aluminium-doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to
the way fluorescent lamps work. This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG:Ce
phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light
with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative
output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both methods offer comparable
brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and cause
harm to human eyes or skin.

6.9.3 Other white LEDs

Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and
was based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate that
simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate.
A new style of wafers composed of gallium-nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) is being used to
produce white LEDs using 200-mm silicon wafers. This avoids the typical costly sapphire
substrates in relatively small 100- or 150-mm wafer sizes] It is predicted that by 2020, 40% of
all GaN LEDs will be made with GaN-on-Si. Manufacturing large sapphire material is
difficult, while large silicon material is cheaper and more abundant. LED companies shifting
from using sapphire to silicon should be a minimal investment.

6.9.4 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)

In an organic light-emitting diode (OLED), the electroluminescent material comprising the
emissive layer of the diode is an organic compound. The organic material is electrically
conductive due to the delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over all or part of

~ 48 ~

the molecule, and the material therefore functions as an organic semiconductor. The organic
materials can be small organic moleculesin a crystalline phase, or polymers.
The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving
voltage, wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut. Polymer LEDs have the
added benefit of printable and flexible displays. OLEDs have been used to make visual
displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, and MP3 players
while possible future uses include lighting and televisions.

Figure 6.12:- LEDs

6.10 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

~ 49 ~

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks,

pads

and

other

features etched from

copper

sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper
layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are
connected with plated-through holes calledvias. Advanced PCBs may contain components capacitors, resistors or active devices - embedded in the substrate.
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to
PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require the additional design
effort to lay out the circuit but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing
circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as component are
mounted and wired with one single part. Furthermore, operator wiring errors are eliminated.
When the board has only copper connections and no embedded components it is more
correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Although more
accurate, the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with
electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board
assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit
card assembly (CCA),[1] for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB
is used informally both for bare and assembled boards.

6.10.1 DESIGN
Printed circuit board artwork generation was initially a fully manual process done on clearS
mylar sheets at a scale of usually 2 or 4 times the desired size. The schematic diagram was
first converted into a layout of components pin pads, then traces were routed to provide the
required interconnections. Pre-printed non-reproducing mylar grids assisted in layout, and
rub-on dry transfers of common arrangements of circuit elements (pads, contact fingers,
integrated circuit profiles, and so on) helped standardize the layout. Traces between devices
were made with self-adhesive tape. The finished layout "artwork" was then photographically
reproduced on the resist layers of the blank coated copper-clad boards.

~ 50 ~

Modern practice is less labor-intensive since computers can automatically perform many of
the layout steps. The general progression for a commercial printed circuit board design would
include:
1. Schematic capture through an electronic design automation tool.
2. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the
PCB. Determine the fixed components andheat sinks if required.
3. Deciding stack layers of the PCB. 1 to 12 layers or more depending on design
complexity. Ground plane and power plane are decided. Signal planes where signals
are routed are in top layer as well as internal layers.
4. Line impedance determination using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper
thickness and trace-width. Trace separation also taken into account in case of
differential signals. Microstrip, stripline or dual stripline can be used to route signals.
5. Placement of the components. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into
account. Vias and

lands

are

marked.Routing

the signal

traces.

For

optimal EMI performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers
between power or ground planes as power planes behave as ground for AC.
6. Gerber file generation for manufacturing.In the design of the PCB artwork, a power
plane is the counterpart to the ground plane and behaves as an AC signal ground,
while providing DC voltage for powering circuits mounted on the PCB. In electronic
design automation (EDA) design tools, power planes (and ground planes) are usually
drawn automatically as a negative layer, with clearances or connections to the plane
created automatically.

~ 51 ~

Figure 6.13 :- PCB

CHAPTER :- 7
FLOW CHART

Turn Off Light

Figure 7.1:- Flow Chart

~ 52 ~

a) If the sensor 1 is interrupted first then the microcontroller will look for the sensor and
if it is interrupted then the microcontroller will increment the count and switch on the
relay, if it is first time interrupted.
b) If the sensor 2 is interrupted first then the microcontroller will look for the sensor and
if it is interrupted then the microcontroller will decrement the count.
c) When the last person leaves the room then counter goes to 0 and that time the relay
will turn off. And light will be turn off.

~ 53 ~

CHAPTER :- 8
TESTING AND RESULTS
We started our project by making power supply. That is easy for me but when we turn toward
the main circuit, there are many problems and issues related to it, which we faced, like
component selection, which components is better than other and its feature and cost wise a
We started our project by making power supply. That is easy for me but when I turn toward
the main circuit, there are many problems and issues related to it, which are I faced, like
component selection, which components is better than other and its feature and cost wise
also, then refer the data books and other materials related to its.
I had issues with better or correct result, which I desired. And also the software problem.
I also had some soldering issues which were resolved using continuity checks performed on
the hardware.
We had issues with better or correct result, which we desired. And also the software problem.
We also had some soldering issues which were resolved using continuity checks performed
on the hardware.
We started testing the circuit from the power supply. There we got over first
trouble. After getting 9V from the transformer it was not converted to 5V and the circuit
received 9V.
As the solder was shorted IC 7805 got burnt. So we replaced the IC7805.also the circuit part
around the IC7805 were completely damaged..with the help of the solder we made the
necessary paths.

~ 54 ~

CHAPTER :- 9
FUTURE EXPANSION
a) By using this circuit and proper power supply we can implement various
applications
Such as fans, tube lights, etc.
b) By modifying this circuit and using two relays we can achieve a task of opening
and closing the door.

~ 55 ~

CHAPTER :- 10
APPLICATIONS

1. Applications & Benefits:

o
o
o
o
o

For counting purposes

For automatic room light control
Low cost
Easy to use
Implement in single door

CHAPTER :- 11
~ 56 ~

REFERENCES
2. Microelectronics circuit by SEDRA & SMITH 5th edition
Page nos. : 139-146, 761-852 & 1198-1214
3. Electronics devices & circuit by BOLYESTAD
Page nos. : 843-896 & 987-1002

~ 57 ~