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L EA R N I N G O B J E CT IV E S
After reading this chapter, the learner should be able to:
2.1
Characteristics of amplifiers.
Various amplifier power relations.
Basic of stability circle for input and output.
Know the gain calculation for amplifier.
Calculation of noise figure.
Know the types of matching networks and their frequency response.
Various types of microstrip matching networks.
Introduction
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Microwave Engineering
2.1.1
Characteristics of Ampliers
RF
Source
Input
Matching
Network
(IMN)
[S]
Output
Matching PL
Network
(OMN)
Load
out
in
DC bias
Figure 2.1
53
The power gain definitions are very critical to understand that how an RF
amplifier functions. In order to get the power flow relations Figure 2.1
is modified under some assumption that the two matching networks are
included in the source and load impedances.
The simplified diagram is shown in Figure 2.2(a). the starting point
of our power analysis is the RF source connected to the amplifier
network. The source voltage is written by,
ZO
bs =
Vs
ZS + ZO
= b1 a1 s
S
b1
a1
b2
Pinc
ZS
VS
a2
b1
PL
ZL
[S]
~
ZS
Zin
VS ~
a1
b1
in
b1
bS
b2
S21
S11
S22
1
b1
S12
a2
1
a1
in
out
a1
a1
b2
a2
a2
b2
b1
bS
S
in
a1
Figure 2.2 Source and load connected to a single-stage amplifier network. (a)
Simplified schematics of a single-stage amplifier. (b) Signal flow graph.
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Microwave Engineering
bs =
b1
a
1 1 s
b1
bs = b1 [1 in s ]
(2.1)
|b1 |2
2
(2.2)
bs
1 in s
therefore
Pinc =
|bs |2
1
2 |1 in s |2
(2.3)
Which is the power launched toward the amplifier. The actual input
power (Pin ) observed at the input terminal of the amplifier is composed
of the incident and reflected power waves.
Pin = Pinc (1 |in |2 )
(2.4)
1
|bs |2
(1 |in |2 )
2 |1 in s |2
(2.5)
1 |bs |2 (1 |in |2 )
PA =
2 |1 in s |2 in =s
PA =
1 |bs |2 (1 |in |2 )
2 |1 s s |2
PA =
1 |bs |2 (1 |in |2 )
2 |1 |s |2 |2
1 |bs |2 (1 |in |2 )
=
2 (1 |s |2 )(1 |s |2 )
=
PA =
1
|bs |2 (1 |in |2 )
2 (1 |s |2 )(1 |in |2 )
55
[ |Z|2 = Z Z ]
[ s = in ]
1
|bs |2
2 (1 |s |2 )
(2.6)
1
|bs |2
=
2 |1 in s |2 in =0
Pinc =
|bs |2
2
Transducer power gain (GT ) is nothing but the gain of the amplifier
placed between source and load.
Power delivered to the load
Available power from the source
PL
GT =
PA
1
PL = |b2 |2 (1 |L |2 )
2
GT =
substitute PL , PA value in GT ,
GT =
=
GT =
PL
PA
1
2
2
2 |b2 | (1 |L | )
1 |bs |2
2 1|s |2
|b2 |2
(1 |L |2 )(1 |s |2 )
|bs |2
(2.7)
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Microwave Engineering
b2
bs
S21 a1
1 S22 L
S12 S21 L
bs = 1 S11 +
s a1
1 S22 L
b2 =
(2.9a)
(2.9b)
(2.11)
S12 S21 L
1 S22 L
(2.12a)
S12 S21 L
(2.12b)
1 S11 S
With this two definitions, two transducer power gain can be derived.
out = S22 +
2 a
S21
b2
1
=
2
2
(1 S22 L ) (1 in S ) a1
bs
b2
|S21 |2
=
bs
(|1 S22 L )|2 |1 in S |2
(2.12c)
57
GT =
(2.13)
|1 L out |2 =
therefore
|1 L out |2 |1 S11 S |2 = |(1 S11 S )(1 S22 L ) S12 S21 L S |2
Therefore, the denominator of equation (2.11) is replaced by,
GT =
2.2.3
(2.14)
GTU =
(2.15)
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Microwave Engineering
GA = GT
L =out
in equation (2.14),
substitute L = out
GA =
|2 )
|S21 |2 (1 |s |2 )(1 |out
)2 |1 S |2
(1 out out
11 s
)
|S21 |2 (1 |s |2 )(1 out
out
=
2
(1 out out ) |1 S11 s |2
=
GA =
2.2.5
|S21 |2 (1 |s |2 )
)2 |1 S |2
(1 out out
11 s
|S21 |2 (1 |s |2 )
(1 |out |2 )|1 S11 s |2
[|Z|2 = Z Z ]
(2.16)
It is defined as the ratio of the power delivered to the load to the power
supplied to the amplifier. It is denoted as G.
Power delivered to the load
Power supplied to the amplifier
PL
=
Pin
G=
59
PL P A
PA Pin
PA
= GT
Pin
G=
|1 s in |2 |1 S22 L |2
G=
(1 |L |2 )|S21 |2
(1 |in |2 )|1 S22 L |2
1 |bS |2
2 1|s |2
1 |bs |2 (1|in |2 )
2 |1in s |2
(2.17)
P r o b l e m 2.1
An RF amplifier has the following S parameter: S11 = 0.370 ,
S21 = 3.585 , S12 = 0.210 and S22 = 0.445 . Furthermore
the input side of the amplifier is connected to a voltage source with
VS = 5V 0 and source impedance ZS = 40. The output is utilized
to derive an antenna which has an impedance of ZL = 73. Assuming
that the S-parameter of the amplifier are measured with reference to a
ZO = 50 characteristic impedance, find the following quantities:
(a) Transducer gain GT , unilateral transducer gain GTU , available gain
GA , operating power gain G; and
(b) Power delivered to the load PL , available power PA , and incident
power to the amplifier Pinc .
Solution: Given
S11 = 0.370
S22 = 0.445
S21 = 3.585
S12 = 0.210
VS = 5V 0
ZS = 40
ZL = 73
ZO = 50
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Microwave Engineering
S =
L =
Transducer gain, GT =
61
|S21 |2 (1 |S |2 )
|1 |out |2 ||1 S11 S |2
= 14.74 or 11.68 dB
(1 |L |2 )|S21 |2
Operating power gain, G =
|1 L in |2 ||1 S22 L |2
= 13.74 or 11.38 dB
Available gain, GA =
2.3
2.3.1
Stability Considerations
Stability Circles
22 L
(2.19b)
S12 S21 S
1 S11 S
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Microwave Engineering
S 11
(2.19c)
Since for a particular frequency S-parameters are fixed, the only factor
affects the stability are L and S . Let us consider the complex quantities
as
R
I
S11 = S11
+ jS11
R
I
S22 = S22
+ jS22
= R + jI
L = LR + jLI
Sub equation (2.20) in equation (2.19(b)),
S R + jS I ( R + j I )(R + jI )
11
11
L
L
|in | =
R
I
R
I
1 (S22 + jS22 )(L + jL )
(2.20)
(2.21)
(2.22)
|S12 S21 |
||S22 |2 ||2 |
(2.23)
)
(S22 S11
|S22 |2 ||2
(2.24)
(2.25)
out =1
in =1
Yout
L =1
C
in
Cout
C
out
Y in
63
S =1
C
in
Figure 2.3 Stability circle |in = 1| in the complex L plane and stability circle
|out | = 1 in the complex S plane. (a) Output stability circle. (b) Input stability
circle.
|S12 S21 |
||S11 |2 | ||2
(2.26)
)
(S11 S22
|S11 |2 ||2
(2.27)
Figure 2.5 shows the two stability domains for the input stability circle.
From the thumb rule, if |S22 | < 1, which leads to the conclusion that the
center (S = 0) must be stable; otherwise the center becomes unstable
for |S22 | > 1.
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Microwave Engineering
For stability circles, the circle radius is larger than |Cin | or |Cout |.
Figure 2.6 shows the input stability circles for |S22 | < 1 and two stability
domains are possible depends on in < |Cin | or in > |Cin |.
2.3.2
Unconditional Stability
(2.28a)
(2.28b)
The stability circles have to reside completely outside the |S | = 1 and
|L | = 1 circles. Figure 2.7(a) shows |S | = 1 circle.
2.3.2.1
(2.29a)
|(S11 S22
)|2 + |S12 S21 |2 ||S11 |2 ||2 |2
(2.29b)
(2.29c)
65
(2.29e)
The stability factor k applies for both input and output ports.
Analytical Solution of Stability Criteria
Let define the determinant of the S matrix and factors k and B1 as,
= S11 S22 S12 S21
K=
|2
(2.30)
|2
1 |S11 |S22
2|S12 S21 |
+ ||2
(2.31)
(2.32)
(2.33)
1 |S11
>1
|S12 S21 |
(2.34)
1 |S22 |2
>1
|S12 S21 |
(2.35)
(2.36)
|| < 1
(2.37)
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Microwave Engineering
(2.38)
(2.39)
(2.40)
(2.41)
S22 < 1
(2.42)
1 |S11 |2
| + |S S |
|S22 S11
21 12
(2.43)
(2.44)
2.3.3
67
Potentially Unstable
|out > 1|
(2.45)
2.3.3.1
(2.46)
(2.47)
There are two methods are possible to achieve a positive loop resistance
and thus make a potentially unstable transistor into a conditionally stable
one.
1. Resistively loading the transistor
2. Adding negative feedback
The above two methods provides,
1. Reduction in gain
2. Increase in the noise figure
3. Degradation of amplifier power output
Both the above two methods are useful in broadband amplifiers.
The resistive loading is used to stabilize the transistor and then
negative feedback is used to provide a relatively constant gain with a
low input and output VSWR. In narrow band amplifier, these techniques
are not used.
P r o b l e m 2.2
Determine the stability of a GaAs FET that has the following Sparameters at 2 GHz in a 50 system both graphically and mathematically.
S11 = 0.8960
S21 = 3.1123
S12 = 0.0262
S22 = 0.7827
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Microwave Engineering
69
RL = 0.44
S12 S21
RS =
DS
3.099 0.019
=
= 0.18
0.318
RS = 0.2
|in | = |S11 | = 0.89 < 1
|out | = |S22 | = 0.78 < 1
CL =
CL = 1.33844.3
)
(S11 S22
DS
((0.445 0.77j) (0.099 0.68j) (0.694 + 0.35j))
=
0.318
CS = 1.1368
CS =
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Microwave Engineering
P r o b l e m 2.3
A BJT has the following S-parameters:
S11 = 0.6595
S21 = 5.0115
S12 = 0.03540
S22 = 0.835
In this transistor unconditionally stable? If not, use resistive loading to
make the transistor conditionally stable. What are the resistor values?
Solution:
S11 = 0.6595
= 0.05665 0.647j
|S11 | = 0.649
S21 = 5.0115
= 2.113 + 4.53j
|S21 | = 4.998
S12 = 0.03540
= 0.0268 + 0.022j
|S12 | = 0.034
S22 = 0.835
= 0.655 0.458j
|S22 | = 0.799
= S11 S22 S12 S21
= ((0.6595 )(0.835 )) ((0.03540 )(5.0115 ))
= 0.175 0.472j
= 0.503110.34
|| = 0.503
1 |S11 |2 |S22 |2 + ||2
K=
2|S12 S21 |
1 |0.649|2 |0.799|2 + |0.503|2
214.998 0.034|
K = 0.56
=
71
DL = |S22 |2 ||2
= 0.385392
S12 S21
RL =
DL
0.034 4.998
=
0.385392
RL = 0.44
DS = |S11 |2 ||2 = 0.6492 0.5032
DS = 0.168192
S12 S21
RS =
D
S
0.034 4.998
0.168192
RS = 1.01
RS =
CL = 1.348
CS = 1.79122
)
(S22 S11
DL
[(0.655 0.458j) ((0.175 0.472j)(0.05665 + 0.647j))]
=
0.385392
0.25 + 0.61j
=
0.385392
= 0.64 + 1.58j
CL =
CL = 1.767.9
)
(S11 S22
CS =
DS
[0.05665 0.647j ((0.175 0.472j 0.665 + 0.458j))]
=
0.168192
0.158201 0.25769j
=
0.168192
= 0.94 1.532j
CS = 1.797121.5
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Microwave Engineering
2.3.4
Resistive Loading
(b)
R1=9
R2=71
(c)
(d)
R3=43
R4=500
Figure 2.4
2.4
2.4.1
Gain Considerations
Introduction
Gain consideration in an amplifier plays a major role in design process. In an amplifier after the stability, the power gain is an important
parameter.
2.4.2
73
Let us consider the single stage microwave transistor amplifier with the
transistor straddled by two matching networks on either side as shown in
Figure 2.5. In the amplifier design process, several power gain concepts
are used and each has its own definition. Let us define the various power
levels existing in the circuit, as shown in Figure 2.6.
Pin Power input to the transistor or to the input matching network.
PAVS Power available from the source under matched condition.
This is a special case of Pin when in = S .
PL Power delivered to the load or the output matching network.
PAVN Power available from the transistor under matched condition.
.
It is a special case of PL when L = out
Various definitions of power gain are
Transducer power gain, GT
PL
PAVS
(2.48)
PAVN
PAVS
PL
Pin
(2.49)
(2.50)
2
1 |S |2
2 1 |L |
|S
|
21
|1 in S |2
|1 S22 L |2
(2.51)
(2.52)
out L
Zo
+
E ~
Input
matching
network
M1
Microwave
Transistor
[S]
Output
matching
network
M2
M0
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Microwave Engineering
Source
Pin
out L
in L
Lossless
network
M1
Pin
Transistor
(BJT or FET)
PL
b
Lossless
network
M2
PL
Load
where
GS =
1 |S |2
|1 in S |2
GO = |S21 |2
GL =
1 |L |2
|1 S22 L |2
(2.53)
(2.54)
(2.55)
2
1 |S |2
2 1 |L |
|S
|
21
|1 S11 S |2
|1 out L |2
(2.56)
2
1
2 1 |L |
|S
|
21
|1 in |2
|1 S22 L |2
(2.57)
1
1 |S |2
|S21 |2
2
|1 S11 S |
|1 out |2
(2.58)
where
S12 S21 L
1 S22 L
S12 S21 S
= S22 +
1 S11 S
in = S11 +
out
(2.59)
(2.60)
75
(2.61)
Unilateral Transistor
(2.62)
where
in = S11
(2.63)
out = S22
(2.64)
|2
GSU =
1 |S
|1 S11 S |2
(2.65)
GLU =
1 |L |2
|1 S22 L |2
(2.66)
MS
(2.67)
therefore MS 1
MS =
GT
GP
(2.68)
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Microwave Engineering
|S
|
21
|1 S11 S |2
|1 out L |2
MS =
1
1 |L |2
2
|S
|
21
|1 in |2
|1 S22 L |2
MS =
The source mismatch factor (MS ) is used to quantify the portion of PAVS
that is delivered to the input of the transistor.
If the input part is matched (i.e., in = s ) then Pin = PAVS
i.e., MS = 1. It means that all the available power from the source is
delivered to the transistor and no mismatch exists at the input port.
Pin = PAVS
in =S
MS = 1
2.5.1
(2.70)
PL
PAVN
(2.71)
GT
GA
(2.72)
|S
|
21
|1 S22 L |2
|1 S11 S |2
ML =
2
1
1 S |
|S21 |2
1 |out |2
|1 S11 S |
ML =
(2.73)
The load mismatch factor (ML ) is used to quantify the portion of PAVN
that is delivered to the load. If the output port is matched (i.e., out = L )
then PL = PAVN i.e., ML = 1.
77
ML = 1
(2.74)
Note: The mismatch factor is also called mismatch loss which (in
dB ) signifies the amount of power loss due to mismatch. From equation
(2.62) and (2.66), ML and MS can be written as,
2.5.2
MS < 0
(2.75)
ML < 0
(2.76)
For a loss less network the output power equals to the input power,
it is mathematically shows that the mismatch factor always remains
constant. For example, the mismatch factor (MS ) at the input of the
lossless matching network (M1 ), where the source is connected has the
same value as its output where the transistor input is connected i.e.
At input of M1 : Pin = MS PAVS (power into M1 )
= MP
At output of M1 : Pin
S AVS (power into the transistor)
= P M = M
Loss less Network : Pin
S
in
S
The mismatch factor (ML ) remains unchanged at the input and output
of the loss less matching network (M2 ) i.e.
At output of M2 : PL = ML PAVN (power into the load)
At input of M2 : Pout = ML PAVN (power into M2 )
2.6
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Microwave Engineering
2.6.1
Input-Port VSWR
From Figure 2.6, the input power (Pin ) entering the input port of the
matching network (M1 ) is expressed in terms of the input reflection
coefficient (a ), as follows.
Pin = PAVS (1 |a |2 )
MS =
Pin
= (1 |a |2 )
PAVS
(2.77a)
(2.77b)
where
a =
Z a ZO
Za + ZO
(2.78)
1 MS
(2.79)
1 + |a |
1 + 1 MS
(VSWR)in =
(2.80)
=
1 |a |
1 1 MS
2.6.2
From Figure 2.6, the output power (PL ) exiting the output port of the
matching network (M2 ). This power can be expressed in terms of the
output reflection coefficient (b ) as follows:
PL = PAVN (1 |b |2 )
(cf ., PL = ML PAVN )
(2.81a)
Thus
ML = 1 |b |2
(2.81b)
where
Rb =
Z b ZO
Zb + ZO
|b | = 1 ML
(2.82)
(2.83)
79
1 + 1 ML
1 + |b |
=
(2.84)
(VSWR)out =
1 |b |
1 1 ML
Thus, (VSWR)out can be calculated simply by knowing the load
mismatch factor (ML ).
2.7
From equation (2.54), we can observe that because GO is fixed for any
given transistor, the overall gain of the amplifier is controlled by the
gain blocks GS and GL corresponding to the input and output matching
networks respectively.
Therefore, in order to obtain the maximum possible gain from the
amplifier circuit, we must maximize GS , GL values which effectively
implies that the input and output matching sections must provide a
conjugate match at the transistors input and output port. Furthermore,
under this conjugate matched condition at the input and the output of
the transistor, maximum power will be transferred into the input port
and out of the output port as shown in Figure 2.7.
Based on the conjugate impedance matching concept, maximum
power transfer from the input matching network to the transistor and
from the transistor to the output matching network will occur when,
in =L
(2.84a)
out =L
(2.84b)
(PIN)max
(Pout)max
ZO
Input
Matching
Network
+
E ~
Output
Matching
Network
ZS ZS
Figure 2.7
ZO
Z*L ZL
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Microwave Engineering
2.8
(2.84c)
out =S22
(2.84d)
GTU =GS GO GL
(2.84e)
where
GS =
1 |S |2
|1 in S |2
GO = |S21 |2
GL =
(2.85)
(2.86)
|2
1 |L
|1 S22 L |2
(2.87)
S = S11
(2.88)
L =
(2.89)
S22
(2.90)
where
GSmax =
1
1 |S11 |2
Go = |S21 |2
1
GLmax =
1 |S22 |2
(2.91)
(2.92)
(2.93)
(2.94)
(2.95)
(2.96)
0 gL 1
(2.97)
81
2.9
GS
GSmax
GL
GLmax
1 |S |2
(1 |S11 |2 )
|1 S11 S |2
(2.98)
1 |L |2
(1 |S22 |2 )
|1 S22 L |2
(2.99)
From equation (2.85) and (2.87), the values of S and L that produce
a constant gain (or normalized gain) lie in a circle in Smith chart. These
circles are called constant GS and GL circles respectively. To obtain
the equations for these circles, we start with equation (2.98) and (2.99).
It is shown that the values of S or L that produce a constant value of
gS or gL lie in a circle described by the following equations:
|S CgS | = RgS
(2.100a)
(2.100b)
where the center and radius (CS , RS ) and (CL , RL ) for each of the two
circles are given by,
gS S11
Cgs =
1 |S11 |2 (1 gS )
(1 gS )(1 |S11 |2 )
Rgs =
1 |S11 |2 (1 gS )
(2.101a)
(2.101b)
and
gL S22
1 |S22 |2 (1 gL )
(1 gL )(1 |S22 |2 )
=
1 |S22 |2 (1 gL )
CgL =
(2.102a)
RgL
(2.102b)
The two equations in equation (2.100) represents equations of two families of circles where the centers of each family of circles lie along the
and S as shown in Figures 2.8(a)
straight line given by the angle of S11
22
and (b).
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Microwave Engineering
(a)
Im ( L )
(b)
Im ( L )
RgL
GL
S11
S22
Cgs
CgL
Rgs
1
Re (L )
Figure 2.8
2.9.1
Re (L )
Observations
(2.103a)
RgL = 0
(2.103b)
S11
(2.103c)
CgL = S22
(2.103d)
CgS =
and
This indicates that the maximum gain occurs only at one point
and S in the or plane respectively. This
located at S11
S
L
22
observations is in agreement with our earlier results as expressed
by the equations (2.88) and (2.89).
(b) The 0 dB circles (i.e., GS = 1, GL = 1) will always pass through
the origin (i.e., S = 0, L = 0 points). This can be shown by
noting that gS from equation (2.98) can be written as,
GS = 1 when S = 0
gS = 1 |S11 |2
|CgS | = RgS
=
S11
1 + |S11 |2
(2.104a)
83
Similarly for GL ,
GL = 1 when L = 0
gL = 1 |S22 |2
|CgL | = RgL
=
S22
1 + |S22 |2
(2.104b)
which shows that the radius and distance from the origin to the
center of the 0 dB constant GS or GL circle are identical and proves
our observation.
(c) At the outer stage of Smith chart.
|S | = 1 GS = 0 = dB
|L | = 1 GL = 0 = dB
Because this gain value is impossible to achieve, the gain circles
never intersect the outer edge of Smith chart.
(d) For particular gain value, there are an infinite number of points on
the constant gain circle that provide the same gain. Thus the choices
of S and L along the constant gain circles are not unique, but in
order to minimize mismatch loss and maximum bandwidth it is best
to choose points close to the center of Smith chart. This is true only
for cases where noise is not of importance. In fact, for low noise
amplifier design we need to use mismatch at the input matching
networks in order to obtain minimum noise from the amplifier.
2.10
(2.105)
where
X =
S12 S21 S L
(1 S11 S )(1 S22 L )
(2.106)
84
Microwave Engineering
GT
GTU
is bounded by,
1
1
GT
<
<
2
(1 + |X | )
GTU
(1 |X |2 )
(2.107)
GT
1
1
<
<
2
|1 + U |
GTU max
|1 U |2
(2.108)
where
U=
(2.109)
GT
GTU max .
R = GT /GU
(dB)
(Ratio)
(dB)
20.0
17.0
15.2
14.0
13.0
12.2
11.5
11.0
10.5
10.0
9.6
9.2
8.9
8.5
8.2
2.11
85
Bilateral Case
in = S = S11 +
out
(2.110)
(2.111)
2
1
2 1 |L |
|S
|
21
1 |S |2
|1 S22 L |2
(2.112)
MS =
ML =
B1
B2
B12 4|C1 |2
2C1
B22 4|C2 |2
2C2
(2.113a)
(2.113b)
where
B1 = 1 + |S11 |2 |S22 |2 ||2
(2.114a)
(2.114b)
C1 =
C2 =
S11 S22
S22 S11
(2.115a)
(2.115b)
86
Microwave Engineering
S = in
= MS
L = out
= ML
GT max =
2
1
2 1 |ML |
|S
|
21
1 |MS |2
1 S22 |ML |2
(2.116a)
(2.116b)
(2.117)
substitute for MS and ML from equations (2.113a) and (2.113b) and
(2.117), we obtain,
GT max =
|S21 |
(K K 2 1)
|S12 |
(2.118)
where K was defined earlier as one of the stability and it is defined as,
GT max = GAmax = GPmax
when K = 1, we obtain the maximum stable gain (GHSG ) from equation
(2.118) as,
|S21 |
GHSG = GT max |K=1 =
|S12 |
GHSG is a figure of merit showing maximum value that GT max can
achieve. Thus by looking at a transistors forward (S21 ) and reverse
(S12 ) transmission coefficients we can decide if the transistor is useful
in providing the needed for a particular amplifier design.
2.12
2.12.1
Having done a stability check and having met the gain requirements
of an amplifier, we shall consider the noise as our next milestone in
active circuit design considerations. In an RF/microwave amplifier, the
existence of the noise signal plays an important role in the overall design,
procedure, and its impact needs to be grasped before a meaningful
design process can be developed.
Noise power results from random processes that exist in nature.
Those random process can be classified in several important classes,
each generating a certain type of noise, which will be characterized
shortly.
87
As discussed earlier, a noisy amplifier can be characterized by an equivalent noise temperature (i.e.,) an alternate method to characterize a noisy
amplifier is through the concept of noise figure, which we need to define
first.
The ratio of the total available noise power at the output (Po )out ,
to the output available noise power (Po )i due to thermal noise coming
only out from the input resistor at the standard room temperature (T0 =
290 K).
To formulate an equation for noise figure (f ), let us transfer the noise
generated inside the amplifier (Pn ) to its input terminals and model it
as a noiseless amplifier that is connected to a noisy resistor (R) at
noise temperature i.e., in series to another resistor (R) at T = T0 , both
connected at the input terminals of the noiseless amplifier as shown
in Figure 2.9.
From this configuration, we can write,
Pn = GA KTe B
(2.119a)
(2.119b)
(2.120)
T0
GABTe
PNO
88
Microwave Engineering
(Po )tot
(Po )i
(PO )i + Pn
=
(Po )t
Pn
=1 +
GA PNi
(2.119)
F=
or
(2.121a)
ie
T0
F =1+
(2.121b)
or in dB we can write,
F = 10 log10
ie
1+
T0
(2.122)
(2.123)
The lower boundary (F = 1) is the best case scenario and is the noise
figure of an ideal noiseless amplifier where Te = 0. From equation
(2.121b), we can write,
Te = (F 1)T0
(2.124)
(2.125)
(2.126)
PNo
PNo
=
(Po )i
GA PNi
(2.127)
Pso
Psi
89
where Pso and Psi are the available signal power at the output and the
input respectively. Thus equation (2.127) can now be written as,
Psi /PNi
Pso /PNo
(SNR)i
=
(SNR)o
F=
(2.128)
where (SNR)i and (SNR)0 are the available signal to noise ratio at the
input and output parts respectively. Equation (2.128) indicates that the
noise figure can also be defined in terms of the ratio of the available
SNR ratio to the input to the available SNR at the output.
2.12.2.2
This is an important case, where the two port network considered earlier
is a lossy passive component, such as attenuator or a lossy transmission
line, as shown in the Figure 2.10.
A lossy network has a gain (GA = Po /Pi ) less than unity, which
can be expressed in terms of the loss factor or attenuation (L) as,
GA =
1
(GA < 1)
L
(2.129)
Because of the gain of a lossy network is less than unity it follows that the
loss can attenuation factor (L) is more than unity (i.e., L = Pi /Po > 1)
for any lossy network or component.
Expressing the attenuation factor (L) in dB gives the following.
L(dB) = 10 log10
Pi
Po
(2.130)
Lossy network
R
T0
GA1 B1 T
90
Microwave Engineering
For example, if the lossy component attenuates the input power by ten
times then we can write,
GA =
Po
1
= 0.1 L =
= 10 dB
Pi
GA
(2.131)
On the other hand, from equation (2.125) the available output noise
power is also given by the addition of the input noise power and the
generated noise inside the circuit (Pn ).
PNo = GA KTB + Pn
KTB
=
+ Pn
L
(2.132)
where Pn is the noise generated inside the two port network. Equating
equations (2.131) and (2.132), we obtain Pn as,
L1
Pn =
(2.133a)
KTB
L
(Pn )i = Pn /GA = LPn = (L 1)KTB
(2.133b)
using equation (2.133(b)), we can now define the equivalent noise temperature (Te ) of a lossy two port network referred to the input terminals
as,
Te =
(Pn )i
Te = (L 1)T
KB
(2.134)
T
Te
= 1 + (L 1)
T0
T0
(2.135)
Special Case
For a lossy network at noise temperature (Te )T = T0 then equation
(2.135) gives,
F =L
(2.136)
The above equation indicates that the noise figure of a lossy network
at room temperature equals the attenuation factor (L). For example, if
GA = 15 then L = G1A = 5, giving F = 5 or 7 dB for T = T0 = 290 K.
2.13
91
A microwave system usually consists of several stages or networks connected in cascade where each adds noise to the system, thus degrading
the overall signal to noise ratio. If the noise figure (or noise temperature)
of each stage is known, the overall noise figure (or noise temperature)
can be determined.
2.13.1
To analyse a two-stage amplifier, let us consider a cascade of two amplifiers each with its own gain, noise temperature, or noise figure as shown
in Figure 2.11. The noise power of each stage is given as follows.
PNO1 = GA1 KB(T0 + Te1 )
(2.137)
(2.138)
(2.139)
(2.140)
RN
GA1
TO
PNS
Te1
F1
Figure 2.11
(2.141)
GA1
PNo2
Te1
PNo1
50
F1
92
Microwave Engineering
The overall noise figure (F) for the two-stage amplifier is found by
using equation (2.141).
Te
T0
Te2
= 1 + Te1 +
T0
GA1
F =1+
(2.142)
By noting that,
Te1
T0
Te2
F2 = 1 +
T0
F1 = 1 +
(2.143)
(2.144)
F2 1
GA1
(2.145)
Equation (2.141), (2.142) shows that the first stage noise figure F1
(or noise temperature Te1 ) and gain (GA1 ) have a large influence on the
overall noise figure (or noise temperature). This is because the 2nd stage
noise figure F2 (or noise temperature, Te2 ) is reduced by gain of the first
stage (GA1 ).
Thus the key to low overall noise figure, is a primary focus on the
first stage by reducing its noise and increasing its gain. Later stages
have a generally reduced effect on the overall noise figure.
Noise Measure
In order to determine the systematically the order of sequence in which
two similar amplifiers need to be connected to produce the lowest possible noise figure. We must define a quantity called noise measure
as,
M=
F 1
1 1/GA
(2.146)
GA1
GA2
GAn
Te1
Te2
Ten
F1
F2
Fn
Figure 2.12
93
50
Case II: M2 > M1 , then amp2 should preceede amp1, because F21 <
F12 .
where F12 is a overall noise figure of the two-stage amplifier when ampl
precedes amp2, and vice versa, F21 is for the case when amp2 precedes
amp1.
Note: It can be easily be shown mathematically that, for example if
M1 < M2 then
F12 < F21
(2.147)
where
F2 1
GA1
F1 1
= F2 +
GA2
F12 = F1 +
(2.148)
F21
(2.149)
Cascade of n Stages
For a cascade n amplifiers (see Figure 2.12) the overall noise figure in
the generalized of equations for equivalent noise temperature (Te , cas)
and the noise figure (Fcas ) of a two-stage cascade as follows.
Te2
Te3
Ten
+
+ +
(2.150a)
GA1
GA1 GA2
GA1 GA2 GAn1
F21
F31
Fn1
=F1 +
+
+ +
(2.150b)
GA1
GA1 GA2
GA1 GA2 GAn1
Te,cas =Te1 +
Fcas
94
Microwave Engineering
Special Case
Identical Stages: If all the stages are identical, i.e.,
GA1 = GA2 = = GAn = GA
(2.151a)
(2.151b)
F1 = F2 = = Fn = F
(2.151c)
(2.152a)
(2.152b)
where
1
GA
using the following identify for the geometric series,
X =
1 + x + x2 + + xn1 =
(1 xn )
,
(1 x)
|x| < 1
(2.153)
(2.154)
(2.155a)
(2.155b)
1
,
1x
|x| > 1
(2.156b)
95
F 1
1 1/GA
(2.158)
Te,cas
M
= Te
F 1/GA
(2.159a)
Fcas = M + 1
(2.159b)
Fmin 1
1 1/GA
(2.160)
Mmin
Fmin 1
Fcas = Mmin + 1
(2.161a)
(2.162b)
(2.162)
Te,cas = Te
(2.163a)
Fcas = F
(2.163b)
96
Microwave Engineering
2.14
It can be shown that the noise figure of a two port networks is given by,
F = Fmin +
rn
|Ys Yopt |2
gs
(2.164)
Ys =
Yopt
(2.165)
(2.166)
(2.167)
|s opt |2
1 |s |2
(2.168)
4rn N
|1 + opt |2
(2.169)
N =
(2.170)
97
From equation (2.170) we can see that for a fixed (F), the
parameter (N ) is a positive real number (because F Fmin ).
Note 2: Noise parameter may also be determined experimentally by
the following procedure.
(a) Vary s until a minimum noise figure occurs. This is
recorded as Fmin .
(b) Now, using a vector network analyzer, measure s , which
provides the value for opt .
(c) We find rn , by setting s to zero and then measure the noise
figure F0 at this point. By using the equation (2.167) and
the value of opt from the second step, we can obtain rn
as,
|1 + opt |2
rn = F
(2.171)
4|opt |2
where
F = F0 Fmin
2.14.1 Analysis
(2.172)
where CF and RF are the center and radius of noise figure circles given
by,
CF =
RF =
opt
N +1
N 2 + N (1 |opt |2 )
1+N
(2.173)
(2.174)
(2.175)
CF = opt
(2.176)
RF = 0
(2.177)
98
Microwave Engineering
Fmin
opt
F1
F2
F3
S Plane
Figure 2.13
|s |
+
s opt
s opt
1+N
|opt |2
N
=
1+N
1+N
Now add |opt |2 /(N + 1)2 to both sides of the above equation to obtain
the desired relation for the constant noise circle (center and radius) as
given by the equations (2.176) and (2.177).
2.15
2.15.1
99
For many practical circuits matching networks are not only designed
to meet the requirements of minimum power loss but are also based on
additional constraints such as minimizing the noise influence, maximizing the power handling capabilities and linearizing the frequency
response.
2.15.2
ZS
(a)
ZL
L1
ZS
(b)
L2
ZS
(e)
ZL
ZL
L2
ZS
(c)
L1
ZS
(f)
c2
ZL
ZL
c1
ZS
ZL
ZS
ZL
c2
(d)
L2
ZS
(g)
c1
ZL
(h)
100
Microwave Engineering
2.15.2.2
101
ZS
ZS
(d)
(b)
ZL
ZL
5.0
0.2
0.2
5.0
0.2
5.0
5.0
0.5
0.5
2.0
0.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
1.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
2.0
0.5
0.5
5.0
5.0
0.2
5.0
0.2
0.2
0.2
5.0
0.2
5.0
5.0
0.5
0.5
2.0
0.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
0.5
2.0
0.5
2.0
0.5
0.5
5.0
5.0
ZS
(c)
(a)
ZL
0.2
5.0
0.2
ZL
5.0
0.2
0.2
5.0
0.2
5.0
0.2
ZS
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
2.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
Figure 2.15
50.
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
5.0
0.2
5.0
0.2
0.2
0.5
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
2.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.5
102
Microwave Engineering
1.0
1.0
(a)
5
0.
0.
2.
2.
0.5
0.5
2.0
2.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
0
2.
2.
0.5
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
0.5
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
2.
2.
zS
zL
0.2
0.2
5.0
2.0
5.0
2.0
B
0.5
0.5
0
2.
0.
L=10 nH
CL
1.0
1.0
VS ~
C=2.6 pF
0.
2.
RS=50
RS=50
Vout
RL
L=9.75 nH
VS
~
CL
Vout
RL
C=0.6
(c)
(b)
Resulting Matching Networks
F0
BW
(2.178)
103
VS
(Rs + j0 L)
Next the current source IN and GSN are converted back into the vein
equivalent source voltage
IN
GSN
RS j0 L
= Vs
RS
= Vs (1 j1.2255)
VI =
(2.179)
R2S + (SL )2
RS
QL =
(2.180)
(a)
Microwave Engineering
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
(b)
Circuit in
Figure 2.??(b)
in
it .8
rcu re 8
i
C gu
Fi
0.5
Transfer function H , dB
104
(c)
1 1.5 2 2.5
Frequency t (GHz)
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
-5.5
-6.5
-7
-7.5
-8
Circuit in
Figure 2.??(b)
Circuit in
Figure
2.??(c)
0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5
Frequency t (GHz)
The equivalent band pass filter analysis allows us to explain the bell
shaped response of the matching network in the neighbor hood of F0
and provides us with a good estimation of the BW of the circuit. The
only drawback is its complexity.
In Figure 2.16(a) the impedance transformation is illustrated by
moving one node of the circuit to another. And each node can be
expressed in terms of the impedance ZS = Rs + jXS (or) admittances
1/p = Gp + jBp. Hence, at each node we can calculate the nodal quality
factor Qn as
QN =
|Xs |
RS
(2.181)
|Bp |
GP
(2.182)
(2.183)
(a)
RST=125.
Transfer function H , dB
(b)
105
Vb
LN=
16.2nH
CT
1.55 pF
RLP=125.1
2
Equivalant
filter
3
4
5
Circuit
in
Fig 2.16(c)
6
7
8
0.5
1.5
2
Frequency fr, GHz
2.5
Qn
2
1 r2 j2
(1 r )2 + i2
+j
2i
(1 r )2 + r2
(2.184)
Microwave Engineering
1.0
1.0
106
0.5
0
2.
0.5
2.0
Qn =1
2.0
0.
Qn =3
0.
2.
Qn =10
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
5.0
0.2
2.
2.
Qn =0.3
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
Qn =0.3
0
0.5
2.
2.
0.5
Qn =1
0.2
5.0
2.0
2.0
5.0
0.2
0.5
0.5
Qn =3
5
0
0
2.
0.
0.
2.
1.0
1.0
Qn =10
Figure 2.19
x
r
2|i |
1 r2 i2
(2.185)
1
+ r
Qn
2
=1+
1
Qn2
where the plus sign is taken from positive reactance and the minus
sign for the negative X .
2.15.3
107
As already pointed out the loaded quality factor of the matching network
can be estimated from the maximum nodal Qn . The addition of the
third element into the matching network produces an additional node
in the circuit and allows as controlling the value of QL by choosing an
appropriate impedance at that node.
2.15.4
In the previous sections we have discussed the design of the matching networks involving discrete components. However, with increasing
frequency and correspondingly reduced wavelength, the influence of
parasitics in the elements becomes more noticeable as it provides
complications in the component value computations.
As the discrete components are available only for certain values,
limits their use in high frequency circuit applications. As on alternative to lumped elements, discrete components are widely used as the
wavelength becomes sufficiently small compared with the characteristic
circuit component length.
2.15.4.1
In the mid GHz range, design engineers often employ a mixed approach
by combining lumped and distributed elements. These types of matching
networks usually contain a number of transmission lines connected in
series and capacitors spaced in a parallel configuration as illustrated in
Figure 2.20.
Inductors are usually avoided in such designs because they tend to
have higher resistive looses than capacitors. In general only one shunt
capacitor with two transmission lines are connected in series on both
sides as sufficient to transform any given load impedance to any input
impedance.
TL2
TL3
Zin
C3
TL1
C1
ZL
108
Microwave Engineering
This is one of the step for the transition from the lumped to distributed
element networks in the complete elimination of all lumped components. This is accomplished by employing open/short circuit in stub
lines.
In this a series transmission line is connected to a parallel opencircuit (or) short-circuit stub. It has two topologies.
First one involves a series transmission line connected to a parallel
combination of load and stub as shown in Figure 2.21(a).
Second one involves a parallel stub connected to the series combination of load and transmission line as shown in Figure 2.21(b).
The matching networks in Figure 2.21 posses four adjustable parameters, length ls , and characteristic impedance Zos of the stub and the
length lL and characteristic impedance ZOL of the transmission line.
ZOL
ZOL
ZOS
LS
lL
ZOS
ZL
ZL
LS
Zin
Zin
Open (or)
short circuit
(a)
Open (or)
short circuit
(b)
2.15.4.3
The single stub matching networks are quite versatile and allow matching between any input and load impedances, so long as they have a
non-zero real part.
One of the main drawbacks of such matching networks is that they
require a variable-length transmission to between stub and input part
Zin=ZO
ZOL
Z4
Z3
Z2
ZL
ZC
ZD
109
l1
ZL
ZL
Open (or)
short circuit
Figure 2.22
(or) between the stub and load impedance. And this drawback can be
avoided by double stub matching networks.
In this double stub matching networks, two short (or) open circuit
stubs are connected in parallel with a fixed length transmission line
placed in between. The length l2 of this line is usually chosen to be oneeight three-eight and five eights of wavelengths. The 3/8th and 5/8th
are mostly used in the high frequency applications.
The length of the line segment between two stubs is l2 = (3/8). For
a perfect match it is required that Zin = ZO and YA = 1. Since the lines
are assumed to be lossless, the normalized admittance YB = YA jbs2
is located in the constant circle J = 1.
For l2 = (3/8) line the g = 1 circle is rotated by /3l2 = 3/2
radians (or) 270 towards the load. The admittance ye needs to reside on
this rotated g = 1 circle called yc circle in order to tp ensure matching.
By varying the length of ls stub we can transform point Y0 such a
way that the resulting Yc is indeed located on the rotated g = 1 circle.
This procedure can be done for any load impedance except Yd as it is
located in g = 2 circle. This represents the forbidden region.
To overcome this problem in practical applications, commercial
double stub tunnel are usually have input and output transmission lines
whose lengths are related according to l1 = l3 4 . In this case if
particular load impedance cannot be matched, one simply connects the
load to the opposite end of the tuner which moves YD,out of forbidden
region.
110
Microwave Engineering
2.16.1
Depending upon the application for which the amplifier is designed specific bias conditions is required. There are several classes of amplifier
operation that describe the biasing of an active device in an RF circuit
Class A
Class B
Class AB
Class D
In Figure 2.23 the transfer characteristic of an ideal transistor is displayed. It is assumed that the transistor does not reach saturation (or)
breakdown regions and in the linear operating region the output current
is proportional to the input voltage. The voltage V + corresponds either
Ideal transfer
function
Linear
region
IC
Quiescent
Point
Quiescent
Point
Cutoff
region
VA
Output
wave form
YB
YB
QB=180
Input
wave form
(a) Class A
IC
Qu
ie
sce
Qu
nt
ies
c
en
Po
in
tP
oin
IC
(b) Class B
YBE
(c) Class AB
YBE
(d) Class C
111
PRF
100%
PS
(2.186)
2.17
There are generally two types of biasing networks passive and active.
Passive networks are the simplest type of biasing circuits and usually
incorporate a resistive network, which provides the appropriate voltages
and currents for the RF transistor.
The main advantages of such networks are that they are very sensitive to changes in transistor parameters and that they provide poor
temperature stability. To compensate for these drawbacks active biasing
networks are employed.
The combination of the blocking capacitor CB and RFc connected
to the base and collector terminals of the transistor in Figure 2.24 serve
the purpose to isolate the RF signal from DC power source. At high
112
Microwave Engineering
IB
I1
VCC
R1
R2
IC
R2
VCC
CB
R4
RFc
RFc
R2
RFout
RFc
Vx
Ix
CB
CB
IB
R3
RFout
RFc
CB
R1
RFin
RFin
I1
RC2
RC1
RB1
IC
IB2
RB2
IB1
RFc
Q2
RFc
Q1
CB
CB
RFin
113
point. If Q1 and Q2 have the same thermal properties then this biasing
network also results in good temperature stability.
Another active biasing network for a BJT in a common emitter
configuration is showing Figure 2.26. Here diodes D1 and D2 provide
a fixed reference for the voltage drop across the base-emitter junction
of both transistors. Resistors R1 is used to adjust the biasing current to
the base transistor Q1 and R2 limits the range of this adjustment. Ideally
for the temperature compensation, transistor Q1 and one of the diodes
should remain at the ambient temperature whereas the second diode
should be placed on the same heat sink as RF transistor Q2 .
Vcc
R2
CB
R1
RFC
RFC
Q1
D1
RF out
D2
RFC
Q2
CB
RFin
Figure 2.26 Active biasing network containing low frequency transistor and
two diodes.
VG
VD
CB
CB
RFc
RFin
Figure 2.27
RFc
RFout
114
Microwave Engineering
2.18
The biasing networks for field effect transistors are in many ways similar
to the BJT networks covered in the previous section one key distinction
is that MESFET usually require a negative voltage as part of bias conditions. The most basic passive bipolar biasing network for FETs shown
in Figure 2.28.
The main disadvantage of such a network is the need of a bipolar
power supply for VG < 0 and VD > 0. If such a bipolar power supply
is unavailable one can resort to a strategy where instead of the gate,
the source terminal of the transistor is biased. The gate in this case is
grounded. Ten examples of such networks are shown in Figure 8.38.
VG
VD
CB
CB
RFc
RFc
RFout
RFin
Figure 2.28
115
RF
Source
Input
Matching
Network
(IMN)
Output
Matching PL
Network
(OMN)
[S]
Load
out
in
DC bias
where
(1 in )2 =
1 |bs |2
2 |1 S |2
GT =
116
Microwave Engineering
G=
S12 S21
|S22 |2 ||2
in =
|S12 S21 |
||S11 |2 ||2 |
and
117
|S
21
|1 S11 2 |
|1 L S22 |2
= GS G0 GL
GTU =
GTU
118
Microwave Engineering
1
1 |S11 |2
and
GL max =
1
1 |S22 |2
Gs
Gs max
1 |S |2 |
(1 |S11 |2 )
1 S11 S |2
1 |L |2 |
(1 |S22 |2 )
1 S22 L |2
GL
GL max
gi S11
1 |S11 |2 (1 gi )
rgi =
1 gi (1 |S11 |2 )
1 |S11 |2 (1 gi )
23. What are the observations from constant gain circle equations?
The observations that can be made from constant gain circle
equations are
The maximum gain Gi max = (1|S1 |2 ) is obtained for i = Sii
11
and
which coincides with gain circle where centre is at gi = S11
radius rgi = 0.
The constant gain circles all have their centers on a line connect . The smaller the gain values, closer to the
ing the origin to S11
centre gi moves to origin and the larger the radius rgi .
For a special case type i = 0 the normalized gain becomes as
gi = 1 |S11 |2 and both gi and rgi have the same value.
24. What is the advantage of unilateral approximation?
The unilateral approximation neglects the reverse gain so that the
gain associated with the matched input port is not affected by the
output port.
119
4
2C1 2
C1
C1
31. Give the equation for matched load reflection coefficient.
2
C2
B2
1
B2
ml =
4
C2
2C2 2
C2
32. When the discrepancies between unilateral and bilateral will
occurs?
The discrepancy between the unilateral and bilateral gain is best
and
seen in large differences in phase between S11
ms as well as
120
Microwave Engineering
S = in
RN
|YS Yopt |2
GS
F = Fmin +
GN
|ZS Zopt |2
RS
Impedance form:
121
F0
BW
Qn
2
122
Microwave Engineering
ZOL lL
ZOS
lS
Zin
ZOS
lS
ZL
ZL
Open
(or)
Short circuit
Open
(or)
Short circuit
I3
ZA
ZB
I2
lS2
ZC
ZO
I1
lS1
ZL
123