98 KAPITEL 99 KAPITEL

00 MASTHEAD
02 PREFACE by Svend Auken, Danish Minister for the Environment and Energy (from 1993 to 2001)

04 INTRODUCTION
06 ‘inspiration’ by P. Wessel, Photographer
08 CASE STUDIES: Introduction
10 Marks & Spencer
12 Patagonia
16 Holstein Flachs
18 Nike
20 The Sustainable Solution Design Association
22 The Sustainable Cotton Project (SCP)
24 ‘inspiration’ by Robin Skjoldborg, Photographer
26 THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER/BUYER
30 ETHICS
34 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE – a clear overview of the environmental impact of
the production, use and disposal of fabrics made from cotton and polyester.
40 ‘inspiration’ by Jette Jørs, Photographer
42 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IN THE PRODUCTION OF TEXTILES – a thorough
description of how the environment is affected by the production, use and
disposal of textiles made from, e.g. cotton, wool, polyester and flax.
54 ‘inspiration, by Mikkel Bache, Photographer
56 FROM FIBRES TO FINISHED FABRICS – Checklist for how you should make a choice A HANDBOOK ON THE ENVIRONMENT FOR
THE TEXTILE AND FASHION INDUSTRY
58 Introduction
60 “The quickies”
62 Questions about the production of cotton fibres
64 Questions about the production of wool fibres
67 Questions about the production of viscose fibres
68 Questions about the production of polyester fibres
69 Questions about the production of acrylic fibres
70 Questions about spinning mills
71 Questions about weaving mills
72 Questions about knitting mills
73 Questions about dye works
75 Questions about print works
76 ‘inspiration’ by Christian Rud Andersen, Photographer
78 ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING SCHEMES
82 LIST OF ADDRESSES
86 NOTES – for your own notes
94 WORD LIST
96 THANKS TO THE CONTRIBUTORS ISBN: 87-988309-0-2 SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION DESIGN ASSOCIATION
1 KAPITEL

"Like any other piece of art,

clothes are reflections of the
times creating them. Unsuspect-
ingly a man of his time reveals
himself in the art he accepts and
rejects. And no branch of art is
more subtle than the changes
rung on the most tempting of all
themes: the human body".
by R. Broby-Johansen
2 PREFACE 3 PREFACE

by Svend Auken, Danish Minister for the Environment and Energy (from 1993 to 2001)

It does not take much to make a minister for the environment happy. All you need to do is to
present him with a project which makes it realistic for a wide range of people to respect the
environment during their daily work. Such a project has now been carried out – in the form of
this attractive environmental handbook for textile designers and buyers.

Designers and buyers have a considerable influence on the way textiles affect the
environment. If a designer chooses to work with qualities and dyes which are inappropriate
from an environmental perspective, or if the buyer has chosen to disregard these issues,
nature will foot the bill. In contrast only a few environmentally sound decisions need to be
made during the design and procurement phase to increase the environmental benefit
considerably.

The production of textiles is one of the most polluting processes in the world. Even so, it has
been difficult for environmental ideas to break through in the industry. But that attitude has
gone. Today the environmental industry is as fashionable as the fashion industry itself, and
this trend will gather momentum in the years ahead.

The three authors of this handbook are all designers who have worked with textiles and
the environment for a number of years and they are aware that it can be difficult to solve
the puzzle. We of the Danish Ministry of the Environment and Energy are happy that they
will share their experience with the rest of the industry. And it is my hope that this book will
inspire a growing circle of talented designers and clever buyers so that related industries will
also take up the challenge.

So far Denmark has been renowned throughout the world for the high-quality of its design of
clothes, art, craft and furniture. If we choose to incorporate the environmental dimension as
well the phrase line, “Made in Denmark” will have a quality dimension which we can truly be
proud of.
4 INTRODUCTION 5

This book is intended as a handbook on the environment to help and inspire designers, buyers and other
players within the textile and clothes industries to whom it may be of relevance. The hope is that it will
stimulate the industry to endeavour to achieve a more environmentally friendly and thus a more sustainable
production.

The book is published with subsidies from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency (Miljøstyrelsen). The
book was created through cooperation between the Sustainable Solution Design Association (Foreningen til
Fremme af Bæredygtigt Design) and the consultancy RAMBØLL.
For many years the Sustainable Solution Design Association has been working to communicate, promote and
develop sustainable design. The aim of the association is based on the attitudes and conclusions drawn from
the Brundtland Commission which defines sustainable development as follows:

“A development which satisfies the present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs”.

It can be difficult to work in accordance with the above definition especially in the fashion industry where
trends change rapidly. This is why it is so interesting that futurologists believe that consumers increasingly
require knowledge about how a specific product has come into existence – i.e. the story behind it all. This is
a time-consuming process both in terms of production research and communicating with the consumer.

In this context it should also be mentioned that man’s need to decorate himself is a fact that cannot be
ignored even if you work with environmental issues. Design and procurement should meet today’s trend so
that sustainability is associated with something positive instead of something negative.

The book examines the responsibility and role of the designer and buyer when they consider sustainability
and ethics in their work. At the beginning of the book you will find a number of case studies describing how a
number of Danish and foreign companies have tried to tackle the issue. The following chapters describe the
most significant environmental impact in the production of textiles.

The user part of the book is intended as a checklist including environmentally related questions about cotton,
wool, acrylic, polyester and viscose. The checklist deals with how the environment will be affected by the
production of the different types of materials – from fibres to end-fabrics. The checklist is intended as a tool
for the designer and the buyer to include environmental considerations in their daily routines.

The last chapter in the book describes the different environmental labelling schemes that are relevant to the
textile and clothing industry.

Finally, further research can be carried out and more information and guidelines can be sought from the list
of participants and the bibliography at the back of the book.
Enjoy your reading!
PHOTOGRAPHY: P. WESSEL
8 CASE STUDIES 9 CASE STUDIES

We have thought to emphasise the fact that environmentally friendly

production and design is not impossible. This section describes a
number of companies that have already taken steps towards more
environmentally friendly production. Each of the above-mentioned
companies has had its own approach to and interest in producing
more environmentally friendly products, whether it has been for
personal and idealistic reasons or simply for economic reasons.

The motives of the different companies are not the reasons why they
are described in this book. The point is that it is possible to change
to more environmentally friendly production! This is why it makes
sense to focus on all types of businesses: from global organisations
to quite small local firms. It is one thing to emphasise that trends
and styles have nothing to do with sustainability but the fact remains
that for both large and small businesses it has clearly been possible
to combine the two - despite all the complications encountered by all
during the process.

Since cotton accounts for most of the total global consumption of

fibres, we have decided to put our main focus on this produce.

Today research in cotton/organic cotton is open and accessible to

most people and in this area there are so many tools and types of
certification that it is far more manageable to tackle than other types
of fibres. E.g. synthetic fibres are often patented by companies who
have done a lot of research for many years in the properties of one
single fibre. This can make it difficult to create an open dialogue
since much of the information is considered a trade secret.
 10 CASE STUDIES
BUSINESS: Marks & Spencer was estab-
lished in the UK in 1884. Through its world-
wide department stores and shops Marks &
Spencer sells clothing, foods and homeware.
On 31 March 2000 Marks & Spencer had
an annual turnover of approximately GBP
8,195m employing a total of 75,500 people
worldwide.
LOCATION: Marks & Spencer’s has its
headquarters in London and has 702 stores
worldwide.
COTTON: Marks and Spencer tested
organic and naturally dyed cotton in the early
1990s without much success. The items
were too expensive, the Marks & Spencer
marketing of the product was minimal and
the public was not nearly as aware of the
benefits of organic agriculture as they are
now. Nowadays, Marks & Spencer has a
promising organic food business. In addition,
there is widespread consumer concern in
the UK about GM crops including cotton.
With this increased awareness and interest
in organic produce, the largest retailer in the
UK, launched an organic cotton line for the
Easter of 2000. Targeted for 12 stores, the
garments were clearly labelled and certified
organic. Marks & Spencer’s organic cotton
products were 30% more expensive than
their conventional equivalents.
Modelled on the Marks & Spencer food
division, the garments are made from 100%
certified organic cotton, placed next to other
items made from conventional cotton. In
the early 1990s this model was avoided,
the biggest fear being: “How will this reflect
on the rest of our range”? “Our business is
11 CASE STUDIES
so large,” says a Marks & Spencer’s spokesperson “and
there is only so much organic cotton per season that we
can phase into the store. We have to steadily build up a
supply to ensure long term stability and consistency of the
programme”.
“We considered a blend but felt that a 100% pure product
was more appropriate for Marks & Spencer. Our customers
expect trust in the brand implicitly. Anything less than 100%
organic would fall below our customers’ expectations. Just
as we offer our customers a choice between organic and
conventional produce, so we are offering the same choice
for our fibre products”.
Marks and Spencer needs to consider carefully its raw
material sources for future organic cotton products. Some
farmers have certified organic land and can move straight
into organic cotton crops. Others need to have their land in
a certification programme for three years before the crop
can be labelled organic. Crops within this three-year time limit
are termed ‘transitional’ organic. One idea thought through
by a Marks and Spencer Cotton technologist suggested
maintaining the organic products marketed as organic with
a 100% organic content, whilst using transitional cotton in
a given percentage blend across the Marks and Spencer
conventional range. This steady market would encourage
more farmers to put their conventional crop into transition,
and after the three year requirement period become certi-
fied, and build up a future supply of organic fibre for the M&S
programme.
Sales results of the first organic cotton test have not been
particularly good. This may be partly because of the minimal
use of organic cotton marketing materials at point of sale.
Though Marks and Spencer, at the time of writing, has been
PHOTOGRAPHY: P. WESSEL
going through major restructuring and market repositioning
for their conventional business, they continue to explore and
develop organic cotton as an important part of the business.
Representing the true mainstream, Marks and Spencer will
be an interesting case study to watch.
 12 CASE STUDIES
BUSINESS: Patagonia is an American - formerly
French - business generating an annual turnover
of $163m. Patagonia is a private company.
Cotton represents 20% of the company’s
consumption.
LOCATION: U.S.A.
HISTORY: After the company’s founder Yvon
Chouinard saw for himself the devastating
environmental effects of Californian cotton
production whilst on a farm tour hosted by
SCP (Sustainable Cotton Project), he decided
the company would convert to organic cotton
fibres or shut down it’s cotton sportswear
business altogether. In 1992-1994, Patago-
nia started to test out organic cotton T-shirts
and sweatshirts and in 1995 other cotton
accessories were added to the range.
COTTON: As a result, fabric development
teams set about researching how they could
implement the commitment. By 1996, after
4 years of trials, Patagonia had converted
all its cotton sportswear knits and wovens to
100% organic.
Initially, Patagonia had to change many of
its regular suppliers, in order to ensure that
only 100% organic cotton was used. As a
consequence, some of the other factors a
company considers when selecting suppliers
were initially challenging: delivery, reliabil-
ity, and some quality issues arose (from
changing suppliers, rather than using organic
cotton) and it took two seasons to iron out
these obstacles.
In the first season, Patagonia incurred some
erosion of its profit margin on its cotton
sportwear line. To accommodate the higher
prices, it took a three-tier approach. It stream-
lined the product range, decreased its profit
margins slightly and increased its retail prices.
Over the years since the initial streamlining
the product range has grown beyond where
it was before the change to organic cotton.
13 CASE STUDIES
As the organic industry becomes more established, the
number of suppliers steadily increases from year to year.
Patagonia explained to its customers the reason for the increased
retail price, and why it was important to change to organic
cotton. Customer loyalty increased and its organic cotton sales
are now even higher than when the range was conventional.
POLYESTER: Patagonia also carried out other environmental
activities in the product areas.
Patagonia was the first company to use recycled polyester
fleece fabric: a programme that was implemented in 1993.
Since polyester is extracted from a non-renewable source
and is not biodegradable, keeping it in an industrial loop
system is one of the best ways to reduce its impact on the
environment. Polyester is recyclable from used consumer
products, though a certain percentage of virgin fibre may be
needed to achieve finer polyester yarn. Patagonia’s polyester
fleece is recycled from used consumer plastic bottles. The
fabric was developed by one of Patagonia’s suppliers know-
ing this ecological approach to fabric would be of interest to
the company.
Recycled soda bottles are chopped, washed and converted
into small flakes which are then melted to form a viscose
liquid. The recycled polyester is mixed with virgin polyester
to maintain the integrity of the fibre. The new fibres are
extruded from the liquid, and then compressed and formed
into bales. The bales of fibre are then shipped to mills to be
knitted, dyed and made into clothes. The final recycled con-
tent of the product varies from 50%-90% and virgin polyester
forms the balance.
Between the spring of 1993 and the spring of 1996, Patago-
nia diverted over 54m plastic bottles from landfills and saved
over 600,000 gallons of oil from being used.
PHOTOGRAPHY: MIKKEL BACHE
DYES: Patagonia has done extensive research on the
environmental impact of dyes, but has yet to decide on the
best approach for a dye programme that truly reduces the
impact on the environment. Patagonia has found that besides
the content of the dyestuffs, other mitigating factors on
environmental impact include: fabric type, weight, colour, the
dyeing facilities, equipment, and the environmental location
of the dye facility itself. All the factors make a truly ecologi-
cal approach to dyes very highly complex and time consum-
ing to implement.
14 CASE STUDIES 15 CASE STUDIES
PATAGONIA'S "CODE OF CONDUCT"
FORCED LABOUR
Nobody should be allowed to subject others
to forced labour whether in the form of
convict labour, long-term labour contracts on
hard terms for the labourer or tying individu-
als to particular areas or the like.
CHILD LABOUR
Nobody under the age of 15 years (or 14
years of age under present production laws)
or individuals under the compulsory school
age in countries where this age exceeds 15,
shall be employed.
HARRASSMENT OR ABUSE
All employees shall be treated with respect
and dignity. No employees shall be subjected
to physical, sexual, mental or verbal haras-
sment or abuse.
DISCRIMINATION
No employees shall be subjected to any
forms of discrimination during employment,
i.e. in connection with the employment
process, wages and salaries, perks, pro-
motion, working assignments, dismissals or
retirements due to gender, race, religion,
age, disability, sexual orientation, nationa-
lity, political orientation, social or ethnic
background.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
The employer shall endeavour to ensure a
safe and healthy environment safeguarding
against accidents and destruction when work
is performed and/or as a result of the use of
the facilities at the said workplace.
FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION
Employers shall accept and respect the
employees’ right to freedom of association
and collective bargaining.
PAY AND PERKS
The employer shall accept that the pay is
essential for the employee to meet his/her
basic needs. As a minimum the employer
shall pay the employees minimum payment
according to current legislation or industrial
payments in force – whichever is highest
– and shall see to payment of statutory
perks.
WORKING HOURS
Other than in special business related
circumstances, employees shall (i) not be
requested to work for more than (a) 48 hours
per week including 12 hours’ overtime work
or (b) more than the limit for general working
hours and overtime work under present law
or, where the law contains no provision per-
taining to a limitation of the working hours,
than the general, national working week plus
12 hours’ overtime work and (ii) shall be
entitled to not less than one day off during
each 7-day work period.
OVERTIME PAYMENT
Apart from compensation/payment for ordi-
nary working hours, employees are entitled
to overtime payment under present law, or,
where such laws are inexistent, to payment
which, as a minimum, is on a par with their
general hourly wages.
 16 CASE STUDIES
BUSINESS: Holstein Flachs employs approximately 20
people. The company is owned by farmers.
LOCATION: Schleswig-Holstein in Northern Germany.
HISTORY: In the mid-1980s a group of farmers tried to see
if it would be possible to grow flax again as production of
this crop had stopped 30 years earlier due to pollution when
retting the flax. Despite a difficult start-up Holstein Flachs
managed to start growing flax again and today more than
5,000 hectares of land has been cultivated on approximately
1,000 different plots.
HIGH QUALITY FLAX: Having tested a wide range of
varieties such as elephant grass, hemp and nettles, Holstein
Flachs has succeeded in growing high-quality European
flax with help from the faculty of cultivation of plants at the
University of Kiel.
There has been severe competition from Belgium and
France, amongst others, and it has been difficult for a small
company like Holstein Flachs that has to pay high wages and
salaries and expenses.
Even so Holstein Flachs has managed to use some of the
waste products from the flax stems for useful by-products
which have generated a considerable and important extra
income from the sale of flax.
CERTIFIED/APPROVED FLAX: Holstein Flachs has enjoyed
international respect and recognition for its production of flax
17 CASE STUDIES
for clothing with all the raw materials originat-
ing from certified organic cultivation.
All products are certified by IMO (Institut Für
Marktökologi) in accordance with
IFOAM’s (International Federation Of Organic
Culture Movements) regulations and the strict
provisions of the International Natural Textile
Association which means that organic flax is
grown without using any forms of pesticides
and fertilisers. A field will be designated as
organic if no pesticides or mineral fertilizers
have been used for three years.
The interesting design and the new tech-
niques for processing the organic flax from
Schleswig-Holstein have helped single out the
characteristics and benefits of this specific
flax.
These are the reasons why a young business
without considerable financial resources
has been able to survive in a part of the
conventional industry which otherwise would
move its production to countries which
PHOTOGRAPHY: ROBIN SKJOLDBORG
can produce the items more cheaply. This
proves that if you stick to local traditions and
sustainable farming methods, a small busi-
ness can penetrate the global market with a
clear profile and business philosophy despite
meeting opposition from all sides.
 18 CASE STUDIES
BUSINESS: Nike is an American company
with an annual turnover of $7bn. A large part
of Nike’s production is cotton.
LOCATION: Head office in U.S.A.
COTTON: Nike is a member of an organisa-
tion named Natural Step which provides a
framework for companies to become more
ecologically sustainable businesses. Nike’s
use of organic cotton was included in its
company wide initiatives to implement the
principles of sustainability.
Nike targeted the high volume promotional
t-shirt area of the company. In 1998, the
company introduced 4 models in 5.4-ounce
jersey using a 3% blend of organic cotton
with conventional cotton. This was through
one US vendor only and the total volume
at that time was 30 million T-shirts. By
1999, volume was 75 million units, and the
programme had extended to sweatshirts and
socks. Since the programme began in 1997,
Nike has used 2.2 million pounds of organic
cotton which has eliminated 330 tonnes
of toxic chemicals from contaminating the
environment (Calculations by SCP).
Nike’s choice of a 3% blend of organic cotton
with conventional cotton was based on price;
the conversion amounted to an increase in
FOB cost of just 2 cents per t-shirt.
By 2010, Nike is aiming for 3% of the cotton
consumption for the entire company to
be organic. This would include European
and Asian vendors as well as the initial US
vendor.
Conversion to 100% organic cotton across
the whole range would not be immediately
possible due to the limited supply of organic
fibre and the economic risk at that volume
of eroded margin. Nike is carefully planning
the increase in the organic percentage both
19 CASE STUDIES
through special product design and a broader product range
in order to balance supply with demand.
LABOUR: Nike operates in 50 countries, in factories total-
ling 708 worldwide.
As a corporation, NIKE does not use child or under-aged
labour in any of its manufacturing operations. Several years
ago there were stories in the press that under age work-
ers were believed to be involved in the production of NIKE
soccer balls in Pakistan at the Saga Sport Ball factory. To
combat further bad publicity, NIKE worked with the Saga
Sport Ball Company to set up dedicated stitching centres
close to the workers’ homes to produce their products.
Since that time, NIKE has set the highest minimum accept-
able working age standard in the industry. The minimum
acceptable age for workers in a footwear factory is 18, and
the minimum age for workers in factories producing any
other NIKE product is 16. This is even higher than the mini-
mum age set by the ILO. (International Labor Organisation).
In addition, in 1994, NIKE was the first company in the
Sports and Fitness and/or apparel industry to conduct
continuous third party monitoring. Today NIKE has developed
this programme further to involve not only companies like
Price WaterhouseCoopers, who conduct Code of Conduct
Compliance Monitoring visits, but also NGOs and other out-
side organizations who engage workers, listen to their voice,
and make sure that the standards that have been set are not
only being met, but are continually improving.
In addition to the opportunities the jobs themselves provide,
85% of the footwear factories currently offer after-hours
education to workers. Many factories have set up recreation
and activity centres, and all footwear factories, and many
of the larger apparel and equipment factories, have on-site
medical clinics.
OTHER RESEARCH: Nike says that by 2001, nine out of
10 shoes it manufactures will be made without toxic glues,
PHOTOGRAPHY: JETTE JØRS
cleaners, or solvents. The company has also pledged to
find an alternative to sulphur hexafluoride, a greenhouse gas
used in air cushions for its shoes. Ultimately the company
says it wants to sell products that are made from recycled
materials and are themselves recyclable.
 20 CASE STUDIES
PHOTOGRAPHY: THOMAS TOLSTRUP
BUSINESS: Sustainable Solution Design
Association (Foreningen til fremme af
Bæredygtigt Design) and Paradigm employ
three people.
LOCATION: Denmark
HISTORY: Sustainable Solution Design
Association was established in 1995 by the
designers Tina Hjort and Drude Breds with
active participation from the board which
amongst others included Helle Krüger. The
aim was to gather and communicate knowl-
edge about sustainable clothing. This knowl-
edge was communicated to consumers,
designers, manufacturers etc. via lectures,
articles, the fashion magazine “Itch” and the
fashion show “Organic” at the “First Organic
World Trade Fair” in Holmen in 1996.
Through Sustainable Solution Design Asso-
ciation’s work the aim is to encourage the
target group to integrate sustainable princi-
ples when buying and designing clothes and
in production at par with other parameters
such as quality, design and price.
In cooperation with Helle Krüger the efforts
to communicate the above vision were in
1999 expanded to establish the company
named Paradigm who develops and pro-
duces environmentally friendly and exclusive
garments. Sales from paradigm’s store
have primarily included a unique production
manufactured by Paradigm itself.
SUSTAINABLE PRINCIPLES: Sustainable
Solution Design Association and Paradigm
soon realised that there are no definitive solu-
21 CASE STUDIES
tions when dealing with sustainable clothes. It is an area in For Sustainable Solution Design Associa-
constant change and where no answer key is given. tion and Paradigm the design process itself
is rather long because you will often keep
From the very beginning the aim was to work with as envi- returning to the idea before it finally comes
ronmentally friendly textiles as possible. But since only a few into shape. Naturally, Sustainable Solution
textiles are ecolabelled most of the work included to build up Design Association and Paradigm have opted
and nourish personal contact to the sub-suppliers. Sustain- to put great emphasis on creating a dynamic
able Solution Design Association and Paradigm could thus design compared with the sustainable tex-
personally warrant the textiles that they used and continu- tiles they are working with. They have taken
ously influence the suppliers making requests of environmen- up the challenge posed by each individual
tal principles and asking loads of questions. textile and tried to further develop these at
a level appropriate to present trends with
Sustainable Solution Design Association and Paradigm only prints, pegs, embroideries etc.
use organic cotton and organic flax for their basic collec-
tion and in addition they only use materials such as piña At first the real challenge was to design
(pineapple fibres) and uncultivated silk and wool which has simple, feminine and well-fitting daily attire
not been sprayed as an exclusive supplement to the collec- made of sustainable fabrics. A basic col-
tion. Sustainable Solution Design Association and Paradigm lection has now been designed having had
have decided to see the immediate limitation to the range of regard to the environment in the form of dif-
sustainable fabrics as a challenge which has made this work ferent paddings, casting offs, ornaments etc.
even more interesting since it is no longer just a question of
styles and dyes. But in order to put a stop to the myth that
organic clothes are boring and unsaleable
SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION DESIGN ASSOCIATION’S
ENVIRONMENTAL CODE OF CONDUCT:
they have also considered it a challenge to
• to work with materials from environmentally certified producers - or materials make suggestions to unique wedding, gala
produced by already known producers - who work in accordance with environmentally
safe processes.
and party gowns of the future where espe-
• to avoid fabrics of mixed varieties (considering the disposal phase) except from cially the crafts involved in the different Fair
fabrics providing longer wear and abrasion resistance or undergoing a similar degrada-
tion phase.
Trade projects were emphasised in combina-
• to avoid fabrics which have been subjected to undue additional treatment with tion with Paradigm’s ideas.
chemicals.
• to use high-quality fabrics. To include ethics which are at par with the environment
SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION DESIGN ASSOCIATION’S CODE
and design.
OF DESIGN:
• to design garments of a classic and the latest cut.
• to base designs on previous years’ models.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES: Sustainable Solution Design Associa- • to add value to the design through embroideries and details of
tion and Paradigm have attached main importance to the use good craftsmanship.
• to combine the materials to obtain lightness and consistency
of natural textiles because they are the most suitable for the between the materials.
company’s designs. This is not to say that synthetic textiles • to reuse excess materials as insertions in different models.
• to find solutions to avoid interlining materials – or to use
will not be used or that Sustainable Solution Design Associa- environmentally friendly fabrics as interlining materials.
tion and Paradigm believe that natural fibres are always more
environmentally friendly than synthetic fibres.
 22 CASE STUDIES
BUSINESS: The Sustainable Cotton Project
(SCP) is a non-profit based group of farmers
who help cotton growers to convert from
conventional to organic farming.
LOCATION: U.S.A.
HISTORY: Through their programme named
BASIC (Biological agricultural systems in Cotton)
farmers who have already converted to organic
farming mentor new farmers through the
transition. BASIC is not a certification system,
it is a programme developed by farmers for
farmers to take steps to reduce their use of
chemicals and eventually convert to organic
farming systems. SCP’s pilot project is in
California, and is now expanding to Missouri,
COMPANIES WHICH HAVE SHOWN
INTEREST IN ORGANIC PROGRAMMES
SO FAR INCLUDE:
Next (/*), Adidas (/), Target (/x), Mervyns
(/), L.L. Beans (::), Hanna Anderson (*/),
Norm Thompson (*::) and Eddie Bauer (:
:), USA, and Jigsaw (x) and Mothercare
(x), UK.
SYMBOLS
* = developing organic cotton programmes
x = testing organic cotton fabric
:: = have been on a farm tour
/ = have seen an SCP presentation
Recently, Marks and Spencer launched
an organic cotton program in 10 of its
stores - the sales results of which are
unknown at time of writing. Every year
Patagonia sends busloads of their staff
on farm tours to educate them about
Patagonia’s conversion to organic cotton.
Last year Nike also sponsored a bus
for the same reason. This year Norm
Thompson is sponsoring a bus.
23
USA. Organic cotton acreage in California is currently at 3,000
acres, but could increase to whatever the market demands, as
long as farmers have pre-harvest contracts.
In 1998, SCP launched its Cleaner Cotton Campaign, an
initiative aiming to increase the markets for organic cotton in
the textile industry. Will Allen, executive director of SCP, and a
farmer himself, and Lynda Grose, fashion designer, give pres-
entations to companies in the textile industry, to educate them
about conventional cotton farming, the organic alternatives,
and to present successful models for implementing organic
cotton production in the industry.
The presentation takes the form of a slide show covering
market trends, increased consumer awareness about ecology
and graphic representation of strategies which a company
might adopt or implement in their own production. Contacts
in the organic industry are supplied to the companies to help
initiate research into the possibilities of developing their own
organic cotton fabrics.
Company owners and managers are encouraged to join
farm tours of the Californian organic and conventional cotton
farms to witness the difference between the two methods of
farming for themselves. The farm tours are held from October
to November each year, just as the cotton crop is being har-
vested. This is when the contrast between organic and conven-
tional farming methods is at it’s starkest. Defoliants, which are
used to strip the leaves from the plant to enable easier picking
of the bolls are amongst the most toxic chemicals used in
conventional cotton farming.
The combination of a farmer and a designer giving presenta-
tions to the industry has turned out to be quite a success.
Will Allen is talking from personal experience about the toxic
chemicals used on cotton crops and the effect they have on
the local communities, where cancer clusters are a common
occurrence (Cancer rates in farming communities are 50%
higher than those in the rest of California). Lynda Grose who
knows the difficulties inside companies and in the textile indus-
try in developing organic cotton products, talks from personal
experience in working for Esprit and other companies.
PHOTOGRAPHY: ROBIN SKJOLDBORG
 26 KAPITEL 27 THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER/BUYER
Many players in the textile and clothing industry believe that
there is a contradiction in working with sustainability and
fashion. Firstly, because fashion equals excessive consump-
tion controlled by fast-changing trends and, secondly, because
many people associate environmentally friendly clothes with
unbleached, undyed and shapeless items which are thus unsale-
able. Ideas of fanaticism, holiness and other forms of negative
attitudes could also be a great barrier. But many consumers
are also open to the issue following the general trend which
increasingly puts an emphasis on the origin of a product.
Today it is to a large extent the designer and the buyer who
are able to change attitudes and take part in a new sustain-
able development of the production. Making their options and
purchases they often have far more power and thus far more
responsibility than would be attributed to today’s conscious
consumer. People still disagree whether environmental behav-
iour is a trend which has come to stay; or whether the trend
is reserved for a specific part of the population the “politically
correct” buyers.
Designers and buyers may therefore launch products on the
market which are not necessarily perceived to be environmen-
tally friendly and thus cater for a much larger target group.
The sustainable element will thus become a natural part of the
production itself and will no longer be accredited as a short-
term trend. This will also put pressure on the producers so that
the influence will also have an effect the other way and it may
gradually stimulate more environmentally friendly production.
This is illustrated in Fig. X (The Old Model) and Fig. Y (The New
Model) where Environmental Resources Management in coop-
eration with the designer Lynda Grose has prepared a chart
describing how industry operates today and how it may change
and improve.
In Fig. X it appears quite clearly that the designer’s field of
activity is limited to relating to current trends i.e. exclusively to
movements in cultural trends: colours, shapes, styles and pos-
sibly also sales potential. The designers and the buyers do not
relate at all to any information submitted before then regarding
the production itself.
If you take a closer look at Fig. Y you will see that they are
actually not mutually exclusive which therefore puts far more
responsibility on the designer. Trends, colours and cultural
changes in society should not exclude a fundamental aware-
ness and interest in the development and production of the
LIVSSTIL RELATERET BILLED
PHOTOGRAPHY: THOMAS TOLSTRUP
various products.
This process will of course take many years. Both to incorpo-
rate the fundamental awareness and sense of responsibility into
the educational system but also to introduce new systems into
work places which have been operating as seen in Fig. X for
many, many years.
An example of this could be as mentioned in “Case studies”
about how Nike and Patagonia have intro-
duced 100% or 50% use of organic cotton
instead of conventional cotton. This has not
changed their style or their target groups in
any way.
It will of course require an open mind and a
wish to gain knowledge of the subject before
it is possible to do anything at all. This is why
the designer, who has the ability to adjust
ideas to current trends, company styles,
economy etc., is very well-qualified to seam-
lessly integrate sustainable principles.
Today it is not a natural part of the work-
ing process to consider sustainability. It
will therefore require much of the individual
member of staff to introduce these principles
to his/her workplace and/or incorporate
them in his/her daily routines. But designers/
buyers should not feel discouraged. Many dif-
ferent suggestions are presented as to which
correct environmentally friendly options to
make. Sometimes these issues become
confusing. But instead of becoming confused
or losing the plot – face up to the challenge!
If you understand how to turn the process
round, you will experience that the limita-
tions can become an interesting challenge
which will only make you wiser. Please note
that there is no such thing as asking stupid
questions – it is better to ask one too many
questions than one too few! The most impor-
tant point is to be persistent and take small
steps at the time. It can make the process
simpler if, in the beginning, only one issue is
investigated: e.g. dyeing. And if for example
it is desirable to use a synthetic fibre due to
resistance to wear and tear, the sustainable
option will of course be the synthetic fibre in
stead of a natural fibre that is not durable.
It is also possible to receive professional
guidance and assistance. Today there are
many institutions and organisations – both
Danish and international ones – who are
offering assistance and guidance on the
different options. In the back of this book we
refer to some of the best known organisa-
tions etc. that are willing to offer their
assistance and guidance on organic cotton
or chemical processes.
 Assembly
28

Food
industry

Social trends,
Seed Advertising Consumer culture &
subculture

Textile Printing &

Trend
Farmers Ginners Fibre manufacturers finishing Converter Retailer
specifications analysis
& finishers
THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER/BUYER

Colour, style,
Pallets &
Designer material and
rangers
texture

Operating Operating Product

parameters parameters specifications

Environmental Operating Dyestuff

legislation parameters manufacturers
FIG. X

MODEL
THE OLD

Customer
FIG. Y
29

MODEL
THE NEW

Social trends,
Consumer
Advertising culture &
awareness
subculture

Government

Recycling companies Dyestuff manufacturers

Farmers Spinners

Environmental Information Trend

Retailer Labelling Knitters Finishers
THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER/BUYER

forum exchange analysis

Weavers Assemblers

Research organisations Trade associations

Educational establishments

Colour, style,
Pallets & Constraints &
material and
rangers opportunities
texture

Designer
 30 ETHICS 31 KAPITEL

We must behave ethically to achieve sustainability but our when they are at work but they never talk
ethic values are not always in the best interest of others. about it. It is considered very shameful to be
laid off and they will be laid off if they make
Ethics means a way of living and all individuals have a set of the slightest complaints.
values according to which they should live.
We will have to evaluate our product from cradle to grave. Some of the mills have very few toilets for
According to which principles do we want to live? What are many hundreds of people and the workers
our attitudes to society? have to fill in forms to monitor how often
they go to the toilet. Therefore many of the
Textile mills throughout the world use cheap labour and create workers avoid using the toilets by skipping
jobs and generate export earnings for the poorer countries. breakfast or not having a drink all day.
But it is often at the expense of the environment and human
rights. Far too many people work in poor working conditions The press hardly ever reports criticism of
that are damaging to their physical and mental health. the clothing industry in Bangladesh to avoid
accusations of attempting to ruin the biggest
There are about 120m inhabitants in Bangladesh and by export success Bangladesh has experienced.
1998 approximately 1.4m people were employed in more The clothing manufacturers have a strong
than 2,000 textiles mills. If the administrative staff were union with powerful political connections
included, such as clerks, cleaners and drivers etc. the figure so they are therefore not the ones who will
would be approximately 5m people who directly or indirectly attempt to improve working conditions.
depend on the clothing industry.
CONSUMER DEMANDS IN THE WEST
THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY VIOLATES HUMAN RIGHTS However, it has turned out that the demands
Clothing accounts for 68% of Bangladesh’s exports. The clothing made by consumers in the rich part of the
industry is helping in many ways to develop one of world’s world can make a difference.
poorest countries to incorporate it into the global economy. The conscious consumer has existed for many
But it is at the expense of the environment and human rights. years and has helped to change history.
Examples of the above include Yugoslavia,
At the mills the factory workers are often not allowed to Burma and the Shell ban during apartheid
speak to each other while they are working unless they want in South Africa and also the drop in sales of
to discuss job-related issues. The factory owners claim that French wine and cheese to Danish consum-
it will reduce the efficiency. ers as a response to the nuclear tests.

According to a survey made by the organisation Action Aid,
20% of unmarried women who work at the country’s textile
mills have sex with their supervisors. 15% of the women
only have sex with these men because they want to achieve
Nike is also a good example. By and
large Nike itself has no production plants.
Practically everything it sells is made by its
suppliers and sub-suppliers throughout the
RED BARNET

something, e.g. to receive their wages on time or simply to world – especially in third-world countries.
receive all the DKK 180 which is the average monthly wages Previously Nike had not formulated its ethi-
for a sewing machinist. cal values. Nike had not undertaken social
PHOTOGRAPHY:

or environmental responsibility. Nike was

FOTO: ...

The women work in wretched conditions and many are raped therefore constantly criticised because its
32 KAPITEL 33 ETHICS
suppliers or sub-suppliers employed child
labour.
Nike lost billions due to this criticism and
because the consumers imposed a massive
boycott of its goods.
This resulted in Nike changing its course
radically.
COMPANY HEALTH-CHECKS
More and more companies have now
implemented ethical guidelines because it
is too expensive to have a bad reputation
and a bad reputation can take a long time to
remedy. Many large companies therefore try
to build up a good image and avoid a poor
one. And therefore it has become crucial to
check that the good intentions are actu-
ally met. Many international audit firms and
consultancies are engaged in overseeing
that the companies’ suppliers in developing
countries meet the requirements.
Not only do they prepare a “Code of Con-
duct” for the companies to follow but they
also work out procedures for checking that
the code is adhered by the company and by
the suppliers. They also prepare contingency
plans for the company in case breaches of
the guidelines should occur.
THE BUYERS SHOULD BE CHECKED
There may be many suppliers and sub-sup-
pliers in many different countries behind one
product. This means that the buyers acting
for companies with ethical guidelines should
be geared to inspect the sub-suppliers and to
ask the right questions.
The buyers are important because once the
contract is signed it can be difficult to set
new requirements. It is therefore important
for the companies to train their buyers so
they are able to assess whether the suppliers
can and will meet the ethical guidelines and
that for example they do not employ children.
COMPLEX CHILD LABOUR
Many companies have made it a requirement
of their supplier that they do not use child
labour. Child labour in the developing coun-
tries is described – according to the ILO (International Labour
Organisation) Convention – as general labour performed by
any one under the age of 14 years or for hazardous work by
any one under 18 years.
However, the above-mentioned convention is still being
interpreted in many different ways and many international
businesses have even stricter requirements to age limits
than those set by the ILO.
Our ethical attitudes to child labour may be right for us in the
rich part of the world but the same attitudes might have seri-
ous consequences for families in the third world.
If for example child labour is experienced with one supplier
and the company therefore decides to terminate the relation-
ship the livelihood for an entire family might disappear with
disastrous consequences for many children who are forced
into prostitution because they have to earn money to support
their family somehow.
One solution might be to accept that human rights can only
be met through opportunities for education and then tell the
supplier that light child labour is acceptable but only after
school. Nike has for example established schools where their
suppliers employ child labour.
ANIMALS AND THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY
As with human beings there are many aspects to consider on
the use of animals in the clothing industry. The industry uses
for example hides, leather, fur, feathers and wool from many
different animal species.
But in contrast to human beings for whom a number of rules
are set worldwide on how humans should live and be treated,
no such set of rules has been set for animals. The consumer
organisations have to put pressure on this and legislation has
to be introduced in this area.
We could emphasise certain points of resemblance between
animal ethics within the food industry and the textile and
clothing industry. This could for example be the number of
animals cramped in a specific area and a set of rules for how
we should treat animals bred for the clothing industry.
Animal ethics is an emotive topic. The limit on what is right
and what is wrong – or good or bad – can be a very personal
issue which each designer, buyer or company should form
an opinion on.
The only thing, which can be said to be under present legisla-
tion worldwide, is that it is prohibited to kill and use the hides
or fur from endangered species.
34 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE 35 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE

Not only do textiles affect the environment during production of the fabrics but also during
the cultivation and manufacturing process of the fibres and not least during the consumption
phase where laundry and disposal has a considerable effect on the environment.
It will be important to consider the entire process »from cradle to grave« when assessing a
textile’s impact on the environment.
The figures give a clear overview of the environmental impact of textile products made from
polyester and from cotton. In the section below we will give a more detailed description of
the environmental impact of a textile product.
 36 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE
COTTON GROWING AND
HARVESTING
The environment will be affected when
conventional cotton is grown and
harvested due to the large amounts of
fertilizers, pesticides and defoliants used.
CLEANING RAW COTTON
When the cotton has been picked,
unwanted impurities (hulls etc.) will be
separated from the cotton fibre. This
process is also called cotton ginning.
When a large amount of cotton dust and
toxic fumes are emitted it can cause the
lung disease byssinosis in cotton workers.
COTTON FIBRE SPINNING
The spinning of cotton fibres also cause
problems with dust. For the spinning process
some producers use spinning oils which do not
easily break down. These oils will be washed
out of the cotton during the subsequent
processes and they will thus pollute the
wastewater.
37 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE
DISPOSAL
Large amounts of clothes are disposed of
each year. The clothes may either be used
as second hand or it may end up in the
waste bin and then hauled to waste
incineration plants or landfills.
YARN WEAVING
During the weaving process the environ-
WET TREATMENT
ment will in some cases be affected by the Wet treatment of raw yarns, knitted or
use of sizing agents which are used to woven raw materials includes a number of
reinforce the longitudinal yarns so that they processes: desizing, prewashing,
can survive the weaving process. The size bleaching, mercerising, dying, printing and
will be washed out during the subsequent after treatment. All the above-mentioned
processes. processes have an impact on the
environment in different ways. For example
YARN KNITTING any remains from potential pesticides,
In some cases needle oils which do not defoliants and other agents (e.g. sizing oils
break down easily are used during the and spinning oils) will be washed out if they
knitting process and will be washed out have been added during previous
during the subsequent process polluting processes. Other substances which are
the wastewater. Besides this process will dangerous to the environment and health
produce yarn, packaging material and are used; they include amongst others
textile waste. chlorine-containing products which are
used for bleaching and dyes containing
heavy metal. All processes used in wet
treatment include a large consumption of
water.
USE AND LAUNDRY
When consumers buy clothes, the clothes
often contain residuals from the chemicals
that were used during the various
production processes and in some cases
these residuals can cause irritation of the
skin or eczema.
The laundry process also affects the
environment. A textile product only needs
to be washed a few times for more energy
to have been used for this process than
for the production of the product itself.
TRANSPORT AND SALES
The fabrics and the finished clothing are
often transported from one end of the
world and back again. The heavy
consumption of fuel affects the environ-
ment. Furthermore, the environment is
affected because the cotton is treated with
certain chemicals to prevent it from
disintegrating.
Many resources are also used for
packaging for example which affects the
environment when disposed.
SEWING
The sewing process affects the external
environment especially since large
amounts of fibre, textile and packaging
waste are disposed.
The most difficult issue in the sewing
process is working conditions, particularly
the risk of repetitive strain injuries and
exposure to toxic fumes from the residual
chemicals in the textiles such as for
example formaldehyde.
 38 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE 39 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE

POLYESTER MANUFACTURING
Polyester is a man-made fibre which is
manufactured from refined raw oil. Raw oil
is not a renewable resource.
The fibre is made from raw oil passing
through a number of processes during
which chemicals are added many of which
are suspected of being carcinogenic.

SPINNING
The noise level is very high when the
fibres are spun and much waste from the
fibres and yarns is seen. Spinning oils are
also used and these do not easily break
down when they are washed out later and
discharged into the wastewater.

DISPOSAL
Large amounts of clothes are disposed of
each year. The clothes may either be recy-
cled or they may end up in the waste bin
for later to be taken to waste incineration
plants or landfills.

WEAVING
Like the spinning process the weaving one
is very noisy.
Sizing agents are used for the weaving USE AND LAUNDRY
process to reinforce the longitudinal yarns. When consumers buy clothes, the clothes
When the size is flushed during later often contain residuals from the chemicals
processes, it will affect the surrounding that were used during the separate produc-
water environment (lake, river and sea) tion processes and in some cases may
because of the high contents of organic cause irritation of the skin or eczema.
compounds, which for example can cause The laundry process also affects the envi-
oxygen depletion and kill off fish. ronment. A textile product only needs to
be washed a few times for more energy to
have been used for this process than for
the production of the product itself.

WET TREATMENT
Wet treatment includes a large number
of processes: desizing, prewashing and
bleaching, dying, printing, after treatment
and heat treatment. The spinning oils and
sizing agents are washed out of the fabrics TRANSPORT AND SALES
during the wet treatment process and vari- The fabrics and the finished clothing are
ous chemicals, e.g. detergents, dyes and often transported from one end of the
solvents, many of which may damage the
SEWING world and back again. The heavy consump-
The sewing process affects the external tion of fuel affects the environment.
environment and human health, are added
environment especially because of dis- Many resources are also used for packag-
during the separate processes.
posal of large amounts of fibre, textile and ing which when disposed of affects the
packaging waste. environment.
The most difficult issue in the sewing
process is working conditions, particularly
the risk of repetitive strain injuries and
exposure to toxic fumes from the residual
chemicals in the textiles such as for exam-
ple formaldehyde.
PHOTOGRAPHY: JETTE JØRS
42 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 43 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
 44 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 45 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

The path from cotton seed or extraction of of fibre/textile chosen for the product will have a significant is not complete and even more brand names same environmental effects are related to the production
raw oil to the end product is a long one and impact on the environment are likely to be found at trade fairs and with of all types of natural fibres or all types of chemical fibres.
there are many links in the chain which affect suppliers. Each type of fibre has its “own” environmental impact. In this
the environment. Today there are so many different types of textiles on the section examples will be given of some of the environmental
market that it can be very difficult to keep track of all of There are many different environmental problems associated with the production of a selection of
The aim of this section is to give an under- them and know their effect on the environment during the difficulties connected with the manufacturing both natural fibres and chemical fibres.
standing of the scale of the environmental manufacturing process. In the table below a number of process of a textile whether it is based on
difficulties from the very beginning when the fibres are listed and divided into categories according to natural or artificial fibres. It is by no means In Table 2 below a number of environmental effects caused
fibre is grown or manufactured until disposal their properties as natural or chemical fibres. Natural fibres only the manufacturing process of the fabric by the production of natural and chemical fibres are
of the end product when it is worn or has are fibres from either plants or animals. Chemical fibres are which puts pressure on the environment described.
become obsolete. man-made fibres which can be made from either plant fibres which we indicated above in the description
which are regenerated (reclaimed) e.g. viscose or which of the life cycle of polyester and cotton. In general it could be argued, however, that the difference
CHOOSING TYPES OF TEXTILES can be pure synthetic fibres that are extracted from raw oil, It is difficult to generalise and claim that the in environmental terms between natural fibres and synthetic
When the designer chooses his/her fabrics such as for example polyester. In Table 1 under chemical
for a new product range and the buyer pur- fibres the names in italics are brand names. For example for TABLE 2:
chases the fabrics from the supplier, the type polyester we have listed five different brand names. The list
ENVIRONMENTAL NATURE FIBRES CHEMICAL FIBRES
IMPACT
TABLE 1:
NATURAL REGENE- SYNTHETIC
RATED
NATURAL FIBRES CHEMICAL FIBRES
Cotton Flax etc. Wool etc. Viscose and Polyester Polyamide Acrylic
Plant fibres Animal fibres Regenerated fibres are fibres Synthetic fibres are made bast fibres 1 animal similar fibres (Nylon)
made from natural from sythetic polymers fibres cellulose
regenerated (reclaimed) extracted from raw oil fibres 2
plant fibres
GROWING /
FIBRE MANUFACTURING
Cotton Wool Viscose Polyamide or nylon
Water consumption   
Flax Camel Floxan Enkalon
Hemp Alpaca Swelan Perlon Pesticides    - - - -
Jute Angora Modal Rilsan Wastewater -    - - -
Ramie Cashmere Avril Tactel Air emission - - -    
Manila Mohair Polynosic Polyester PRODUCTION OF
FABRICS
Sisal Silk Vincel Dacron
Water consumption       
Coco Hair Cupro Diolon
Wastewater       
Pineapple Lyocell Tergal
PCP/TeCP     - - -
Banana Tencel Teteron
Chlorine bleaching     - - -
Acetate Trevira
Metal complex dyes     -  -
Dicel Acrylic or polyacrylic
Allergy-provoking - - - -  - -
Rhodia Acrilan dyes
Triacetate Cashmilon Carrier - - - -  - -
Arnel Courtelle Petrol-based printing     -  
Tricel Dralon AFTERTREATMENT /
Modacrylic FINISH
Vonnel Formaldehyde   -  - - -
Dynel Flame retardants       
Chlorofibres or polychloride
Rhovyl
: Significantly relevant environmental impact by the fibre in question
Polypropylene
 : Partly relevant
Elasthane
- : Not relevant
Lycra
Polyurethane : The category of bast fibres includes ramie, jute and hemp, for example
1

Vinylal : Including amongst others acetate, triacetate, cupro, lyocell and modal
2
 46 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 47 MILJØPROBLEMER

fibres is that natural fibres occupy fertile soil which could

otherwise have been used for food production whereas Pesticider og andre agrokemikalier, der bliver
synthetic fibres use non renewable resources in the form of brugt på store farme, bliver ofte spredt fra fly, og
oil. However, the regenerated fibres, such as for example vis- der er lavet undersøgelser, der viser, at i visse
cose, may in this context be considered a natural fibre since tilfælde er det kun 25%, der rammer målet.
it is extracted from wood. (Rainey, 1994)
Unfortunately, things cannot be measured entirely accurately
sincere there is no ideal solution to the problem of choosing
between natural or chemical fibres. Many different issues
need to be taken into consideration to make an environmen-
tally safe choice.

EXAMPLE OF HOW THE ENVIRONMENT IS

AFFECTED BY THE PRODUCTION OF TEXTILE
FIBRES
MANY PESTICIDES ARE USED
The use of pesticides for conventional (traditional) cotton
growing causes many problems throughout the world
because of the large amount involved. Almost 25% of the
global sales of pesticides are used for cotton growing.
The cotton plant is sprayed because it is a very fragile
plant and particularly vulnerable to attacks from diseases,
various types of fungi, insects etc. In third-world countries
large amounts are being used and insecticides, such as for
example DDT is still being used although the use of such
pesticides is banned in the EU and Scandinavia.

Every year 300m kilograms of pesticides are used in

the third world and half of them are used for cotton.
It is claimed that India, where the cotton production
only comprises 5% of the total acreage of cultivated
land, uses up to 55% of the total amount of pesti-
cides, which are sprayed. (Dinham, 1992)

For picking the cotton so-called defoliants are used in many

cases, because they make the leaves fall off the bushes thus
making it easier to harvest the cotton by using machinery.
PHOTOGRAPHY: ZACK GRIFFIN

Although the pesticides and the defoliants are only used

for the cotton, other crops are contaminated because they
are grown close to the cotton fields. The cotton fields are
often sprayed from aircrafts and a large percentage of the
chemicals never hit the target, thus causing pollution of the
ground water and the accumulation of harmful substances in
the food chain.

It is possible to buy cotton without pesticides on the global

market, both as organic cotton and as cotton grown without
 48 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
the use of pesticides. But in 1996 the organic cotton pro-
duction amounted to approximately 20,000 tonnes, which
corresponds to approximately 0.1% of the total global cotton
production. So there is still long way to go!
In Australia and New Zealand sheep are often sprayed with
or immersed in pesticides to kill the parasites, lice and fleas,
found in their wool. However, it should be emphasised that
Danish sheep farmers rarely use this form of chemical treat-
ment.
At present there is very little pesticide-free wool available on
the global market and apparently the farming of organic wool
is mostly connected with production of organic mutton and
lamb.
COTTON GROWING REQUIRES LARGE
QUANTITIES OF WATER
Another big environmental problem connected with cotton
growing is that for optimum growth the cotton plant requires
large quantities of water which can only be achieved by
irrigation. This puts considerable demand on the water
resources and soil erosion is often seen due to uncontrolled
use of irrigation.
A frightening example of the consequences of large con-
sumption of water is from the Aral Lake in Russia where the
water level in the lake has fallen by 50% due to irrigation
of large areas of land being used for growing cotton. Due
to heavy use of pesticides and fertilisers, polluted soil and EXAMPLES OF HOW THE ENVIRONMENT
ground water have caused large problems for animals and
humans; among other things it has had an effect on the
world’s highest child mortality rate in the area and a large
number of spontaneous abortions, cancer of the stomach
and the like.
THE PRODUCTION OF CHEMICAL FIBRES
AFFECTS THE AIR AND WATERS
During the production of chemical fibres, i.e. both regener-
ated and synthetic fibres, the environment will especially be could be improved and naturally this espe-
affected because substances that are harmful for the envi-
ronment and human health are emitted into the air and the
water. For example during the production of polyester volatile The production of the textile, i.e. the produc-
organic substances and hazardous chemicals are emitted
which are classified as being possibly carcinogenic.
Viscose is extracted by dividing wood into fine particles
which are dissolved in a water solution. This process also
produces large quantities of wastewater with high contents
of organic substances and hydrogen-sulphide and carbon
sulphide, both substances are classified as environmentally
hazardous.
49 MILJØPROBLEMER
PRODUCTION OF NATURAL FIBRES
ALSO AFFECTS THE WATER
ENVIRONMENT
Wool comes primarily from sheep. The raw
wool is full of natural impurities and grease
which will be removed during the washing
process. The wastewater from the washing
process contains large amounts of grease
which, when discharged into the wastewater,
is favourable to the growth of algae which
may cause oxygen depletion and kill off fish.
When the wastewater has a large content of
grease (organic substance) it is known as
having a high COD/BOD level.
When flax is extracted from the stalks of the
flax plant, the stalks undergo a process to
soften them. This process is called retting
and if it is carried out in basins without appro-
priate cleaning facilities for the wastewater,
the process can cause pollution due to the
oxygen depleting substances discharged into
the aquatic environment. The retting process
for flax can also be carried out in the field
itself (field retting) where the dew will help
bringing about the natural disintegration of
the flax. This process is considered the most
environmentally friendly.
IS AFFECTED BY THE PRODUCTION OF
FABRICS
During recent years many Danish textile
producers have introduced new, cleaner
technological solutions in their production.
This has had the effect that production in
many areas has become more environmen-
tally friendly. However, there are still many
areas in which the environmental measures
cially applies to the large number of foreign
sub-suppliers.
tion of the fabric, covers many processes
ranging from spinning, weaving, knitting, wet
treatment and sewing. Various environmental
problems are attributed to all these proc-
FOTO: CARY S. WOLINSKY
esses for all the different types of fibres.
For example some of the problems are
caused during the spinning, weaving and
knitting processes by the use of various
chemicals, especially spinning oils, wax and
 50 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 51 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
PHOTOGRAPHY: HELLE KRÜGER
 52 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
sizing agents. The spinning oils do not easily break down
naturally, i.e. they are slowly degradable. The sizing agents
cause many difficulties because they are flushed out during
subsequent processes and cause a large content of organic
substances in the wastewater. Besides, environmentally
harmful preservative such as for example PCH (pentachlo-
ridephenole) may have been added to the size which should
not be used in production if you want to be able to use the
eco-label “the EU Flower” for your textiles.
CHEMICALS AND DYES WHICH AFFECT THE ENVIRON-
MENT ARE USED IN PRODUCTION
When a fabric is produced it will undergo many processes
generally called wet treatment. Wet treatment includes the
following processes: desizing, prewashing, bleaching, mer-
cerising, dying and printing. A number of chemicals and dyes
are used which are considered to have an adverse effect on
the environment and human health. Since these materials
increase the toxicity of the wastewater they may accumulate
in the food chain or be difficult to degrade.
Natural fibres are often bleached before they are dyed.
They are bleached to make the dyeing process as effective
as possible. Unfortunately, in many countries the bleaching
process involves chlorine-containing bleaching materials
(though these are rarely used in Denmark), which cause a
high chlorine content in the wastewater. The high content of
chloride makes it difficult to clean the wastewater. However,
in most cases chlorine bleaching can be replaced by other
less destructive forms of bleaching, mainly peroxide bleach-
ing.
Azo dyes belong to the largest main group of textile dyes. It
is therefore impossible to avoid using them in the production.
But a few of the azo dyes separate the so-called arylamines
that may cause cancer. The criteria laid down for the EU
Flower include a list of the arylamines which can be used if
the producers want their textiles to be labelled with the EU
Flower.
Other dyes may cause other problems as they can contain
impurities of heavy metals. If for example the designers/
buyers choose turquoise textiles they will have automati-
cally chosen to use heavy metals in their production since
turquoise shades can generally only be obtained by using
dyes containing heavy metals. These metal complex dyes
are especially used for cotton, flax and other bast fibres and
viscose and other regenerated cellulose fibres.
Wool and polyamide are often dyed with special dyes that all
contain one or more metal complexes regardless of shades.
There is a special group of dyes for wool
called chrome-mordant dyes. These are used
for very dark shades, especially black and
marine. They pollute the wastewater with
chrome and the dichromate in the finished
textile which is harmful to human health
(although they are used in very small quanti-
ties in Denmark).
There are a number of dyes that are
suspected of causing allergy. These types
of dyes are called dispersion dyes and are
primarily used for polyester and sometimes
for triacetate.
Polyester is normally dyed at 130°C and at a
pressure of several atmospheres. For several
reasons this is not always possible and there-
fore the dyeing process has to be carried out
at 98°C. Especially polyester/wool mixtures
require such temperatures because the wool
is unable to tolerate the high temperatures.
A so-called carrier therefore has to be used
which is a chemical substance that helps the
dyes to penetrate the polyester fibre. Some
of these carriers may be more harmful to the
environment than others, i.e. the so-called
halogenated carriers. On the whole the group
of carrier chemicals should, however, be
avoided.
Some printing houses still use petrol based
printing systems especially for cellulose
fibres, which from an environmental point of
view are quite unacceptable. It is now pos-
sible to print by using entirely water-based
systems.
THE PRODUCTION OF FABRICS ALSO
AFFECTS THE WASTEWATER
As with the production of fibres problems
also occur to the wastewater when produc-
ing fabrics. In general you might say that the
fibres made from natural materials (includ-
ing viscose etc.) require far more water
during the refinement process and they
will therefore create more wastewater. The
wastewater contains residuals especially
from spinning oils, needle oils and sizing
agents, which are washed out as described
above (needle oils are only discharged from
53 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
knitwear and sizing agents are only discharged from woven
items). Excess dyes are discharged from the dyeing process.
Excess dyes can affect the microorganisms at the sewage
plants to such a degree that they are unable to clean the
water.
EXAMPLES OF HOW THE ENVIRONMENT IS AFFECTED
BY THE AFTER TREATMENT OF FABRICS
There are many different forms of after treatment aimed at
altering some of the fibre’s properties and providing it with
new ones. For example, it can be made less flammable,
water and oil resistant, dirt-repelling, softer, superwash
(wool), antistatic, resistant to moth etc.
For after treatment of cotton the following processes are
used: crease fastness finishing also called “easy care”,
“no iron”, “wash and wear” etc. This form of finishing may
contain large amounts of formaldehyde which is on the list
of substances considered to be carcinogenic. However, it is
possible with the use of modern technology and chemicals to
reduce the contents of formaldehyde to very little, if neces-
sary even to zero.
In order to make clothing less flammable they are treated
with so-called flame-retardants. They can be based on a
number of different chemicals all of which are more or less
damaging to the environment. In synthetic fibres, especially
polyester, there are some fibres which are naturally fire-
retardant.
USE AND LAUNDRY
New clothes may contain chemical residues which can
irritate the skin. A lot of children’s wear have printed pictures
made with pigment dyes which may contain softeners such
as the phthalates which are on the Danish National Working
Environment Authority’s list of carcinogenic substances. In
some cases they may also contain glycols which can irritate
the skin.
Although the industry has endeavoured to limit the amount of
chemical residues in the finished clothes they are unfor-
tunately still found in many finished products. The Danish
Environmental Protection Agency therefore recommends that
new clothes are washed before being worn.
We tend to wash and tumble dry our clothes quite often and
that is of great relevance to the impact we cause on the envi-
ronment. A textile product only need to have been washed a
few times for more energy to have been used for this proc-
ess than for the production of the product itself.
It is important that the designers/buyers choose a type of
textile which will retain its quality even after frequent wash-
ing.
DISPOSAL OF CLOTHES MAY ALSO
AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT
When our clothes become worn and
unfashionable, we throw them away. From an
environmental perspective it seems that the
best thing to do is to recycle them, either by
giving them to the Red Cross or to sort and
reuse the clothes for e.g. production of yarn,
cotton waste, mattresses etc. However,
there may also be problems with sending
them to the Red Cross for reuse since the
clothes will eventually end up as waste some-
where in the world and it might be in a place
with no incineration facilities where the waste
will end up in landfills.
If the clothes are not reused they will end
up in the waste bin and often hauled to the
incineration plant. At worst the clothes will
end up in landfills.
Clothes containing PVC are harmful to the
environment after disposal. PVC is made
from raw oil and chlorine and during the pro-
duction of PVC vinyl chloride is discharged
which may cause cancer in human beings.
Softeners are added to the PVC. The most
common softeners are Phthalates which
are on the Danish Environmental Protection
Agency’s list of unwanted substances due to
the harmful effects on the water environment
and human beings.
The PVC often ends at the incineration
plant and when PVC is burnt, toxic smoke,
which contains hydrochloric acid, will be
discharged. The smoke will therefore have
to be cleaned but this process will create
other environmental problems. Each time two
kilograms of PVC are incinerated, another
two kilograms of environmentally hazardous
waste will be discharged which will have to
be disposed of. The Danish Environmental
Protection Agency has therefore decided
that PVC shall no longer be incinerated at
the ordinary municipal incineration plants.
Instead it will have to be taken to the waste
recycling sites as environmentally hazardous
waste.
Polyurethane and nylon (polyamide) are good
alternatives to PVC since they are less harm-
ful to the environment and humans.
PHOTOGRAPHY: MIKKEL BACHE
56 SPØRGEGUIDE 57 CHECKLIST

GUIDELINES FOR INDDRAGELSE AF MILJØHENSYN

As you can see from pages 34 to 39 and 42 to 52 the environment is affected in many differ-
ent ways during the production of textiles, right from the beginning of the manufacturing of the
fibres until the finished fabric is ready to be used. Much can be done to reduce the impact on the
environment.

On the following pages you will find guidelines which will help buyers or designers so that the
fabrics chosen for the range will have affected the environment as little as possible during the
production process.

It would be wise to start with a selected part of your production and only to focus on one or two
types of materials to begin with.
58
The guidelines have been made for the following five types of
materials:
• Cotton
• Wool
• Viscose
• Polyester
• Acrylic
There are two types of guidelines:
• “The quickies” which can help you to quickly make a good environmental choice.
• The Checklist which will give you a number of essential questions to ask
your suppliers.
“The quickies” and the Checklist can be found on the Internet at
www.guidelines.dk. You can always make a new print out whenever you need
one. You will also find a checklist for your own use, which is not completed,
so you can add your own questions.
Both types of guidelines are described in more details below.
“THE QUICKIES”
You will find “The quickies” on the first pages. This contains a few vital details
describing each type of material to quickly help you form an impression of a
specific product and to see if it meets certain essential environmental
requirements.
“The quickies” can be used as the first step towards incorporation of the
environment in your production.
“The quickies” can also be used e.g. when you come across a specific textile
at a trade fair and you want to find out whether it is environmentally friendly.
THE CHECKLIST
On the following pages below you can use the Checklist to go into further
details on the environmental issues regarding the individual types of materials.
The Checklist can be used if you have decided to incorporate the environ-
ment more systematically into your production. Since a large part of the
textile production is made abroad you may have to direct your questions at
the Danish or the international supplier at first. However, in some cases it
might be wise to take a shortcut and contact the producer directly.
You can also use the Checklist for appointments with the supplier or over the
telephone. You can also send the questions to your suppliers. Finally, you can
use the checklist at trade fairs when you want to ask the supplier how a
specific fabric has affected the environment from the production of the fabric
fibres to the presentation at the trade fair.
At the top of each checklist there is an empty box where you can write the
name of the supplier you have talked to and the names of materials/fabrics
you have discussed.
59 CHECKLIST
THE STRUCTURE OF THE CHECKLIST
The checklist contains questions about the production of the various textile
fibres and also questions about all five different types of materials.
The list is structured in this way because the production of the different
fibres affects the environment quite differently depending on whether you
produce cotton, wool, viscose, acrylic or polyester fibres. For each of the
five types of materials there will be one or more pages with questions about
the environment in relation to the production of fibres.
The environmental impact from the spinning mills, weaving mills, knitting mills
and dye-works, on the other hand, is more or less the same whether cotton,
wool, viscose, acrylic or polyester is produced. This is why the same
questions were listed for all five materials under the headings: Spinning mills,
Weaving mills, Knitting mills and Dye-works/Prints.
However, the materials differ also at these stages of the production.
Therefore a few questions specifically about one or more of the materials
have been inserted.
HOW TO USE THE CHECKLIST
When you are to assess a specific material you may choose to use all the
relevant questions or you may choose to “pick” questions at random and
thereby compose your own environmental requirements. If for example you
want to assess a cotton fabric you should proceed as follows:
• First, use the questions about cotton growing and harvesting. Either use all
the questions or select a few.
• Next, use the questions about spinning mills, weaving mills and dye-works/
print. You can for example decide only to use the general questions or only
the questions about cotton.
HOW TO ASSESS THE MATERIAL
The questions included in the checklist are inserted in tables and you must
tick one of the three fields:  Light blue  Medium blue  Dark blue
On black/white photocopies the shades will off course appear as grey.
After having completed the table add up all your ticks for each colour and
you will be able to assess whether a specific material/fabric is a good
environmental choice:
• If you have ticked most light blue  fields, the product will be a good
environmental choice.
• If you have ticked most medium  blue fields, you should ask for more
documentation before you choose this product.
• If you have ticked most dark blue  fields, the product will be a poor
environmental choice and you should find another product.
The colour is therefore important when you add them all up, and not whether
the answer is Yes, No or N/A.
 60 CHECKLIST 61 CHECKLIST

On these pages you will find some essential details that can help you to assess whether a specific textile is
good environmental choice. Under each heading the details are divided into the products you should choose
and the products you should avoid if you want to make a choice that considers the environment.

“The quickies” can be used as the first step to better understand where it is important to make a choice. In
this way you can select the questionnaires in the Checklist which you want to start using.
POLYESTER
You can also choose to use “The quickies” as the first questions to ask of the supplier about the textile you
CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE:
are interested in buying. You can either rewrite the details as questions or find them at the back in the
Checklist. • the wastewater discharged from all polyester fibre • catalytic agents containing cobalt or manganese
production stages is cleaned before discharge are used for the production of the polyester fibre

COTTON • the air emitted from all polyester fibre production • the catalytic agent antimontrioxide is used for the
stages is cleaned before discharge production of the polyester fibre.
CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE:
• the chemicals used for the production of polyester
• the cotton is 100% organically grown according to • defoliants are used before the cotton is picked fibres are collected and recycled if possible
organic principles
• solvents are used in the prewashing of the fabric
• the cotton is grown without using pesticides. (prior to dyeing)

ACRYLIC

CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE:

WOOL

CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE: • the wastewater discharged from all acrylic fibre • vinyl acetate (VA) is used for the production of
production stages is cleaned before discharge acrylic fibres
• the sheep are 100% organically bred according to • pesticides are used to control external parasites in
organic principles the sheep • the air emitted from all acrylic fibre production stages • acrylicamide (AA) is used for the production of
is cleaned before discharge acrylic fibres
• solvents are used in washing of the raw wool
• the chemicals used for the production of acrylic fibres • N,N-dimethyl-formamid is used as a solvent for
• PER (perchloroethylene) is used as a cleaner for are collected and recycled if possible the production of acrylic fibres
washing the raw wool

• solvents are used in the prewashing of the fabric

(prior to dyeing)
ALL TYPES OF FIBRE

CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE:

VISCOSE
CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE:
• the wood used is grown according to sustainability
principles
• the wastewater from the production of viscose fibres
undergoes biological purification before discharge
• the air emitted from all viscose fibre production stages
is cleaned before discharge
AVOID FABRICS WHERE:
• chlorine-containing bleachers are used for the
production of viscose fibres
• zinc sulphate is used for the production of viscose
fibres
• catalytic agents containing cobalt or manganese are
used for the production of viscose fibres
• spinning oils are used which easily break down
• the size used for weaving is collected and recycled
• dyes of high fixation rates are used (high dyeability)
• the wastewater from the dye works is cleaned
biologically before it is discharged
• a printing process based on water is used instead of
a process based on solvents
• preservatives (e.g. PCP) that are harmful to the
environment and human health are used for the sizing
agent for weaving
• dyes and pigments that may cause allergy or that are
carcinogenic are used
• heavy metal containing dyes are used
• after treatment agents containing formaldehyde are
used for the dyeing process.
 62 CHECKLIST 63 CHECKLIST

COTTON FIBRE – GROWING AND HARVESTING (cont.) SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS

YES N/A NO
The production of cotton fibres involves growing, harvesting and ginning during which process the cotton
9. Has the cotton been hand picked although defoliants have been used?
fibres are separated from the residual parts of the plant. The production of cotton takes place abroad. Your
questions and requirements should therefore be directed at the distributor from whom your business buys 10. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on how the cotton is grown and harvested?
the spun cotton or the finished cotton fabrics. The word »supplier« in the table shall be referred to as the
supplier of the product you want to buy. COTTON FIBRE – GINNING

11. Are the processes/machinery emitting particularly large amounts of dust sealed during
the ginning of the fibres?
SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL 12. Is the waste from ginning separated into fibre, plant parts and dust so the useable parts can
be recycled?
Name of business:
Contact: 13. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on how the cotton is ginned?

Phone: NOTE: * Read more about eco-labels on page 78

Address:
E-mail:
Website: WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING PESTICIDES* HAVE BEEN USED? (See question 4)

SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS

YES N/A NO YES N/A NO

COTTON FIBRE – GROWING AND HARVESTING SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS INSECTICIDES: (INSECTICIDES cont.:)
YES N/A NO • Aldrin • Permethrine
1. Is the cotton fabric made from organically grown cotton awarded any of the following eco-labels? * • Chlorinated camphene (toxaphen) • Pirimicarb
• The international label Certified Organic (OCIA) • Captafol • Malathion

TICK ONLY ONE FIELD

• The Dutch eco-label SKAL – EKO • Chlordane • Methyl Parathione
• The international eco-label Demeter • DDT • Parathione
• Other eco-lables? • Dieldrin
HERBICIDES:
2. Is the cotton fabric awarded any of the following eco-labels? * • Endrin
• Atrazin
• The EU Flower • Heptachlor, incl. heptachlorepoxide
TICK ONLY ONE FIELD
• Fluazifop butyl
• The Nordic Swan label • Carbaryl (Sevin)
• Simazin
• The Swedish label ”Bra Miljöval” (Good Environmental Choice) • Cyflurthrine
• Trifluraline
Other eco-lables? • Diazinone
3. Have pesticides been used for growing the cotton? • Dichlorvos FUNGICIDES AND PESTICIDES:
4. Have one or more pesticides listed in the table on page 3 been used? (This question is optional) • Dicofole • Hexachlorbenzene (HCB)
5. Have fertilisers been used for the growing of the cotton? • Endosulfane • Pentachlorbenzene (PCP)
6. Has irrigation been used for the growing of the cotton? • Fenvalerate • Captan
7. Have defoliants been used prior to the harvesting? • Lambda-cyhalotrine • Quintozen
8. Have one or more of the following defoliants been used? • Methoxychlore • Metyhyl bromide
• 2,4, 5-T
• Arsenic and its mineral salts

• 2-4-D
NOTE:
*All the above listed pesticides have been banned or subjected to rigorous restrictions in the EU and/or Scandinavia.
 64 CHECKLIST 65 CHECKLIST

WOOL SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS

YES N/A NO
The production of wool fibres involves breeding of sheep, cutting and washing the raw wool which may be
BREEDING AND TRIMMING
carried out either with the help of water or solvents. Sometimes the wool may also go through a so-called
carbonisation process. Most of the wool used in Denmark is produced overseas. Your questions and 1. Is the fabric made from organically grown wool awarded any of the following eco-labels *?2

TICK ONLY ONE FIELD

requirements should therefore be put to the distributor from whom your business buys the spun wool or the • The Swedish eco-label KRAV
finished wool fabrics. The word »supplier« in the table shall be referred to as the supplier of the product you
• The Dutch eco-label SKAL – EKO
want to buy.
• Other eco-lables?

SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL 2. Is the wool fabric awarded any of the following eco-labels *?

TICK ONLY ONE FIELD

Name of business: • The EU Flower
Contact:
• The Nordic Swan label
Phone:
• The Swedish label ”Bra Miljöval” (Good Environmental Choice)
Address:
• Other eco-lables?
E-mail:
3. Have pesticides been used to control parasites in the sheep?
Website:
4. Have one or more of the listed pesticides on page 3 been used to control parasites? (This question is optional)
5. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on how the sheep are bred and trimmed?

USE OF WATER IN THE WASHING OF THE RAW WOOL

6. Is the wastewater cleaned biologically before it is discharged?

7. Is the wastewater cleaned for residuals of pesticides? (Question should only be asked if pesticides are used)
8. Is the grease from the wool removed from the wastewater?

ASK ABOUT THE USE OF WATER OR SOLVENTS IN THE WASHING OF THE WOOL
9. Is the removed grease from the wool refined into lanolin and sold for the production of
other products (e.g. beauty products)?
10. Is the washing detergent APEO used?

11. Is the washing detergent LAS used?

12. Is the complexing agent NTA used?

13. Is the complexing agent EDTA used?

14. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the use of water in the washing of the wool?

THE USE OF SOLVENTS IN THE WASHING OF THE RAW WOOL

15. Are all the solvents used in the washing collected and recycled?
16. Is the air emitted from the washing cleaned before discharge?
17. Are the different types of waste (e.g. grease from the wool and residues from pesticides) collected
separately and recycled?

18. Are the factory workers protected against dusty processes and fumes from the solvents?
19. Is PER (perchloroethylene) used as a cleaner?
20. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the use of solvents in the washing of the wool?

CARBONISATION

21. Is the wastewater neutralised before discharge?

22. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the carbonisation process?

(Footnotes) * For more details about eco-labels see page 78

 66 CHECKLIST 67 CHECKLIST

The production of viscose is based on wood. The production of viscose fibres involves manufacturing of the
WOOL – USE OF PESTICIDES* SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS wood i.e. the viscose mass is extracted and the viscose fibres they go through a spinning and after
YES N/A NO treatment process. The questions in the table do not distinguish between the different processes of the
production.
WHICH PESTICIDES HAVE BEEN USED (See question 4)

• Aldrin The production of viscose takes place overseas. Your questions and requirements should therefore be put to
• Arsenic and its mineral salts the distributor from whom your business buys the spun viscose or the finished viscose fabrics. The word
“supplier” in the table shall be referred to as the supplier of the product you want to buy.
• Carbophenotion

• Chlorfenvinphos
SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL
• Chlorpyrifos
Name of business:
• Coumaphos
Contact:
• Cyhalothrine
Phone:
• Cypermethrine Address:
• DDT E-mail:

• DDD Website:

• DDE

• Deltametrin
• Dieldrin VISCOSE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS
• Diazinone YES N/A NO
• Dichlorfenthion 1. Is the wood grown according to sustainability principles?
• Endrin 2. Is the wastewater cleaned at biological water purification plants before discharge (river, lake, sea)?
• Fenchlorphos 3. Is the wastewater cleaned from carbon disulphide, hydrogen sulphide and AOX?
• Fenvalerate 4. Is the air emitted from all production stages purified before discharge?
• Heptachlore, (incl. heptachlorepoxide) 5. Is the air emitted from the manufacturing process purified especially from carbon disulphide and
hydrogen sulphide?
• Hexachlorocyclohexane (incl. all isomers and lindane)
6. Are the chemicals used for the production recycled?
• Malathion
7. Are catalytic agents containing cobalt or manganese used?
• Methoxychlore
8. Are chlorine-containing bleachers used?
• Parathione
9. Are chlorine-containing bleachers used for the production?
• Propetamphos
10. Are spinning oils used which do not easily break down?

11. Are products used for the after treatment of the textiles which can affect the environment?
12. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the production of viscose?

(Footnotes) * *All the above listed pesticides have been banned or subjected to rigorous restrictions in the EU and/or in Scandinavia.
 68 CHECKLIST 69 CHECKLIST

The production of polyester is based on refined crude oil. The production of polyester fibres involves the The production of acrylics is based on refined crude oil. The production of acrylic fibres involves the
development of various chemical intermediate products and synthesis of the polyester fibres when the development of various chemical intermediate products and synthesis of the acrylic fibres when the acrylic
polyester mass is extracted. At the end of the process the polyester fibres are spun and given after mass is extracted. At the end of the process the acrylic fibres are spun and given after treatment. The
treatment. The questions in the table do not distinguish between the different processes of the production. questions in the table do not distinguish between the different processes of the production.

The production of polyester takes place overseas. Your questions and requirements should therefore be put The production of acrylics takes place overseas. Your questions and requirements should therefore be put to
to the distributor from whom your business buys the spun polyester or the finished polyester fabrics. The the distributor from whom your business buys the spun acrylics or the finished acrylic fabrics. The word
word “supplier” in the table shall be referred to as the supplier of the product you want to buy. “supplier” in the table shall be referred to as the supplier of the product you want to buy.

SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL

Name of business: Name of business:

Contact: Contact:

Phone: Phone:

Address: Address:

E-mail: E-mail:

Website: Website:

POLYESTER (PET) SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS ACRYLIC SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS

YES N/A NO YES N/A NO

1. Is the air emitted from all production stages purified before discharge?
2. Is the air emitted especially purified from acetaldehyde and 1.4-di-oxane?
3. Is the wastewater from all production stages cleaned before discharge?
4. Is the wastewater specially cleaned from acetaldehyde and 1,4-di-oxane?
5. Is the wastewater from the spinning and the after treatment process biologically cleaned before discharge?
6. Are the chemicals used for the production collected and recycled?
7. Are catalytic agents containing cobalt or manganese used?
8. Is the catalytic agent antimontrioxide used for the production?
9. Are catalytic agents that affect the environment used for the production?
10. Are spinning oils used which do not easily break down?
11. Are products used for the after treatment of the textiles which can affect the environment?
12. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the production of polyester?
1. Is the air emitted from all production stages purified before discharge?
2. Is the wastewater from all production stages cleaned before discharge?
3. Are the chemicals used for the production collected and recycled?
4. Is vinyl acetate (VA) used for the production of the product?
5. Is acrylamide (AA) used for the production of the product?
6. Is N, N-dimethylformamide used as a solvent for the production of the product?
7. Are catalytic agents that affect the environment used for the production?
8. Are spinning oils used which do not easily break down?
9. Are products used for the after treatment of the textiles during the spinning process which can
affect the environment?
10. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the production of polyester?
 70 CHECKLIST 71 CHECKLIST

The crude fibres are spun into crude yarn at the spinning mill. There are eight or nine spinning mills in The most significant environmental effects from the weaving process more or less apply to all five types of
Denmark. A considerable amount of the crude yarn is spun overseas. The table starts with questions about fibre. The questions asked in the table therefore apply to textiles made of all the above types of fibre.
all five types of fibres and then follows questions about the individual types of fibres.

SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL

Name of business: Name of business:
Contact: Contact:

Phone: Phone:
Address: Address:
E-mail: E-mail:
Website: Website:

SPINNING SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS WEAVING – ALL TYPES OF FIBRE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS

YES N/A NO YES N/A NO

ALL TYPES OF FIBRE 1. Is the used size collected and recycled?

1. Are the machines that emit large amounts of dust sealed in order that the fibre dust emitted can 2. Is the waste from fibres, textiles and packaging materials collected and separated into categories
be collected? according to type and then recycled?

2. Are only spinning oils used that do easily break down? 3. Are the factory workers protected from the considerable noise level?

3. Is the fibre and yarn waste collected and separated so it can be recycled? 4. Are preservatives used for the size agents which are harmful to the environment and human health,
e.g. PCP?
4. Are the factory workers protected from the considerable noise level?
5. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the conditions laid down for the woven fabric?
5. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the conditions laid down for the spinning
of the yarn?

COTTON
6. Are any precautions taken to protect the workers from being exposed to the dangerous mixture of
cotton dust and endotoxines?

POLYESTER
7. Is the air emitted from the texturisation process cleaned before discharge?

8. Are texturisation oils used which do not easily break down?

 72 CHECKLIST 73 CHECKLIST

The most significant environmental effects from the knitting process more or less apply to all five types of At the dye-works the fabric will go through the following processes: desizing, prewashing, prebleaching,
fibre. The questions asked in the table therefore apply to textiles made of all the above types of fibre. dying and after treatment. The table starts with questions about all five types of fibre and then follows
questions about the individual types of fibre.

SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL

Name of business: Name of business:
Contact: Contact:
Phone: Phone:
Address: Address:
E-mail: E-mail:
Website: Website:

KNITTING – ALL TYPES OF FIBRE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS DYEING – ALL TYPES OF FIBRE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS

YES N/A NO YES N/A NO

1. Are only needle oils that do easily break down used? 1. Is the wastewater cleaned biologically before discharge?

2. Is the waste from yarns, fabrics and packaging materials collected and separated into categories
according to type and then recycled?
3. Are the factory workers protected from the considerable noise level?
4. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the conditions laid down for the knitting
of the products?
2. Is the desizing of the sizing agents based on size made from enzymes?
3. If enzymes are used for the desizing, is the wastewater cleaned by membrane filtration?
4. If membrane filtration is used for the cleaning of the wastewater, are the cleaned products then recycled?
5. Are synthetic size agents recycled and concentrated by membrane filtration?
6. Are dyes of high fixation rates mainly used (high dyeability)?
7. Is prewashing combined with bleaching?

8. Are after treatment agents containing formaldehyde used for the process?
9. Are heavy metal containing dyes used?
10. Are dyes used which are toxic or which may cause cancer or allergy?

11. Are the detergents APEO or LAS used for the pre-treatment, dyeing or after treatment processes?

12. Are the complexing agents NTA or EDTA used for the pre-treatment, dyeing or after treatment processes?

13. Are the softeners DTDMAC, DSDMAC or DHTDMAC used as softeners after dyeing?
14. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the dyeing of the products?
 74 CHECKLIST 75 CHECKLIST

»Printing« involves printing and after treatment processes. The table starts with questions about all five types
FARVERI (FORTSAT) SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS of fibre and then follows questions about the individual types of fibre.
YES N/A NO

COTTON

1. Is the water discharged from the pre-washing/bleaching recycled by membrane filtration?

2. Are the most concentrated alkali baths from mercerisation recycled? SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL
Name of business:
3. Is the energy, salt and water used for the dye bath from reactive dyeing recycled by coal absorption?
Contact:
4. Is the energy and water used for flushing after reactive dyeing recycled by membrane filtration?
Phone:
5. Is equilibrium rinsing used as an alternative to overflow rinsing after reactive dyeing?
Address:
6. Are mainly low-salt dyes used for the reactive dying process? E-mail:
7. Is hydrogen peroxide used for bleaching as an alternative to chlorine? Website:

8. Are detergents used for flushing after reactive dyeing?

9. Is pre-washing based on solvents?

10. Are chrome and copper salts used for the direct dyeing process? PRINTING – ALL TYPES OF FIBRE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS

11. Are dichromates used for the vat dyeing? YES N/A NO

1. Is the wastewater cleaned biologically or chemically before discharge?

WOOL
2. Are dyes with a high rate of fixation mainly used (high dyeability)?
12. Is the pre-washing process based on solvents?
3. Is the printing process mainly based on water instead of a process based on solvents?
13. Is after chromation used for the dyeing?
4. Is the excess printing paste recycled if possible?
VISCOSE 5. Is the cleanest water from the cleaning of the templates, doctor blades etc. recycled for the first
temporary rinse of the cleaning process?
14. Is hydrogen peroxide used for the bleaching as an alternative to chlorine?
6. Are products used for the after treatment which contain or emit only small amounts of free
15. Are chrome and copper salts used for direct dyeing? formaldehyde or none?
16. Are dichromates used for the vat dyeing? 7. Are heavy metal containing dyes used?

8. Are dyes and pigments used which are toxic or which may cause cancer or allergy?
POLYESTER
9. Are dyes and pigments used which can separate out carcinogenic arylamines?
17. Are high-temperature processes used for the dyeing of polyester?
10. Are the detergents APEO or LAS used for the washing or other after treatment processes?
18. Are chlorinated carriers used for low-temperature dyeing of the polyester?
11. Are the complexing agents NTA or EDTA used for the washing or after treatment processes?

12. Are the softeners DTDMAC, DSDMAC or DHTDMAC used as softeners after printing?

13. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the printing of the products?

WOOL

14. Are agents containing chlorine used for the anti-felting after treatment?

POLYESTER

15. Is the air emitted from high-temperature hardening purified before discharge?

ACRYLIC

16. Is the air emitted from high-temperature hardening purified before discharge?
PHOTOGRAPHY: CHRISTIAN RUD ANDERSEN
 78 ECO-LABELLING
It can be difficult to figure out what the various eco-labels, both European and international ones, that textiles
are labelled with today involve. The aim of this section is to make a brief description of the most prevalent
environmental labels and/or eco-labels which also apply for textiles.
THE EU FLOWER
The main function of the EU
Flower is to stimulate both the
supply and demand of products
with a reduced environmental
impact compared to conventional products.
The objective is to provide simple and
reliable information for the consumer that the
product is among the group of products with
a reduced environmental impact. All
producers and importers who market their
products throughout the member states of
the European Union and in Norway, Iceland
and Liechtenstein may use the Scheme. The
aim of the criteria for receiving the eco-label
is defined so that 5 to 30% of the products
marketed will be able to meet the criteria.
The specific criteria are defined according to
the stages in the life cycle of the products
taken into consideration the most essential
environmental problems. Based on the above
in the case of textiles the focus is put on a
reduction of wastewater pollution during the
various links in the chain of production. There
are also requirements for emissions into the
air, toxicology and the properties of the
product when put into use. There are no
requirements that the production of the fibres
should be organic. New criteria are laid down
every third year which requires that new
applications be submitted proving that the
product meet the new criteria. A fee will be
charged when the new application is
submitted. A fee will also be charged for the
use of the label. The fee is set according to
the turnover.
THE NORDIC
SWAN LABEL
The scheme was established in
1989 by the Nordic Council of
Ministers, and both Nordic and non-Nordic
organisations may apply for the Nordic Swan
Label. The aim of the scheme is to stimulate
more environmentally friendly consumption
by guiding the consumers in their purchases
and to stimulate the development, marketing
and use of products with less environmental
impact than other similar products. The
criteria may involve all stages throughout the
life cycle and the aim of the criteria stipu-
lated is that they are met by not more than
one-third of the products marketed in
Scandinavia. Specific criteria are set for
textiles throughout all the production stages
including the end product. No criteria are
set that the fibres shall be organic but if
organic fibres are used the criteria for wet
treatment are easier to meet. An application
fee and a fee based on turnover will be
charged when using the Nordic Swan label.
79 ECO-LABELLING
The EKO-label
The EKO-label is the official
quality label in the Netherlands
awarded for organic produc-
tion. The aim of the label is to
meet the consumers’ demand for products
that are produced according to the principle
of sustainability. Farming, animal breeding
and forestry and also manufacturers of food
products, textiles, trade associations and
importers are involved in this scheme. The
scheme applies for textiles made of natural
fibres. The fibres must be produced in
accordance with the EU standards for
organic production. The products shall also
meet a specific standard for sustainable
textile production, which is a supplement to
the EU regulations as it includes all the
production processes from weaving to after
treatment. The criteria also include the
company’s internal environmental conditions
including also an environmental management
system, wastewater discharge, and the EKO-
label is the only eco-label which also includes
criteria for working conditions.
ENVIRONMENTAL
CHOICE
Environmental Choice is a
Canadian eco-label which is
awarded to both products and services. The
purpose of the Environmental Choice
programme is to encourage a more
environmentally friendly development and to
help consumers gain more knowledge about
the environment and to give consumers a
basis for identifying the most environmentally
friendly products. When prioritising product
groups, focus is put on avoiding major long-
term environmental impact. The criteria are
based on a life-cycle assessment although
the criteria are often limited to one stage.
The aim is to award the label to no more than
20% of the marketed products. The label
involves exclusively organic cotton textiles.
Apart from the organic growing standards
and certification of the cotton, the product
must be made from 100% organic cotton. In
addition, it must not contain dyes and only
additives which are on a positive list may be
used for the production.
 80 ECO-LABELLING 81 ECO-LABELLING

OEKO-TEX 100 DEMETER THE BLUE ORGANIC CROP

Oeko-Tex differs from other
labels since it involves only
standards for the ready to sell product. The
standards are stipulated as maximum
concentrations of specific chemical agents
and physical/chemical parameters. The
permissible values depend on whether the
products are in direct contact with the skin.
Standards for products for babies are
especially rigorous. It is an international
programme but the label is primarily
renowned throughout Europe. A new
standard was developed in 1995 that
involved production but so far only a few
companies have been accredited this
certification.
The purpose of the Demeter
programme is to encourage,
support and improve biodynamic
methods throughout the
cultivation, production and manufacturing
primarily of foods. Demeter has established
a label for organic wool fibres. In general the
standards for biodynamic farming resemble
the standards set for organic cultivation.
However, there are certain areas where the
standards are higher for biodynamic
produce. For example, the Demeter
programme requires that the farms shall be
self-sufficient in nutrients and that 80% of the
animal feed shall derive from the farm.
ANGLE LABEL
The Blue Angle is the official
German eco-label, which
gives guidance to consumers
on buying products which pollute less than
other comparable products. There are no
requirements that products should be made
from organic materials to receive the label.
On the other hand, the focus is on other
aspects for example that the product can be
reused or is made from recycled materials
and that it does not contain polluting agents
or that it contains as few polluting agents as
possible.
IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATION
(OCIA)
OCIA was established in 1984 by organic
farmers to stimulate and improve organic
farming. The association operates worldwide
and certifies its members by awarding the
label “certified organic”. The label gives the
consumer a guarantee that the product is
organically grown. The certification applies to
all the production stages and is adjusted at
regular intervals e.g. to meet new knowl-
edge. OCIA is IFOAM certified.

BRA MILJÖVAL KRAV The International

(Good Environ-
mental Choice)
The Good Environmental Choice
label was developed in cooperation between
the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
(Naturskyddsförening) and Swedish retailers
to help environmentally conscious Swedish
consumers. The programme means that the
Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
(Naturskyddsföreningen) lends its name to
approved products’ environmental proper-
ties. It means in practice that the programme
excludes agents, which the Swedish Society
for Nature Conservation finds unwanted, e.g.
laundry softeners for textiles. A general
requirement is that the contents of the
products must be easily degradable. The
requirements are divided into three catego-
ries covering fibres, manufacture and end
product. The standards for the fibres are
optional whereas the standards for the
manufacturing and the end product must
always be met. The aim is that 10-15% of the
marketed products shall be qualified for the
label.
The purpose of the KRAV-
label is to establish a reliable
labelling of organic products
and thereby making it simpler for the
consumers to improve their environmental
performance in their daily shopping. The
KRAV programme is Swedish and differs
from other eco-labels as both companies and
products can be certified. The criteria involve
the production stage and also manufacturing.
Requirements are also made to storage and
distribution. The KRAV-label is divided into
two levels: A-products comprising 95% KRAV-
certified raw materials which may use the
label “Organic” and B-products comprising
75-95% KRAV-certified raw materials. The B-
products may not use the label “organic”.
Federation of Organic
Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
IFOAM differs from the above-mentioned programmes
by not being an eco-label.
On the other hand, IFOAM is an NGO operating
worldwide and by sharing knowledge between the
members, the federation has gained considerable knowl-
edge about organic farming, including also organic
cotton growing. The purpose is among other things to
inform the general public about organic farming and to
establish an international guarantee for the quality of
organic produce. IFOAM has issued detailed standards
both for the growing, manufacturing, packaging and
storing of organic produce to ensure the quality and
other certification programmes are accredited and
evaluated from these standards.
 82 LIST OF ADDRESSES 83 LIST OF ADDRESSES

FOR INFORMATION ABOUT The Danish Plant Directorate INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS: Good Environmental Choice
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS: (PLANTEDIREKTORATET) (BRA MILJÖVAL)
Skovbrynet 20 The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
DK - 2800 Lyngby DANISH OFFICES: (Svenska Naturskyddsföreningen)
The Sustainable Solution T: (+45) 45 26 36 00 Norre Állegaten 5
Design Association F: (+45) 45 26 36 10 The International Federation of Organic Box 7005
(FORENINGEN TIL FREMME AF www.plantedirektoratet.dk Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) Se - 402 31 Göteborg.
BÆREDYGTIGT DESIGN) DANSK IFOAM T: (+46) 31 711 64 50
www.guidelines.dk The Danish Technological Institute, Clothing Secretary: Mrs Mette Meldgaard F: (+46) 31 711 64 30
and Textile (Oeko-Tex 100/1000; LCA) Organic Denmark E: gbg@snf.se
Green Info (TEKNOLOGISK INSTITUT, BEKLÆDNING OG (Økologisk Landsforening) www.snf.se
(GRØN INFORMATION) TEKSTIL (ØKO-TEX 100/1000; LCA))
Contact: Mr John Hansen Frederiksgade 72
Nørregade 36, 2. sal DK - 8000 Århus C. CCOF, CALIFORNIA CERTIFIED
DK - 1165 København K Gregersensvej ORGANIC FARMERS
Postboks 141 T: (+45) 87 32 27 07 115 Mission Street
T: (+45) 33 13 66 88 F: (+45) 87 32 27 10
F: (+45) 33 13 66 87 DK - 2630 Taastrup Santa Cruz, California 95060
T: (+45) 72 20 21 20 E: mm@okologiens-hus.dk T: (+001) 408 423 2263
E: greeninfo@greeninfo.dk
www.greeninfo.dk F: (+45) 72 20 21 40 F: )+001) 408 423 4528
E: tekstile@teknologisk.dk DEMETER-FORBUNDET
www.teknologisk.dk Birkum Bygade 20 CLEAN CLOTHES KAMPAGNE
The Danish Agricultural Advisory Centre DK - 5220 Odense SØ
Section for Ecology c/o Südwind Agentur
The TEKO Centre in Denmark T: (+45) 65 97 30 50 Laudongasse 40
(LANDBRUGETS RÅDGIVNINGSCENTER F: (+45) 65 97 32 50
SEKTION FOR ØKOLOGI) (TEKO CENTER DANMARK) A-1080 Vienna
Udkærsvej 15 Centre for Environmentally friendly textiles www.demeter.net Austria
DK - 8200 Århus N. Birk Centerpark 5 T: (+43) 1 405 5515 306
T: (+45) 87 40 50 00 Birk The Danish Save the Children Organisation F: (+43) 1 405 55 19
F: (+45) 87 40 50 10 DK - 7400 Herning (RED BARNET) E: cck@oneworld.at, stefan.kerl@oneworld.at
E: info@okologi-kongres.dk T: (+45) 97 12 70 22 Rantzausgade 60 www.oneworld.at/cleanclothes.html
F: (+45) 97 12 32 56 DK - 2200 København N
The Office for Eco-labelling E: teko@teko.dk T: (+45) 35 36 55 55 ECO BALANCE SUSTAINABLE
The EU Flower and The Nordic Swan Label www.teko.dk F: (+45) 35 39 11 19 DESIGN CONSULTANCY PTY LTD
(MILJØMÆRKESEKRETARIATET E: redbarnet@redbarnet.dk Kirsty Máté, Managing Director
BLOMSTEN OG SVANEN) PO Box 93
Gladsaxe Møllevej 15 The Danish Ministry of Food, Croydon Park
DK - 2860 Søborg Agriculture and Fisheries INTERNATIONAL OFFICES: NSW 2133
T: (+45) 39 69 35 36 The Danish Veterinary and Food Administration Australia
F: (+45) 39 69 21 22 (VETERINÆRDIREKTORATET) BIOLOGICAL FARMERS OF AUSTRALIA T: (+61) 2 9554 6655
E: info@ecolabel.dk Mørkhøj Bygade 19 PO Box 3404 Toowoomba Village Fair F: (+61) 2 9554 6688
www.ecolabel.dk DK – 2860 Søborg Level 1, 456 Ruthven St. E: kirsty@ecobalance.com.au
T: (+45) 33 95 60 00 TOOWOOMBA QLD 4350
MILJØBUTIKKEN Australia INSTITUT FÜR MARKTÖKOLOGI
Læderstræde 1-3 T: +61 (0)7 4639 3299 West Strasse 51
DK - 1201 København K F: +61 (0)7 4639 3755 8570 Weinfelden
T : (+45) 33 95 40 00 E: bfa@icr.com.au Switzerland
E: butik@mem.dk www.bfa.com.au T: +41 (0) 71 626 0 626
F: +41 (0) 71 626 0 623
www.IMO.ch
 84 LIST OF ADDRESSES 85 LIST OF ADDRESSES

INTERNATIONALER VERBAND DER

NATURTEXTILWIRTSCHAFT
PESTIDE ACTION NETWORK UK TRADE FAIRS: PATAGONIA, INC.
Eurolink Centre Jill Vlahos
Haussmann 1 49 Effra Road Fabric Development
70188 Stuttgart BIOFACH
London SW2 1BZ öko Welt Veranstaltungs GmbH 259 W. Santa Clara
T: (+49) 0711 232752 UK Ventura, CA 93001
F: (+49) 0711232755 Industriestrasse 12
T: (+44) 20 7274 8895 D-91186 Büchenbach, T: (+001) 888 344 4567 or (+001) 805 667
E: info@naturtextil.com F: (+44) 20 7274 9084 4640
www.naturtextil.com T: (+49) 9171 - 9610 -0
E: admin@pan-uk.org F: (+49) 9171 - 4016 F: (+001) 805 653 6355
www.pan-uk.org E: info@biofach.de E: jill_vlahos@patagonia.com
KRAV
Box 1940 www.oekowelt.de
SKAL www.biofach.de LYNDA GROSE
751 49 Uppsala P.O. Box 161 E: lyndagr@aol.com
Sweden 8000 AD Zwolle
T: +46 (0) 18 10 02 90 ÖKOTEX MESSE
The Netherlands Wiesbaden-Wallau SUSTAINABLE COTTON PROJECT
F: +46 (0) 18 10 03 66 T: +31 (0) 38 426 01 00 Allen Will
E: info@krav.se Wirtschaftgemeinschaft der Hessen
F: +31 (0) 38 423 70 40 Attn. Frau Heike Scheuer Director
www.krav.se E: info@skalint.com 6176 Old Olive Hwy
Stresemannallee 35-37
www.skalint.com 60596 Frankfurt am Main Oroville Ca 95966
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SUSTAINABLE T: (+001) 530 589 2686
AGRICULTURE AUSTRALIA (NASAA) T: (+49) 69 - 6 30 09 10
PO.Box 768 SCIENTIFIC CERTIFICATION SYSTEMS (SCS) F: (+49) 69 - 6 30 092299 F: (+001) 503 589 2688
Stirling, SA 5152 Lifecycle or cradle to grave study of a product E: info@sustainablecotton.org
Australia and its packaging. INTERCOT
T: +61 (0)8 8370 8455 The Ordway Building International Conference on Organic Textiles WELMAN, INC (Recycling of plastic bottles)
F: +61 (0)8 8370 8381 One Kaiser Plaza www.intercot.org 1133 Avenue of Americas
E: enquiries@nasaa.com.au Ste 901 New York 10036
www.nasaa.com.au Oakland, CA 94612 USA
T: (+001) 510 832 1415 BUSINESSES/DESIGNERS: T: (+001) 212 642 0740
NATURAL COTTON COLOURS, INC.
P.O. Box 69 TEN MARKS AND SPENCER
Guinda, California 95637 Textile Environment Network Press Office DESIGN AWARDS:
T: (+001) 530 796 3007 c/o National Centre for Business & Sustainability Soujourner
F: (+001) 530 796 3836 Giant’s Basin E: soujourner.jones@marks-and-spencer.com ECOLOGICAL DESIGN ASSOCIATION
E: sally@vreseis.com Potato Wharf Deborah Sharpe c/o Designers for sustainability
Castlefield Technical Spec for cotton research group
NATURLAND-VERBAND Manchester M3 4NB Michael House, Baker Street Kingston University
Kleinhaderner Weg 1 T: (+44) 0161 834 8842 London, UK Knight Park
D - 82166 Gräfeling F: (+44) 0161 819 1102 T: (+44) 171-268-6587 Kingston Upon Thames
Germany Chat: ten@jiscmail.ac.uk F: (+44) 171-5268-2355 Surrey KT1 2QJ, UK
T: (+49) 89 898 08 20 E: thencbs@thencbs.co.uk E: deborah.sharpe@marks-and-spencer.com
F: (+49) 89 8980 82 90 www.ncbe.co.uk INTERNATIONAL DESIGN ECO AWARD IDEA
E: naturland@naturland.de NIKE, INC Joy McKenzie, Awards Director
www.naturland.de THE ORGANIC TRADE ASSOCIATION (OTA) Heidi Holt c/o Windsor Fellowship
PO Box 547 Global Environmental Director 47 Hackney Rd, London E2 7NX
Organic Crop Improvement Association Greenfield, MA 01301 1 Bowesman Drive T: (+44) 171 613 0373
OCIA, INTERNATIONAL T: (+001) 413 774 7511 Beaverton OR 97005 E: ideawindsor-fellow.demond.co.uk
1001 Y Street, Suite B F: (+001) 413 774 6432 T: (+001) 503-671-6414 www.blacknet.co.uk/idea
Lincoln, NE 68508-1172 E: ofc@igc.org F: (+001) 503-671-2536
USA www.ota.com E: heidi.holt@nike.com
T: (+001) 402 477 2323 www.nikebiz.com/labor/index.shtml
F: (+001) 402 477 4325 www.oregonlive.com/news/index.ssf?/news/
E: info@ocia.org oregonian/00/08/lc 21n
www.ocia.org
86 MY OWN NOTES 87 MY OWN NOTES
88 MY OWN NOTES 89 MY OWN NOTES
90 MY OWN NOTES 91 MY OWN NOTES
92 MY OWN NOTES 93 MY OWN NOTES
 94 ORDLISTE
ABSORPTION
Adhesion of gasses and liquids to
the surface of solids.
ACETALDEHYDE
- or ethanal. May be used in the
manufacture of polyester.
ACRYLAMIDE
- or propenamide. May be used in
the manufacture of acrylics.
ALKALI BATH
Bath with a high pH; used in many
places for wet treatment of
textiles.
ANTIMONOTRIOXIDE
Can be used as a flame retardant.
AOX
- or adsorbable organic
halogens. Especially used as a
measure of wastewater contents
of chlorine-containing substances,
e.g. in connection with bleaching.
APEO
- or alkyl phenol ethoxylates.
Group of detergents that are
broken down into substances toxic
to fish.
ARSENIC
Toxic compound. Salts derived
from arsenic compounds can
among other things be used as
defoliants.
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand or
biological oxygen utilisation.
Measure of the contamination level
of wastewater.
CARBONISATION
Chemical acid treatment of raw
wool to remove vegetable matter.
CARBON SULPHIDE
Carbon sulphide is used to
produce viscose.
CARRIERS
Carriers are substances used for
the dyeing processes of polyester.
Some carriers are chlorinated.
CATALYST
Substance changing/increasing a
reaction but itself remaining
unchanged.
CHROMATION
End-treatment used for chrome
mordant dyeing. Sodium dicro-
mates or potassium dicromates
are generally used for this
process.
COBALT
The salts of the heavy metal
cobalt may appear in textile dyes.
Some metal complex dyes also
contain cobalt.
COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand or
chemical oxygen utilisation.
Measure of the contamination level
of wastewater.
COMPLEXING AGENTS
Agents which can anchor metal
salt e.g. in crude water or which
are discharged from the raw
cotton when it is washed.
DEFOLIANTS
Defoliants are applied to cotton
before harvest causing the leaves
of the plant to abscise or fall off.
DESIZING
Removal of size from woven crude
yarns prior to dyeing or after-
treatment.
DETERGENTS
Detergents which have the ability
to release the dirt from the
surface and to resist the dyestuff
solution.
DICROMATE
(See Chromation)
DIOXANES
Group of cyclic organic oxygen
compounds. Some of them may
be used for the production of
polyester.
EDTA
- or ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid. EDTA is used as a complex-
ing agent in wet treatment of
textiles.
ENDOTOXINES
Toxic by-products from dead
bacteria.
95 ORDLISTE
EQUILIBRIUM RINSE
Rinsing procedure conducted to
establish balance between
impurities in the fabric and the
rinsing liquid used.
FORMALDEHYDE
Formaldehyde may be emitted
from certain product used for the
after treatment of textiles,
especially certain crease-resistant
finishing products. Formaldehyde
can cause allergy or cancer.
GINNING
Separation of seed hulls from raw
cotton.
GLYCOLS
- or aliphatic dioles.
HYDROGEN
LAS
Linear alkyl benzene sulfonates.
Detergents which are suspected
of being hazardous to the aquatic
environment.
MANGANESE
Manganese is a heavy metal.
Manganese can be used for the
production of viscose as a
catalytic agent.
MERCERISING
Treatment of cotton products
using a strong alkali for improving
strength, finish and the absorption
of dyes.
METAL COMPLEX DYES
Group of dyes involving a metal
atom in the molecule. Metal
complex dyes are especially used
for wool and nylon but may also
be used in dye ranges for
cellulose fibres.
NEEDLE OILS
Needle oil is use as a lubricant for
knitting machines.
NTA
- or nitrilotriacetic acid. NTA is
used as a complexing agent in wet
treatment of textiles.
OVERFLOW RINSE
Rinsing procedure involving water
inflow during the entire flushing
programme thus making water
overflow. The water consumption
used for this process will usually
be unnecessarily excessive.
PEROXIDES
Group of oxidizing agents. As an
example hydrogen peroxide is
used as a bleaching agent for wet
treatment of textiles.
PESTICIDES
Agents used as a disease control
for crops or animals to control
fungal attacks, weeds, insects or
pests.
PHTHALATES
Group of organic agents used as
softeners for PVCs. A number of
these phthalates have an adverse
effect on health and environment.
PIGMENT DYES
Dyes which are insoluble in water.
These dyes are especially used for
textile printing.
RATE OF FIXATION
The percentage of added dyes for
example deposited on the fabric.
REACTIVE DYEING
Dyeing processes involving
reactive dyes primarily used for
cellulose fibres but there are also
certain ranges for the dyeing of
wool and nylon.
REFINED RAW OIL
At the refinery the raw oil is
separated into fractions according
to their properties and the
purpose they serve.
SIZE
Natural or synthetic polymer
material used to reinforce the yarn
prior to weaving.
SULPHIDE
Sulphur compounds. Sulphide can
be used for sulphide dyeing.
TEXTURISATION
The processing of creasing
chemical fibres to make them
better look more like natural
fibres.
VINYL ACETATE
- or acetic acid ethylene ester.
 96 THANKS TO THE CONTRIBUTORS 97 KAPITEL
BIBLIOGRAPHY

THE AUTHORS WISH TO THANK THE FOLLOWING CONTRIBUTORS BIBLIOGRAPHY

WHO HAVE HELPED US PREPARE THIS BOOK: • ”Design, materials and the environment” Handbook by 02 Denmark, 1993
• Scandinavian Eco-labelling. ”Eco-labelling of textiles, document describing the criteria. Version 1.6”
Anette Tristan • Criteria for the award of the EU label to textiles. The EU Commission, 1999.
Anne Mette Zachariassen, TEKO Centre • ”The path to a better environment during the production of textiles” Miljønyt no. 50. The Danish Environ-
Anker Ørum, Tina Larsen, Tina Garsdal, Bestseller Wholesale A/S mental Protection Agency. 2000.
Benedikte Utzon • Environmental assessment of textiles”, Environmental project no. 369. The Danish Environmental Protec-
Charlotte Sparre, Charlotte Sparre A/S tion Agency, 1997
Charlotte Vadum, MpH ApS • Green Info. Miljøfakta no. 15
Grethe Helmersen, Buksesnedkeren, ApS Green Info. ”Clothing and the Environment”. October, 2000.
Helle Bay Jørgensen, Price Waterhouse
Janne Mikkelsen, Part Two
John Hansen, The Danish Technological Institute
Lynda Grose
Mads Nørgaard
Mette Styrbæk
Pernille Powell
Sune Skadegård Thorsen, Novo Nordisk A/S
Tatjana Brockenhuus-Schack, T. BROCKENHUUS
Vita Søborg Pedersen, The Danish Save the Children Organisation
100 COLOPHONE
KAPITEL

GUIDELINES
A handbook on the environment for the textile and fashion industry
PUBLISHED BY:
The Sustainable Solution Design Association:
Drude Breds
Tina Hjort
Helle Krüger

CONSULTANTS:
Rambøll:
Eva Himmelstrup Dahl
Peter Engel

TRANSLATED BY:
Anette V. Christensen/Language Consult

“GUIDELINES” HAS BEEN FUNDED BY:

The Danish Environmentral Protection Agency’s Programme for Cleaner Products

PUBLISHED:
November 2002 (English version)
February 2001 (Danish version)

DESIGN:
Kenneth Schultz / www.kennethschultz.dk

PHOTOGRAPHS:
Christian Rud Andersen
Mikkel Bache
Jette Jørs
Zack Griffin / zgrif3@aol.com
Robin Skjoldborg
Thomas Tolstrup
P. Wessel

FRONT PAGE:
Photograph: Robin Skjoldborg, model: Iben/Unique
make-up: Anja Poulsen/Unique Look

PRINTED BY:
Special-Trykkeriet Viborg a-s
EMAS – Miljøregistret

NUMBER PRINTED:
1000

PAPER:
Munken Lynx

ISBN 87-988309-0-2
 98 KAPITEL 99 KAPITEL

00 MASTHEAD
02 PREFACE by Svend Auken, Danish Minister for the Environment and Energy (from 1993 to 2001)

04 INTRODUCTION
06 ‘inspiration’ by P. Wessel, Photographer
08 CASE STUDIES: Introduction
10 Marks & Spencer
12 Patagonia
16 Holstein Flachs
18 Nike
20 The Sustainable Solution Design Association
22 The Sustainable Cotton Project (SCP)
24 ‘inspiration’ by Robin Skjoldborg, Photographer
26 THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER/BUYER
30 ETHICS
34 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE – a clear overview of the environmental impact of
the production, use and disposal of fabrics made from cotton and polyester.
40 ‘inspiration’ by Jette Jørs, Photographer
42 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IN THE PRODUCTION OF TEXTILES – a thorough
description of how the environment is affected by the production, use and
disposal of textiles made from, e.g. cotton, wool, polyester and flax.
54 ‘inspiration, by Mikkel Bache, Photographer
56 FROM FIBRES TO FINISHED FABRICS – Checklist for how you should make a choice A HANDBOOK ON THE ENVIRONMENT FOR
THE TEXTILE AND FASHION INDUSTRY
58 Introduction
60 “The quickies”
62 Questions about the production of cotton fibres
64 Questions about the production of wool fibres
67 Questions about the production of viscose fibres
68 Questions about the production of polyester fibres
69 Questions about the production of acrylic fibres
70 Questions about spinning mills
71 Questions about weaving mills
72 Questions about knitting mills
73 Questions about dye works
75 Questions about print works
76 ‘inspiration’ by Christian Rud Andersen, Photographer
78 ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING SCHEMES
82 LIST OF ADDRESSES
86 NOTES – for your own notes
94 WORD LIST
96 THANKS TO THE CONTRIBUTORS ISBN: 87-988309-0-2 SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION DESIGN ASSOCIATION