Complete Course

A RESOURCE PACK FOR
AQA GCSE
PSYCHOLOGY
SPECIFICATION 3181
Written by: Mike Battye & Steve Hill
Psychology Series Editor: Mike Battye

Cover design: Pam Crewe
Hartshill Press 2003. All rights reserved. Version 1.0
ISBN 1 900 843 23 4
Published (2003) by:
Hartshill Press Limited
30, Millbeck Close
Weston
Crewe, Cheshire, CW2 5LR
 01270 587821
www.hartshill.demon.co.uk
In association with Hodder & Stoughton Educational
Contents
Preface
Cognitive Psychology
Unit 1.1 Perception
Unit 1.2 Learning
Unit 1.3 Memory
Social Psychology
Unit 2.1 Forming impressions of others
Unit 2.2 Prejudice and discrimination
Unit 2.3 Social Influence
Developmental Psychology
Unit 3.1 Attachment and separation
Unit 3.2 Cognitive Development
Unit 3.3 Sex and Gender
Pro- and anti-social behaviour
Unit 4.1 The Development of Moral Behaviour
Unit 4.2 Pro-social Behaviour
Unit 4.3 Anti-social behaviour
Research Methods
Unit 5.1 Methods of investigation
Unit 5.2 Methods of control
Unit 5.3 Ethical considerations
All teachers are advised to obtain the full Specification specification, which is
available from the AQA website at: http://www.aqa.org.uk/qual/gcse/psych.html
(overview) or http://www.aqa.org.uk/qual/pdf/AQA3181WSP.pdf (full specification
in pdf format).
2003 Hartshill Press 2

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Preface
This photocopiable resource pack provides comprehensive coverage to assist teachers
in preparing students for the AQA GCSE Psychology course. This specification has
been fully revised for first examination in June 2003. It conforms to the requirements of
the National Qualifications Framework, including changes to the GCSE Criteria for
Social science.
Experienced teachers will recognise that the specification is essentially an

amalgamation of the previous, and highly successful, AEB and NEAB Specifications.
This resource pack, together with the associated textbook should provide teachers with
most of the information required to deliver the specification. Using the pack should
provide a clearer idea of the range and depth of the material to be covered in the
specification, enabling teachers to concentrate on adapting the content to suit the
particular needs of their students. As it is written in the style of open learning units, it
also provides an opportunity to move towards more resource based methods of
teaching.
This pack is particularly suited to the requirement to provide opportunities for students
to apply and develop their ICT Key Skills, since the licensing arrangements allow
purchasing institutions to make the material available electronically on internal
networks to students.
The specification is made up of four sections: cognitive, social, developmental, and

pro-and anti-social behaviour, which can be studied in any order. There is a separate
methods unit that deals with coursework and methods and incorporates ethical
guidelines. As the assessment structure for the GCSE is one written paper (80% of total
marks) comprising short answer or structured questions, with one compulsory question
for each of the four sections, all of the sections must be studied by students. Teachers
are advised to obtain specimen papers and mark schemes from the AQA, and as
they become available, past papers before planning their course.
Structure of the resource pack

Each unit in the resource pack:
♦ Full guidance to the range of the specification requirements
♦ Full coverage of specification content including research methods
♦ Supplementary material to clarify difficult areas and add depth to teaching
♦ Suggested individual and class activities
♦ Short answer and exam practice questions
♦ Coursework templates
♦ Ideal for classroom-based or distance learning
The content of the units assume that candidates are being prepared for the Higher Tier
(HT) written papers (targeted grades D – A). In our experience there is little to be

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY Preface
gained form entering students for the Foundation Tier (FT), especially mature students
in further education. However as the tiers are differentiated solely by a reduction in
content in the four subject content areas, it is a straightforward task to adjust the content
of the pack if only the FT is offered.
Each unit contains many short answer questions (SAQs) which can be either teacher
assessed or self assessed. Typical exam questions are also given, based on specimen
examination questions, and these could be used as tutor marked assignments for each
unit. Guidance for marking these is included, modified from the marking scheme,
where this may help provide feedback and guidance to students.
In common with our A level resource packs, many schools and colleges have
successfully adapted the student handouts for use in distance learning. The exam
questions in each unit can be used as tutor marked assignments.
More information on the use of the units, and other psychology resource packs, can be
found on our Web site: www.hartshill.demon.co.uk.
Textbooks
The pack is designed for use with the following textbook:
Barbara Woods (2002) ‘Understanding Psychology’ London: Hodder & Stoughton

(ISBN 0-340-85648-3).
References to research cited in the resource pack but not referred to in the Woods
textbook can be found in the following text, which we recommend as a supplementary
teacher resource:
Richard Gross (2001) ‘Psychology: the Science of Mind and Behaviour. London:
Hodder & Stoughton. (ISBN 0-340-79061-X)
Copyright information
If you have purchased the Resource Pack, you may make unlimited copies of the
information contained in this pack, provided this is for use within your own institution.
You may also use and modify the information contained on the disk which accompanies
the pack, provided this is solely to assist in preparing learning materials for use in your
own institution. The contents of the pack, or the material on the disk, must not be sold
or reproduced or made available in any form outside your own institution and remains
the copyright of Hartshill Press at all times.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Barbara Woods and the late Tim Gregson-Williams at Hodder
& Stoughton Educational for their co-operation, Joanne Richardson and Pete D’Angelo
for feedback on the use of the units with GCSE groups at South Cheshire College and
Suzanne Knight for proof reading.

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 1.1
Perception
Specification requirements (10.1)
1.1.1 Perception as an active process:
♦ Sensation and perception
♦ Types of illusion: ambiguity, distortion, paradox and fiction
♦ Everyday examples of illusions and explanations
♦ Perception as a modelling process
♦ Gregory’s theory of cues and hypotheses
1.1.2 Distance perception
♦ Monocular and binocular depth cues
♦ 2D images and 3D percepts, e.g. Gregory
♦ Everyday examples of distortions of perceived distance, size and

movement, with explanations
♦ Size constancy: distortions of perceived size, distance and movement
1.1.4 The visual system
♦ Structure and functioning of the eye.
♦ Description f the visual pathways to the cortex.
1.1.5 Factors affecting perception:
♦ Motivation, perceptual set, emotion, previous experience, context,

perceptual defence/sensitisation
♦ Evaluation of studies conducted to investigate factors affecting perception

and discussion of these factors in relation to everyday life.
2003 Hartshill Press Page 5

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY Unit 1.1: Visual perception
Suggested further reading for teachers

Bruce, V., Green, P. R. & Georgeson, M. A. (1996) Visual perception: Physiology,
psychology and ecology. 3rd Edition. Hove: Psychology Press.
Coren, S. & Ward, L. M. (1989) Sensation and perception, 3rd Edition. Fort Worth:
Harcourt.
Includes suggestions for many informative perceptual demonstrations.
Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (1995). Cognitive psychology: A student’s handbook,
3rd Edition. Hove: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Eysenck, M. W. (1993). Principles of Cognitive Psychology. Hove: Lawrence Earlbaum
Associates
Gregory, R L (1970) The Intelligent Eye. New York: McGraw-Hill
Roth, I. A. & Bruce, V. (1995) Perception and representation. 2nd Edition. Bucks: Open
University Press.
Topics for class activities/discussions

1. Look at an everyday object such as a table or chair. What do you see? Describe
your sensations in detail (colour, shape, etc.). Don’t take this exercise for
granted. You may describe the table as rectangular, or circular, but is that really
the sensation you receive? How much of our perception is interpretation?
2. Why do we have two eyes? What are some of the differences between the way
that a cat and a rabbit see the world? Why?
3. How can you tell whether dogs see colour or not. Can bulls see red?
4. If, for a period of time, you wore glasses that turned the world up side down
could you manage with practice to ride a bicycle?
5. Do you think it is possible for stimuli to be received without the individual

being aware of it (subliminal perception)? Could (is?) subliminal perception be
used in advertising?

Suggested sample coursework template

There are many possibilities for experimental work. The following should be
reasonably straightforward.
Aim, hypothesis & variables

To investigate the role of expectations in the perception of ambiguous stimuli.
Hypothesis: the order of presentation of the images will affect the perception of an
ambiguous stimuli
IV= the order of presentation
DV= the perceived sex of man/woman ambiguous image
Method
Experimental Design: Independent groups. Control variables such as lighting,
instructions, experimental materials. Opportunity sample.
Apparatus: Make a clear photocopy (enlarged if you can) of Fig 10.9 on page 116 of
the textbook ‘Understanding Psychology’. Cut it into two strips, the top and bottom
rows and label them ‘T’ and ‘B’. Stick the strips carefully onto card. Alternatively you
could stick each figure separately onto card.
Procedure: Select a sample of non-psychology students and randomly allocate them to

two equal sized groups. Show half of them strip T and the other strip B. They should
look at (or be given) the pictures in order from left to right. Ask each participant what
they think the picture is, and record their answers.
Results
Compare the percentage of times group T and Group B identify picture (d) as a man.
Present your results using appropriate charts and/or graphs
Discussion of results
Do your results support your hypothesis? Do they agree with the findings described in
the text?
Ethical issues
There should not be any serious ethical issues involved in your investigation; however
it is important to fully debrief your participants.

1.1.1 Perception as an active process

Visual perception is concerned with much more than just ‘seeing’ with our eyes. For a
long time, people thought that we saw reality just as it was, and perception was just a
passive process. However, we now know that our eyes simply gather in data
(sensation) that is then interpreted by our brains (perception), so much so that we
really ‘see’ with our brains rather than with our eyes. So perception is an active rather
than a passive process. Many perceptual processes, but especially the visual illusions,
demonstrate this.
 Reading: Textbook page 109
 SAQ 1
Distinguish, using appropriate examples if possible, what is meant by the terms
sensation and perception.
Visual illusions
Psychologists are interested in visual illusions because they give us some clues about
how visual perception works. Illusions occur when your brain is tricked into making the
wrong decision about the visual information on the retina. The Muller-Lyer illusion is
an example of distortion, where two similar length lines appear different in length.
(Measure them if you don’t believe this!)
Figure 1: The Muller-Lyer illusion
 Reading: Textbook: pages 109-110
The four types of visual illusion discussed in the textbook — distortions, ambiguous
figures, paradoxical figures and fictions — illustrate the active nature of perception.
Illusions of perspective are necessary for us to appreciate drawings, paintings and
screen images. Illusions of movement also support the view that perception is a process
in which information from different senses is continually integrated.

 SAQ 2
a) Give one example each of an illusion based on (a) ambiguity, (b) distortion,
(c) paradox, (d) fiction.
b) What everyday effect relies on the phi-phenomenon?
 Activity
You can produce a simple piece of apparatus to measure the Muller-Lyer
illusion for yourself. You will need an A4 piece of card and some sharp
scissors. Hold the card length ways and cut into 2 pieces roughly 1/3 - 2/3.
Draw clear black lines as indicated in Figure 2. Now cut a slit carefully in card
A as shown by the dotted line so that card B can be inserted to form a slider.
To measure the extent of the illusion, start with B in pushed in and extend it
until your participant judges the two lines to be equal. Measure the difference
in length between the lines on A and B. Take a second estimate by starting
with B fully out and pushing the slider in. Average the two readings.
You can easily adapt this apparatus to test for the effects of different length,
angles and shapes of arrow heads.
A 

Figure 2: Measuring the Muller-Lyer illusion
Perception as a modelling process

Psychological explanations of perception have generally fallen into two types: ‘top-
down’ and ‘bottom-up’.
♦ Top-down (sometimes known as constructivist) theories emphasise the active

nature of perception and assume that we use our experience to make sense of data,
especially if this data is conflicting or ambiguous, as in the case of illusions.
♦ Bottom-up (or direct) theories say that in most circumstances there is enough
information in sensory input alone for us to make sense of it. For example, a
painting or photograph is a flat 2 dimensional representation, but there is sufficient
information contained in it for us to see it as a 3-D scene. For example further
objects are less detailed than nearer ones. (See section on depth cues, below)
Gregory’s theory of perception

This is the best known top-down theory. Gregory emphasises ways in which
perceptions are more than the sensory stimuli we receive in the here and now. Gregory
describes perception as a process of guesswork , or hypothesis-testing, for the best
interpretation of data received through the senses.
Gregory’s explanation of the Muller-Lyer illusion illustrates how his theory can be
applied to perception.
 SAQ 3
a) Outline Gregory’s explanation of the Müller-Lyer illusion.

b) Why is this an example of the ‘top-down’ approach to perception?
In support of Gregory’s theory, there is evidence that the Muller-Lyer illusion involves
learning. For example, Segal & Campbell (1963) found that susceptibility to the
Muller-Lyer illusion was the result of experience, They carried out a cross-cultural
study of the Muller-Lyer illusion in South Africa. They found that, unlike Europeans,
Zulus living in their villages were much more likely to state that both lines were the
same length. Segall and Campbell explain this by saying that Europeans live in
environments with many straight lines and right angles, and a knowledge of
perspective, whereas Zulus don’t. In other words, you have to learn the hypothesis that
the two lines are different distances.

1.1.2 Distance perception

While Gregory was mainly interested in unusual examples of perception such as visual
illusions, Gibson researched real-life problems such as helping pilots to use visual cues
to land safely. In doing so he developed a direct theory of perception. He suggested
that perception is fundamentally a process that starts from the sense data, i.e. is bottom-
up rather than top-down. His theory also relies on quite different kinds of evidence,
particularly the study of depth or distance perception.
Monocular and binocular depth cues

The image that reaches the retina is a flat, two dimensional one. Distance perception is
the process by which this 2-D image is transformed into a 3-D perception. Two sets of
cues are used to achieve this.
Binocular depth cues derive from the fact that our eyes see the world from a slightly
different angle. This disparity provides information about depth. The eyes can also
signal depth information because as they focus on an object nearer to them, they
converge.
 Activity
Cover one eye and then the other. Notice that you first see one side of your
nose and then the other. This is disparity. Hold a pen or pencil upright, close
one eye then line-up the pen with a vertical edge such as a door or window
frame. Now close the eye and open the other one. The pen is no longer lined-
up.
Ask a friend to sit facing you about two metres away. Get them to hold a pencil
at arms length and then move it slowly towards them. Observe the
convergence of their eyes.
Monocular depth cues (relative size, linear perspective, texture gradient, perspective,
etc.) are clues about depth and distance that can be represented in two dimensions.
Artists use them to convey three dimensions in a painting.
There are also monocular cues to distance that rely on movement of the image, for
example motion parallax. Consider a train rushing through a station. We can clearly
see the background scenery such as hills, houses etc. but can’t read the station name as
it appears to flash past too quickly. In fact, the speed of the station name tells us it is
much closer to us than the more distant houses, hills etc., which move more slowly.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 112-113 ‘Perception of distance’

 SAQ 4
a) Outline one monocular and one binocular cue to depth

b) What kind of cues can be used by artists in painting and what sort can’t be
used?
Perception of size: perceptual constancies

Even though the image on our retina changes as objects move, such as when a door
swings closed, we still perceive the object as the same rectangular shaped object.
Similarly, as an aircraft recedes into the distance we still perceive it as an aircraft rather
than as a small insect. This suggests that our brain interprets the image on the retina as
constant even though it is actually changing, demonstrating the phenomenon known as
perceptual constancies.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 114-3 ‘Perception of size’
 SAQ 5
a) Explain what is meant by size constancy

b) What is the moon illusion? How can it be explained?
Gibson & Walk (1960) investigated the ability of infants aged six to fourteen months to
perceive depth using an ingenious apparatus known as the visual cliff. Their study
showed that depth/distance perception was present in young infants, and therefore did
not have to be learned.
On the other hand experience might be needed for some constancies. For example, size
constancy is not always found. Consider what the world looks like from an aeroplane
window — cars often look like toys and people like ants. Gregory would explain this
because we are just not used to looking at the world from above.

1.1.3 Visual pathways
Structure of the eye

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Light that is visible to humans comes
from a very narrow range of the electromagnetic spectrum (between infra red and ultra
violet). The intensity of light determines our experience of brightness while its
wavelength is partly responsible for our experience of colour.
When light enters the eye it first passes through the transparent cornea and the aqueous
humour that lies immediately behind it. Thereafter, it becomes focused by the eye’s
lens, which is controlled by the ciliary muscles.
Abnormalities in the shape of the eye and the effects of ageing on the ciliary muscles
can both produce problems in this focusing process, which is called accommodation.
Short-sightedness comes from the inability of the eye to focus over longer distances
whilst long-sightedness results from the inability of the lens to deal with short focal
lengths by becoming sufficiently thickened. Astigmatism, a fairly common condition, is
usually caused by genetically determined irregularities in the cornea and, like both short
and long-sightedness, may be alleviated by using corrective lenses or laser surgery.
Thus, before incoming light actually hits the photoreceptor cells of the retina, it has
already been very carefully prepared. Upon striking a receptor (rods and cones), it
produces a photochemical reaction in which light energy is transduced into
electrochemical signals that can then travel within the nervous system.
 Reading: Textbook pages 393-395.
 Activity
To demonstrate the extent to which the sensitivity of the eye can increase
through adaptation, you will need to blindfold one eye (use a pad made from
cotton wool and surgical tape). After about 30 minutes, darken the room,
remove the blindfold and compare the sensitivity of the two eyes. The eye that
is not adapted will be virtually blind, while the eye that was covered should see
quite well even in very dim light.
The visual pathways and the visual cortex

The visual pathways from the retina to the visual cortex are shown in diagrammatic
form in Figure 10.2, page 108 of the textbook and it is important to study this diagram
carefully. The first important structure is the optic chiasma (crossing). Here half the
nerve fibres from each retina cross in such way as to ensure that information from the
left and right visual fields goes to the opposite hemisphere of the brain. This makes
sense once you realise that each half of the brain controls the opposite side of the body,
(e.g. left hemisphere  right hand).

Signals then travel to lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in a region of the brain known
as the thalamus (shown but not labelled in Figure 10.2). This region can operate
independently, since people with damage to the visual cortex who are to all intents
blind, may still be able to locate objects in the visual field. This phenomenon (known as
blindsight) was investigated by Weiskrantz et al (1974). It is known that the conscious
experience of vision in humans requires an intact nerve path connecting LGN cells to
the visual cortex. However, blindsight indicates the operation of a secondary pathway
which also carries visual information to other regions of the brain and which contributes
to visual functioning without producing visual experience.
Most of the visual information processing is concentrated in the cells in the visual
cortex and its related areas. The cells of the primary visual cortex appear to be
organised in a highly regular manner, with a precise mapping of the visual field across
the surface of the cortex. They also appear to have highly specialised functions. The
pioneering work of Hubel and Wiesel established that there were cells that could detect
lines, edges and even movement in the cat’s visual cortex and that similar cells occur in
humans. Perhaps our picture of the world is made up from the basic description that
these cells provide the brain.
 SAQ 6
a) Explain the functions of the lens and the retina.

b) Explain why it is that when you close one eye you still see images to the right
and left of your fixation point (Hint: look at what happens in the optic
chiasma)
c) Outline the function of the visual cortex.
1.1.4 Factors affecting perception
Gregory’s insistence that perception is an active process opens up the possibility that
there are many factors that can affect perception other than the stimulus itself. Research
suggests that this is indeed the case. For example, Figure 10.10 on page 117 of the
textbook shows one way in which the effect of context on perception can be
demonstrated. We have already seen how the Muller-Lyer illusion has been used to
demonstrate the role of previous experience in the form of the culture that you are
brought up in can shape perception (see above: Segal & Cambell). Other factors
affecting perception include perceptual set, motivation, emotion and attention.

Perceptual set
Set is used to describe the potential for bias in how we interpret incoming sensations.
One example of how expectations might bias how we look at the world is provided by
the man/women ambiguous figures in the textbook (Figure 10.9 on page 116).
Even when we know about set it is not easy to escape its effects, as the following
activity may show.
 Activity
Quickly read the following list of words out loud:

MACBETH MACARTHER MACILVEEN
MACDOWELL MACNAMARA MACMILLAN
MACETEER MACDONALDS MACHINES
MACKENSIE
Now look at the next to last word. Did you pronounce it Mac Hines? If so you
were demonstrating the effects of perceptual set.
(Adapted from Coren & Ward, 1989)
There are many easily demonstrable examples of perceptual set in everyday life —
think of current advertising campaigns that make us read something twice as a result of
having our expectancies challenged.
Perceptual defence
Experiments have also shown that we may perceive things without being consciously
aware of perceiving them. Indeed our perceptual systems may ward off uncomfortable
stimuli, and prevent them coming into consciousness. Research into this phenomenon
dates back to study of perceptual defence carried out by McGinnies (1949). ‘Neutral’
and ‘taboo’ words were briefly presented to participants using a device known as a
tachistoscope. The minimum exposure time for recognition was measured (usually a
few milliseconds). The findings were that the ‘taboo’ words on average took longer to
recognise. However, critics have argued that such results tell us little, if anything, about
perception, because it might just be that people were reluctant to identify or say the
taboo words – most people would need a ‘double take’ before saying a word like s**t in
a psychology laboratory!
However if perceptual defence does exist, it raises the intriguing possibility that we
somehow look at a stimulus in order to decide whether or not to perceive it. In fact
considerable evidence exists for this kind of subliminal perception — the reception of
stimuli which does not involve conscious recognition. For example studies have shown
that there can be significant increases in bodily responses such as galvanic skin
response (GSR) and self-ratings of anxiety following subliminally presented anxiety-
arousing stimuli.

Motivation and emotion

Bruner & Goodman also demonstrated the effects of reward on perception in a famous
study where rich and poor children were asked to estimate the size of coins. Poor
children over-estimated the size of each coin more so than rich children. This was
claimed to reflect the greater value of money to poor children. Solley and Haigh’s study
looked at young childrens’ drawings of Santa in the weeks before and after Christmas.
The drawings became bigger as Christmas approached, especially those of his sack!
 Reading: ‘Textbook’ pages 116-118 ‘factors affecting perception’
 SAQ 7
a) What do you understand by the term perceptual set?

b) What is meant by perceptual defence and subliminal perception?
c) Outline one study that shows the effect of (i) motivation and (ii) emotion on
perception.
d) What factors make proof-reading so difficult?

Exam practice questions
(a) Using your knowledge of psychological research, explain how any two visual
illusions might affect our perception of the world. (7 marks)
(b) Give a brief outline of Gregory’s theory of cues and hypotheses. (5 marks)
(c) Name one monocular and one binocular cue for depth and explain how each
enables us to perceive distance. (6 marks)
(d) Use your knowledge of psychological research to explain how any two
factors can affect our perception of the world. (7 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 1.2
Learning
1.2.1 Principles of classical conditioning (Pavlov)
♦ Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation, discrimination
1.2.2 Principles of operant conditioning (Skinner)
♦ Law of Effect, behaviour shaping, types of reinforcement, reinforcement

and punishment
1.2.3 Similarities and differences between classical and operant conditioning
1.2.4 Applications of conditioning procedures to human behaviour
♦ Ethical issues in the application of conditioning principles.
1.2.5 Principles of social learning (e.g. Bandura)
♦ Observation, role of imitation and reinforcement

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY Unit 1.2: Learning

Atkinson, et al (1996) Introduction to Psychology, 12th ed. Harcourt (Chapters 7 & 16)
Bee, H. (1995) The Developing Child, 7th ed. Harper Collins (Chapter 9 and pages 95-
96)
Tavris, C. & Wade, C. (1997) Psychology in Perspective. 2nd ed. Longman (Chapter 6)
Walker, S (1984) Learning Theory & Behaviour Modification. London: Methuen

1. How can behaviourism explain such behaviour as pets (e.g. parrots) who talk or
can perform other tricks?
2. Shaping can be simulated in a version of the game ‘colder/warmer’. Send a

volunteer out of the room. Then decide on an action that he/she has to perform (e.g.
an object or person to find and touch). When he/she re-enters, explain the task and
that they will be given a reward, ‘clapping’, whenever they are ‘warm’. Ensure that
this is the only feedback given. The group will need to ‘shape’ the behaviour
carefully, e.g. firstly for movement towards the part of the room containing the
object, then clapping only when he/she is right beside it, and so on. If your shaping
imperfect, you may observe superstitious behaviour.
3. Make a list of common phobias. Why are many more people afraid of snakes
and spiders than lambs or puppies?
4. Think of at least three advantages and three disadvantages of using punishments as

a means of shaping children’s behaviour.
5. Research the legal implications of using physical punishments on children.
Coursework
Since behaviourism generally requires experimenter manipulation of variables in order
to bring about changes in behaviour, it is not recommended that any coursework be
attempted from this part of the Specification. It would certainly be unethical for
students at this level to subject animals to such experimentation.
For further guidance, please see the BPS ethical guidelines.

1.2.1 Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning, which Pavlov first
demonstrated in dogs. An animal acquires a new behaviour as a result of two stimuli
becoming associated because they occur at the same time. The neutral stimulus (NS)
takes on some of the properties of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that both
produce the unconditioned response (UCR). The NS is now called the conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the UCR is now the conditioned response (CR). All UCRs are
reflexes, such as salivating, blinking or ‘blushing’.
Since Pavlov’s time, countless more examples of classically conditioned reflexes have
been investigated and a number of important principles have been discovered:
Extinction: This is when the learned behaviour (salivation to the bell) dies out because
the reinforcer (e.g. food) is no longer present.
Spontaneous recovery: This is the reversal of extinction, without any further

intervention by the experimenter. A response spontaneously re-occurs after extinction
has occurred.
Generalisation: This is where a response to a particular stimulus is also made to other

similar stimuli. For example, a fear response to spiders could become generalised to all
insects.
Discrimination: This is where the stimulus to which the response is made becomes
‘fine-tuned’. For example, only certain tones of buzzer elicit a response.
 Reading: Textbook: page 120-122 ‘Classical conditioning’
 SAQ 1
a) Distinguish between the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus, giving an

example of each.
b) Distinguish between the unconditioned and conditioned response, giving an
example of each.
c) Explain what is meant by (i) extinction; (ii) spontaneous recovery.
d) Distinguish between generalisation and discrimination

 Activity
With care and a little patience, it is possible to demonstrate the conditioning of

the eye-blink reflex in humans. Elicit the eye-blink in a volunteer participant
by blowing carefully (using a drinking straw or similar) a puff of air across the
eyeball. (You may have to experiment a little to get a strong, reliable blink.)
Now pair the puff of air with a gentle tap on the back of the participant’s hand.
Record the number of pairings required to produce the eye-blink to the tap on
the hand alone. Can you demonstrate extinction and spontaneous recovery?
1.2.2 Operant conditioning

While classical conditioning has a number of important applications, it is thought that
most learning, especially in higher animals results from the application of the principles
of operant conditioning.
Skinner first used the term operant conditioning, but he was very influenced by the
pioneering work of Thorndike on animals. Thorndike formulated the Law of Effect:
behaviours will be strengthened if they are followed by favourable consequences, and
weakened if followed by less favourable ones. These consequences of behaviour are
known as reinforcements (rewards) and punishments.
Skinner showed that partial reinforcement (being rewarded only some of the time) is
more effective in strengthening behaviour, and making it resistant to change, than if the
behaviour is reinforced every time. For example, in pigeons some of the fastest rates of
responding can be produced when a food reward is given as rarely as every 100
responses on average (known as a variable ratio schedule – a VR100).
Shaping is used in operant conditioning to produce complex behaviour patterns by

building them up gradually. For example, by reinforcing a pigeon only for successively
larger anti-clockwise movements, you can train it to turn around in a complete circle.
 Reading: Textbook: page 122-124 up to the section on punishment.

 SAQ 2
a) Describe how a rat learns to feed itself in a Skinner box, using the ideas of
operant conditioning.
b) Give an example of (i) generalisation; (ii) discrimination in operant
conditioning.
c) I find it hard to resist a game on a fruit machine even though I only
sometimes win. How can partial reinforcement be used to explain my
behaviour?
Different types of reinforcement

It is very important to understand the difference between the terms: positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
A positive reinforcer is something which, following on from a behaviour, increases the

chance that the behaviour will be repeated. For example, if we give praise to a child for
tidying up her toys, she is more likely to tidy them up again in the future (at least in
theory!).
A negative reinforcer is something unpleasant that the behaviour prevents. When you
have a headache, you take a pill. If you are lucky the pain will stop — therefore, next
time you have a headache, the first thing to reach for is the pill bottle! Both positive and
negative reinforcement strengthen behaviour.
Punishment is also something unpleasant, but which, this time, is used to weaken
behaviour. Examples would be taking away toys, sending a child to his/her room, or
using physical punishment such as smacking. It is easy to confuse punishment and
negative reinforcement, since they both involve something unpleasant, but negative
reinforcers are used to strengthen behaviour, whereas punishment is used to try to
weaken it (although not necessarily with much success).
 Reading: Textbook: page 124-5 ‘Punishment’
 SAQ 3
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

1.2.3 Comparison of classical and operant conditioning

There are a number of similarities between classical conditioning (CC) and operant
conditioning (OpC);
♦ Both are relatively simple forms of learning that rely on an association between
stimuli (classical) or behaviour and consequence (operant).
♦ The phenomena of generalisation, discrimination, extinction and spontaneous

recovery occur in both.
However the are some important differences:
♦ In CC, the UCR is elicited (triggered automatically) by the UCS. It is a reflex (the
eye-blink, salivation etc.). On the other hand, in OpC behaviour has to be emitted
by the animal. It is voluntary behaviour (e.g. pressing a lever).
♦ In CC the stimulus (e.g. food or bell after conditioning) is guaranteed to evoke the
response (salivation). In OpC the response is not certain, merely more probable.
♦ In CC completely new stimulus-response connections are formed (e.g. bell-

salivation), whereas in OpC it is existing responses that are strengthened.
 Reading: Textbook page 125.
 Activity
Make your own version of the Table 11.1 on page 125 (‘Differences between
classical and operant conditioning’).
1.2.4 Applications of conditioning principles

Conditioning theory has given rise to a number of techniques such as aversion therapy,
systematic desensitisation and token economies, which are used in the treatment of
certain problem behaviours. Some of these techniques stem from classical conditioning
and are usually known as behaviour therapies; others stem from operant conditioning
and are known as behaviour modification techniques.
Behaviour therapy
These therapies are based on the belief that problem behaviour is a result of a ‘bad’
learning experience. Therefore, to treat the problem, re-learning (or re-conditioning)
must occur.

A classic experiment by Watson & Raynor demonstrated that a fear could be

conditioned. They used an 11-month old infant (little Albert) and conditioned a fear
reaction to the neutral stimulus of a pet rabbit in this way:
UCS  UCR
loud noise fear
CS + UCS  UCR
rabbit + loud noise fear
CS  CR
rabbit fear
The child naturally showed a fear response to the loud noise. The experimenter showed
the rabbit every time the loud noise occurred, causing an association to be built-up
between the rabbit and the fear response. Eventually, just showing the rabbit was
enough to cause the fear response in the child. A similar set of processes could explain
irrational childhood (and adult) phobias.
Irrational fears (or phobias) are treated by techniques developed from classical
conditioning: systematic desensitisation and implosion/flooding.
Systematic desensitisation
In systematic desensitisation the aim is to pair the stimulus that evokes fear with a state
of relaxation. Clients are taught how to relax all their muscles until they can do so at
will. They are then asked to imagine the fear-provoking situation whilst fully relaxed,
and this is repeated, so building-up a pairing of the fear stimulus with relaxation, until
the fear stimulus eventually no longer provokes a fear response.
 Reading: Textbook: page 126-128 ‘Systematic desensitisation’
 SAQ 4
a) What do you understand by the term ‘phobia’?

b) Make a list of common phobias.
c) Fill in the blanks in the following:
UCS (alone in the dark)  UCR (fear)

CS (spider) + UCS ( )  UCR ( )
CS ( )  CR (fear)
Implosion/flooding
This is where, for example, someone afraid of spiders is asked to imagine themselves in
the most terrifying situation possible-a room full of spiders, perhaps. They may be

asked to actually face the phobia itself. The client will be terrified. But as the sessions
are repeated and nothing happens to them the anxiety becomes less and eventually the
fear of spiders becomes extinguished in the client.
 Reading: Textbook: page 127 ‘Implosion/flooding
 SAQ 5
Explain the difference between systematic desensitisation and
implosion/flooding?
Aversion therapy
In aversive conditioning the individual is conditioned to make an association between
the object of an addiction (usually) and an unpleasant stimulus, in order to eradicate
undesirable behaviours such as alcoholism or criminal acts of sexual deviancy such as
‘flashing’. For example:
UCS  UCR
emetic vomiting
CS + UCS  UCR
alcohol + emetic vomiting
CS  CR
alcohol vomiting
 Reading: Textbook: pages 127-128 ‘Aversion therapy’
 SAQ 6
Outline some criticisms that have been made of aversion therapy.
Behaviour modification
This approach is based on the operant conditioning concept of reinforcement rather than
on classical conditioning. Problem behaviours exist because they have been, and still
are being, reinforced. Behaviour modification identifies the reinforcers and then seeks
to change the situation in such a way that problem behaviour is not reinforced but more
acceptable behaviour is.
Typically, token economies are used, with the patient being given tokens that can be
exchanged for goods or services. For example someone suffering from severe
depression who becomes very apathetic and just sits around all day long might be given

tokens for engaging in a range of activities, thereby reinforcing them for desirable
behaviours.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 128-129 ‘Behaviour Modification’
 SAQ 7
What three steps have to be taken in behaviour modification?
Therapists, therefore, attempt to shape a patient’s behaviour using reinforcers. They

ignore the behaviour that is unacceptable in the belief that this will lead to extinction.
More acceptable behaviour is reinforced by giving the patient something pleasant, or
tokens which can be exchanged for goods or services.
Such techniques can be successful in treating problem behaviour, but some people are
unhappy about the lack of any attempts to treat the original cause of the behaviour, or to
develop any insights in the patient themselves concerning their behaviour.
 SAQ 8
a) State two disadvantages of behaviour modification.

b) Describe the ways in which operant conditioning has been, or could be, used
to change a problem child’s behaviour.
Ethics and behaviour change

Behaviour therapies and behaviour modification techniques raise ethical issues because
of the attempt to change behaviour. There are two key issues
1. The means by which the behaviour change is achieved. Some behavioural

techniques, such as flooding (or token economies), violate the rights of the
patient (for example, withholding fundamental rights such as food or privacy).
2. The vulnerability of the patient. The client has to submit himself/herself to a

behaviour change programme and in so doing gives up control to the therapist.
Patients are often distressed and vulnerable and so may not be in the position to
judge what is in their own best interests.
Skinner and other pioneers of these techniques were well aware of the potential for
manipulating human behaviour. In the mid-years of the 20th century there was much

debate about the ethics of the approach. The psychological manipulation and control of
people was a popular theme of several novels, such as Huxley’s ‘Brave New World’,
Orwell’s ‘1984’ and Skinner’s ‘Walden Two’.
Programmed learning
In the 1950’s Skinner devised a teaching machine for programmed learning. It
involved presenting the student with information in small units known as ‘frames’. The
student controlled the presentation of information by turning the handle on the machine
when ready to move onto the next input. Learning was tested by questions at the end of
each frame. The student was reinforced by the appearance of the correct answer on the
next frame, which gave the learners feedback. If they were incorrect they would
backtrack to the previous frame. Skinner believes that learning should be structured,
controlled and precisely monitored, and that it should be reinforced through providing
immediate feedback.
Programmed learning involves the following principles of operant conditioning:
♦ Breakdown of behaviour into small units
♦ Stimulus — Response — Reinforcement sequence
♦ Control of behaviour by consequences
To some extent, this study pack adopts a similar approach, breaking the material down
into small frames, then getting you to answer questions (SAQs) about the material
before proceeding to new material. Because it is not interactive, it cannot tell you
whether your answers are right or wrong (feedback). But you should do this for
yourself, e.g. by checking the answers with a teacher as soon as possible.
 Activity
Think about the functions of a real teacher. What do you think are the main
differences between these and programmed learning. What does your teacher think?
You may have thought of things like:
♦ A teacher can supply additional information
♦ Teachers provide a wide range of reinforcers
♦ Teachers use a number of different techniques
Research has shown that programmed learning is successful for some subjects but not
others and for high achieving pupils rather than low achievers. One of its main
problems is the lack of flexibility that a real teacher can offer. The main good point
about programmed learning is that learners are in control of their own progress.

 SAQ 9
Explain how the principles of operant conditioning have been applied in
programmed learning.
1.2.5 Social learning: observation & imitation

According to social learning theory we learn by observing what happens to others as
well as being directly reinforced ourselves. If we observe an individual being reinforced
for a particular behaviour, we are more likely to display the same behaviour ourselves
in appropriate circumstances, even though we have never been directly reinforced for
the behaviour. This type of reinforcement was termed vicarious reinforcement by
Bandura, a leading social learning theorist.
An example might be a girl, Sally, who observes another child, Eve, helping a younger
child who is crying. Being praised by a teacher subsequently rewards Eve. Observing
Eve being reinforced would, according to social learning theory, make Sally more
likely to display the same type of ‘helping’ behaviour in similar circumstances.
 Reading: Textbook: page 129-131 ‘Social learning’
 SAQ 10
a) What is meant by vicarious reinforcement?
b) What factors make it more likely that a child will imitate an adult?
c) What factors make it less likely?
(a) Sears, Maccoby & Levin, found that parents who normally allow their child to
be quite aggressive but occasionally punish the child severely have children
who are more aggressive than parents who don’t allow aggressive behaviour
and who never punish the child. Use your knowledge of operant conditioning
to explain why this might their findings. (5 marks)

(b) Explain, using an appropriate example the difference between a negative

reinforcer and a punishment. (4 marks)
(c) Describe one procedure based on classical conditioning could be used to help
a child with a fear of travelling in cars or buses. (5 marks)
(d) Explain the role of observation and imitation in learning. (6 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 1.3
Memory
1.3.1 Encoding, storage, retrieval
♦ Types of encoding: contribution of organisation, elaboration and context
1.3.2 Models of memory
♦ Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multistore model,
♦ Levels of processing model
♦ Constructive model
♦ Applications of memory research
1.3.3 Psychological explanations of forgetting
1.3.4 Eyewitness testimony (EWT)
♦ Factors affecting reliability of EWT
♦ Practical implications of studies of EWT

GCSE Psychology Unit 1.3: Memory

Cohen, G. (1996) Memory in the real world, 2nd Edition, Hove: Psychology Press.
Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (1995) Cognitive psychology: A student’s handbook,
3rd Edition. Hove: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Eysenck, M. W. (1993) Principles of Cognitive Psychology. Hove: Lawrence Earlbaum
Associates
Matlin, M. W. (1994) Cognition, 3rd Edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt.
Sternberg, R. J. (1996) Cognitive Psychology. Fort Worth: Harcourt

1. How can we improve our short-term memory?
2. How can we improve our memory in order to improve our exam performance?
3. Describe your earliest memories. How far back can people reliably remember?
4. Why do we sometimes forget something we’ve just learned, but remember

things from years ago?
5. Think of a long telephone number that you remember:
♦ How many digits does it have?
♦ What strategy did you use to remember it?
6. Think back to a film/video you have not seen for at least five years. What do
you remember of the film? Now arrange to watch the film again. How accurate
was your recollection?
7. ‘Flashbulb memories’ sometimes occur at the time of a really important event

(hearing the news of Princess Di’s death, for example). People can remember
what was happening to them at the time with very vivid detail. Have you
experienced flashbulb memories?

Memory is a good topic for coursework, particularly experimental studies. Simple

experiments can be conducted comparing recall and recognition, investigating primacy
and recency effects, and comparing the effectiveness of mnemonics. The following
investigation is a quasi experiment, since the independent variable is whether or not
people are regular viewers.
Aim
To explore whether people with experience of a particular subject area will recall more
information than people without this experience.
Hypothesis & variables

Regular viewers of a soap opera will recall more information from a tape of an episode
than non-regular viewers.
IV = Regular or irregular viewer
DV = Accuracy of recall as measured by questionnaire
Method
Show the same five minute video of a soap opera episode to each group.
Prepare a questionnaire to be completed by each participant.
Think about controls such as whether the participant has seen the episode before and
the effect this might have.
Sampling: Ideally, use random or quota sampling.
Experimental Design:
Independent Measures. Assign participants to groups based on regularity of viewing of

soap.
Results
Presentation of results: Draw up a table to show the results. Produce appropriate
graphs, bar charts etc. to show the difference between groups.
Analysis of results: Calculate the median average score of each group.
Relate your findings to aims and to relevant psychological research. Was the
hypothesis/null hypothesis supported? Are there any implications for using and
improving memory?
Ethical issues
What, if any, ethical issues does this kind of research raise? Were participants
debriefed?

1.3.1 Encoding storage and retrieval

Many very old people can remember in fine detail events that happened many years
previously — even 50, 60 or 70 years previously. Yet if we try to remember a 12-digit
PIN number most of us would find it extremely difficult. Psychologists distinguish
between short-term memory (STM), the working memory we use to remember a
‘phone number from directory enquiries etc., and long-term memory (LTM), our
ability to recall events from years ago. We can think of STM as a kind of memo pad,
helping us to hold onto the things we need to work on at that moment in time. (There is
a third type of memory, the sensory register, which enables information to be stored
very briefly so that feature and pattern recognition processes can operate.)
One way to think about memory is in terms of computing analogies. We can think of
STM as the RAM or working memory of a computer, but LTM is more like a database,
containing a store of memories that are accessed and retrieved (from the hard disk
store) when required.
The main processes in memory are the encoding of information (how it is stored),
storage, and the retrieval of items from memory.
Encoding information in memory

Conrad (1964) investigated how information is encoded in memory by means of a
simple but elegant experiment. He presented participants with several series of 6 letters
visually at a rate of 0.75 seconds per letter. The letters used were selected from B, C, F,
M, N, P, S, T, V, & X. Participants were told that they had to write down each list in the
order the letters were given immediately after the presentation (thus making this a STM
task). Conrad was interested in the type of errors made, rather than the number of letters
recalled. Participants tended to make errors by substituting letters that sounded the
same, rather than those that looked the same (acoustic confusions). For example they
would substitute B for V, F for S, P for B and so on.
His conclusion was that the letters had been encoded in STM by sound (i.e. acoustic
coding) even when they had been presented visually. In contrast recall from LTM
usually involves different kinds of errors: words that mean the same are often
substituted for the original words (e.g. ‘big’ for ‘huge’). This suggests that information
is stored in LTM as a meaning – semantic coding.
Storage in STM and LTM

STM seems to have a capacity between 5 and 9 items, with an average of about 7. We
can test this out by giving subjects lists of items (e.g. digits) to remember of varying
lengths and measuring how many could remember each list (see activity below).
However in STM, individual units can be grouped together to increase the capacity. For
example, numbers can be grouped as dates, letters as words and so on. Each of these
meaningful units is referred to as a ‘chunk’ and through chunking the capacity of STM
can be increased significantly.
In contrast to STM, LTM appears to have no upper limit on capacity. While forgetting
and failing to retrieve information is a very common experience, we never have the
feeling that our memories are actually ‘full’.
Items appear to remain in STM for only a few seconds, but we can increase the time if
we say the items over and over again. This is why we sometimes have difficulty
remembering phone numbers until we have rehearsed them.

Measuring the duration of storage in LTM is not as straightforward as it might appear.

It is no use just asking people what they can remember from the past as we can never be
sure whether the information was coded accurately in the first place or whether it was
revised later. However, most people think that they can hold at least some memories for
a lifetime.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 132-134 ‘Encoding’ and ‘Storage’
 SAQ 1
a) Explain what is meant by encoding and storage of items in memory

b) In terms of storage, STM is said to have limited capacity and duration.
However, this is not always the case. (i) How can rehearsal extend the
duration of STM? (ii) How can chunking extend the capacity of STM?
 Activity
Test one or two people for their short-term memory span. Read (at about one
per second) each of the following sets of digits to participants, and test his/her
immediate recall. Say ready at the start of each set and go at the end to signal
that the participant should start recall. Note that quiet and concentration are
vital for this demonstration, as they are for all memory tests.
Ready 4 Go...
Ready 57 Go...
Ready 289 Go...
Ready 7136 Go...
Ready 18365 Go...
Ready 274163 Go...
Ready 3872694 Go...
Ready 93714836 Go...
Ready 419628583 Go...
Ready 8291435291 Go...
Ready 22978217392 Go...
Ready 825193782951 Go...
At what point did your participant begin to find it difficult to repeat back the
sequence accurately? Does this correspond to Miller’s 7± 2? Did any of the
participants try to use chunking?

Retrieval and organisation in LTM

Material in STM is most probably stored in a fairly unstructured way. However the
vastly greater capacity of LTM means that organisation will be much more important.
How well information is organised within memory will often mean how well is
retrieved.
Bower’s experiment demonstrates this very clearly: participants asked to remember an

organised list (see Fig 12.1 on page 134) fared much better than those given the
identical words in a randomised way. Context can also help with the organisation of
information, providing invaluable cues to aid recall as Golden & Baddeley’s study of
divers shows.
 Reading: Textbook pages 134-135 ‘Retrieval’
 SAQ 2
a) Why is organisation of material important in LTM?

b) Identify the experimental and control groups in Bower’s study.
c) Why might it help to revise in the same room as you sit the GCSE
examination?
1.3.2 Models of memory

Theories that try to explain how memory works are usually called models. They try to
summarise the key features of the memory system and how they work and how they are
related together.
The multistore model of memory

The distinction between STM and LTM forms the basis of the most influential model of
memory: the multistore model (MSM). This model of memory (proposed by Atkinson
& Shriffin) actually distinguishes between three different memory stores, each of
which uses different approaches to the encoding, storage and retrieval processes,
 Reading: Textbook: pages 135-136 ‘The multistore model’

 SAQ 3
a) Draw a diagram to describe the multistore model of memory (MSM).

b) What are the main characteristics of STM and LTM?
c) What is the role of rehearsal in the MSM?
Evaluation of the multistore model

One form of evidence for this model is the fact that elderly people, and some who suffer
brain damage, may have good long-term memory recall but perform poorly at tasks
requiring short-term memory. In some cases they may be unable to remember new
items but can still recall previously stored items.
Further evidence is provided by the primacy and recency effects, whereby we are
more likely to remember the first few and last few items on a list than the middle items.
However, there are a number of problems with the MSM. For example, some studies of
amnesiac patients do not fit with the model. KF, who suffered a motorcycle accident
causing damage to his left parietal occipital region of the brain had a number of
interesting deficits that have been intensively studied (e.g. Shallice & Warrington,
1970). KF showed very poor digit span (usually less than 2 items), but good
performance on tasks that seemed to indicate an intact long-term store. For example, he
was still able to store new information. In fact he could learn a 10 word sequence in
fewer trials than normal controls and still retained seven of the 10 items some months
later. The multi-store model predicts that this should not be possible since an intact
STM is required to transfer information to LTM.
There is also a question mark over the role of rehearsal. We have enormous amounts of
information in LTM even though we have probably not rehearsed much of it. Despite
the important role that rehearsal is supposed to play in the multi-store model, studies
actually show a low correlation between the amount of rehearsal and how much
information is recalled. Glenberg et al. (1977) had participants study a 4 digit number
for two seconds and then rehearse a single word for varying lengths of time (2, 6 or 8
seconds). Each subject did a total of 64 trials, expecting to be tested on the numbers at
the end. Instead they were asked to recall the words. The researchers found that recall
was generally rather poor (12% or less) but had little relationship with the amount of
time spent rehearsing; words rehearsed for 8 seconds were no more likely to be recalled
than those rehearsed for 12 seconds.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 115-116 ‘Evaluation of the MSM’.

 SAQ 4
a) Distinguish between the primacy and recency effects in memory.

b) How do the different types of amnesia provide evidence for and against the
multistore model?
Levels of processing (LOP) explanation

This alternative explanation of memory distinguishes between the way in which
information is processed, rather than the idea of separate short- and long-term memory
stores.
A number of research studies support the LOP approach. Generally speaking

experiments manipulate the depth of processing and see the effect on recall. A typical
example is Craik & Tulving’s (1975) experiment (See Textbook: table 12.2, page 138).
Another study (Hyde & Jenkins, 1973) gave several lists of words to participants and
asked them to complete tasks differing in the depth of processing involved:
 Rating the words for pleasantness of meaning (i.e. deep processing –

semantic)
 Detecting every occurrence of the letters e and g (shallow processing –

visual)
The recall of words processed for pleasantness was much better than when detecting
letters, consistent with LOP theory. Interestingly, this was true whether the participants
were told at the outset to remember the words or whether learning was incidental.
The multi-store model claimed that rehearsal of any type could benefit LTM. However,
Craik & Lockhart suggest that there are two types of rehearsal: maintenance (merely
repeating what has already been analysed) and elaborative (involving deeper analysis
of the material). Only the latter leads to better remembering.
Craik and Tulving have suggested that is not just depth of processing that affects
storage but also elaboration (how much processing of any kind) and distinctiveness
(how unusual the processing). Elaboration lies behind many techniques for improving
memory (known as mnemonics) such as the method of loci.
However, there are some important criticisms of the model:
 Depth of processing is difficult to disentangle from other factors, such as

the time spent processing or the effort put into remembering.
 The model is mainly descriptive rather than explanatory.

 Reading: Textbook: page 137-139 ‘Levels of processing approach’
 SAQ 5
a) Describe how Craik and Lockhart tested their explanation.

b) Give two criticisms of the LOP explanation.
Constructivist approaches (Bartlett)

Much of what we recall from LTM is not an accurate representation of what was
presented to us. We organise incoming material and impose meaning upon it so that
what we recall is effectively our own version of what happened. This may be more or
less accurate. The fact that memory works in an active way like this was first
demonstrated in experiments by Bartlett (1932) by using the technique known as serial
(or repeated) reproduction. They gave participants complex and unusual stories such
as a North American Indian folk story called ‘The War of the Ghosts’ (below) and
asked them to reproduce it six or seven times over various retention intervals. Although
there was some accurately recalled information, the stories were distorted and altered in
various ways.
Many studies have supported Bartlett’s ideas on memory (e.g. Hunter, 1964), and have
extended his findings to related phenomenon. Spiro et al (1980) demonstrated that even
a simple story will be remembered in different ways, according to the particular
viewpoints of the participants. (They used a story about an engaged couple where the
man was against having children.)
The criticism that is sometimes made about Bartlett method is that the reason the story
is poorly reproduced is that it is written in an unusual style. To try to improve the study,
Wynn & Logie (1998) asked students about an event that had happened to them earlier
in the year. As most people would probably predict, their results contradicted Bartlett.
They found that memories were actually very resistant to change over the year.
However, this study is not a direct replication of Bartlett’s, since the information was an
episode that had happened to the individual. This type of information is likely be so
well-remembered that it will be less subject to the kind of distortions that more
unfamiliar material will be prone to.
 Reading: Textbook pages 139-140 ‘Constructive approach’.

 SAQ 6
a) Describe the procedure Bartlett used to illustrate the reconstructive nature of

memory.
b) What were his findings?
c) Give two criticisms of this study.
 Activity
In groups of four or five perform serial reproductions of ‘the War of the Ghosts’ story
(see below). Person A reads the original to Person B, B writes down his/her recalled
version and then reads it to C, and so on. Compare the characteristics of your group’s
reproductions with those of others in the class.

The War of the Ghosts: One night two young men from Egulac went down
the river to hunt seals, and while they were there it became foggy and calm.
Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: “Maybe this is a war-party”.
They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and
they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe coming up to them. There
were five men in the canoe, and they said:
“What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to
make war on the people”.
One of the young men said: “I have no arrows”.
“Arrows are in the canoe”, they said.
“I will not go along. I might get killed. My relatives do not know where I have
gone. But you”, he said turning to the other, “may go with them”.
So one of the young men went, but the other returned home.
And the warriors went up on the river to a town on the other side of Kalama.
The people came down to the water, and they began to fight, and many were
killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say: “Quick, let
us go home: that Indian has been hit”. Now he thought: “Oh, they are ghosts”.
He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot.
So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young men went ashore to his
house, and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: “Behold I
accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight, many of our fellows were killed,
and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit and I did
not feel sick”.
He told it all and then became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down.
Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The
people jumped up and cried.
He was dead.
1.2.3 Explanations of forgetting

There are many different explanations of forgetting in memory, each tending to focus
on just one or two particular aspects of this complex phenomenon. Theories divide into
two basic types.
 Availability explanations: These theories explain forgetting by proposing

either that decay through disuse or interference from other learned material, result
in the memory trace becoming unavailable.
 Accessibility explanations: These theories consider that information is

never really lost from LTM. Unlike STM there is no practical capacity limitation
for LTM and so no need for new information to displace the old. The basic cause of
forgetting is not a problem of availability but finding the right cues needed to recall
the memory. This explanation is usually known as cue-dependent forgetting
although the term retrieval failure is also used. Another type of accessibility
explanation was first proposed by Freud: the idea of repression.

Decay and interference

Many people believe that forgetting is due to the loss (i.e. decay) of information. While
this may be a factor in STM, it is unlikely to be the whole story when it comes to LTM.
For one thing, if this is the only explanation, then how do we explain how we can forget
something only to remember it later. We may have problems remembering something
not because we haven’t stored it, but because we can’t retrieve it, just as in a manual
filing system if a file is wrongly filed, it is still stored, but not in the location where it
should be.
It is very difficult to establish whether forgetting is due to the passage of time or

interference. Jenkins & Dallenbach’s (1924) study (see Textbook, page 143) seems to
suggest that interference is more significant than decay, since forgetting after a period
of time spent sleeping, is less than that following an equal period of time awake.
However, their results can be explained in a number of other ways. For example, in the
sleep condition participants learned the words in the evening and it is possible that the
mechanisms that consolidate learning work better at night. In fact participants who
learn a list of words in the morning and then sleep, recalling the list later in the day,
show as much forgetting as those that that remain awake.
Interference theory, therefore, may be a better way to explain forgetting. This theory
suggests that there are two ways in which existing learning can interact to cause
forgetting: retroactive and proactive interference. The process of interference has
been extensively studied in the laboratory using simple tasks involving mainly verbal
materials (paired associate lists). However, while such studies are often well
controlled and give fairly clear results, they have been criticised for not being realistic.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 142-143 ‘Trace decay theory’ & 140-141 ‘Interference
theory’
 SAQ 7
a) Explain what is meant by trace decay.

b) Distinguish between retroactive and proactive interference
a) How is interference usually studied in the laboratory?
b) Why has it been difficult to demonstrate interference outside the ‘laboratory’?
Retrieval failure
According to Tulving, what matters in explaining forgetting is not whether a piece of
information has been lost from memory completely (through decay, for example), but
rather whether or not it can be found. Tulving suggested that success or failure at recall
is determined by the retrieval cues that are present at the time of recall. The better, or
more numerous the retrieval cues, the better the recall. Retrieval cues can be internal

(demonstrated in the case of state-dependent forgetting), or external (context-dependent

forgetting).
The retrieval cue hypothesis is a very plausible account of certain aspects of forgetting.
According to the proponents of retrieval failure theory, it is unnecessary to use the idea
of trace decay to explain the forgetting of information even over long periods of time. A
change in retrieval cues can disrupt forgetting, and, as cues alter over time, memories
will gradually become more and more inaccessible. For example, physical cues that are
associated with our childhood years disappear, as houses, and even whole
neighbourhoods, are pulled down.
The retrieval cue hypothesis has also been used to explain the phenomenon known as
childhood amnesia, whereby we appear to have few reliable memories before the age
of three and a half years. The environment of the infant and small child is very different
from the world they will occupy some 10 to 15 years later (in viewpoint, scale,
accessibility, etc.). Thus, whatever memories are stored at this time are encoded in a
context that will not be available as retrieval cues in the adult environment.
Motivated forgetting
Freud emphasised the emotional basis of forgetting and through the concept of
repression suggested a means by which threatening material can be kept from
consciousness — motivated forgetting. This account of forgetting is highly
controversial. While there is general agreement that traumatic experiences have the
potential to disturb people’s memories, there are many concerns over the implications
of the theory of repressed memories. One area of controversy has been the suggestion
that repressed memories from childhood can be recovered using appropriate techniques
(e.g. hypnosis).
A number of attempts have been made to test the concept of repression in the
laboratory. However for ethical and other reasons this has proved difficult. In contrast,
there has been no shortage of claims from clinical studies for the existence of
recovered memories. For example, Herman & Schatzow (1987) claim to have found
that 28% of female victims of incest reported major memory deficits from childhood
and these repressed memories were more common among women who had suffered
violent abuse. In another study, Williams (1992) indicated that in a group of abused
African-American women, 38% reported repressed memories of that abuse. The abuse
had taken place approximately 17 years previously.
 SAQ 8
a) What is meant by the term repression?

b) Why is studying repression difficult?

Making memory more effective

If we combine the above research into memory, we can come up with the following
suggestions for improving memory:
♦ chunking information in STM
♦ using rehearsal
♦ using mental imagery
♦ deep processing wherever possible
♦ ensuring that the information is distinctive
♦ putting the material in context
♦ making the material personally relevant
However, the above are unlikely to help us with skills such as driving or other abilities.
The best way to learn and remember motor-skills is through constant practice, as any
good sports player will know.
 SAQ 9
Give an example of each memory-improving strategy.
Mnemonics and study aids

Other techniques to improve memory include the use of mnemonics. For example
where each letter of the mnemonic stands for a word or concept (for example,
ADDIDAS for Bowlby’s claimed effects of maternal deprivation; Autism, Depression,
Dwarfism, Intellectual retardation, Dependency, Affectionless psychopathy, Social
isolation).
Students use a variety of techniques such as mind maps, where they summarise the
information in a diagram showing the connections between items, and the PQRS:
(Preview, Question, Read and Self-recitation and Test). This is an effective method of
improving study skills. Suppose you want to study the next chapter in the textbook
(Chapter 9).
♦ Quickly scan (preview) the pages to get an overview of the topic (Methods).
♦ Produce a list of questions about the material (e.g., what different methods are used
in psychology?)
♦ Read it again carefully, answering your questions as you go along. Take notes or
highlight at this stage.
♦ From memory, write down a short summary of the key points.
♦ Look over your notes and test your recall.

This might seem like hard work, and it should be! The more effort we put into
remembering things, the more we will remember them.
1.3.4 Eyewitness testimony (EWT)

Our legal system often relies on eyewitness testimony to ascertain what happened, but
psychological research has shown it to be very unreliable, with factors such as the
choice of language having an effect on how events are remembered. The constructivist
model of memory can best explain such unreliability of eyewitness testimony. Research
would seem to indicate that the way questions are asked can affect the recall of
witnesses, so it is probably more reliable to ask the witnesses to give their account of
events rather than to ask them a series of potentially leading questions.
Eye-witness testimony is often a vital factor taken into account by juries in deciding
whether defendants are guilty or not guilty. It is important, therefore, that we have some
idea of how reliable these testimonies really are. The answer to this question seems to
be that they are not always very accurate. Cromberg et al. (1996) interviewed people
one year after an air crash in Amsterdam. Of the 193 questioned, 55% said that they had
seen the plane hit the building when they had not and 59% inaccurately reported that a
fire had started immediately on impact.
This should not surprise us. As noted above, Bartlett (1932) suggested that although we
think we remember accurately, we are continually trying to make sense of what is
around us and our memories tend to be fitted into existing schemas. This process is
known as effort after meaning. Loftus’s research shows that memory is not simply a
‘tape-recording’ of past events.
Loftus’s research: leading questions

According to Loftus, one way of adding information after the event is by the questions
asked by interviewers. A leading question is one that is phrased in such a way that it
suggests a particular answer to the witness.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) showed seven film-clips of a traffic accidents to 45 student
participants. Following the presentation, the students were asked a number of questions,
the critical one involving the speed of the vehicles. There were five conditions. One
was the question ‘How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?’
While in the other groups smashed was changed to collided, bumped, hit, and finally
contacted.
The findings were that the way in which the questions were asked had an effect on what
the participants remembered. Those participants who had heard the word ‘smashed’
gave the highest speed estimate (about 40mph) while for those given the word ‘hit’, the
estimate was almost 10 mph less. Their memory of the accident was far worse than the
other group’s memories, even though they had seen exactly the same film.
In further investigations, Loftus and her colleagues showed how quite subtle changes of
wording during questioning may distort recall.
Criticisms of this type of research, however, are that it is laboratory based and does not
have the emotional impact of witnessing an incident. Also, research has focused on the
recall of ‘peripheral’ details and, as Fruzetti et al. (1992) point out, it is more difficult to
distort witnesses’ memory for key details such as the murder weapon involved in the
incident.

 Reading: Textbook pages 143-144 ‘Eye witness testimony’
 SAQ 10
a) What is meant by reconstructive memory?

b) How does Loftus demonstrate the effect of leading questions on EWT?
c) Give two criticism of Loftus’s research.
Role of arousal
Experiments also shows us that emotional arousal can lead to poor recall for details.
Loftus et al (1978) showed a film of a hold-up and then tested memory for details. The
results showed that a high-arousal version of a young boy being shot and falling to the
floor clutching his bleeding face, led to poorer recall than a low-arousal version.
However, research into so-called ‘flash-bulb memories’ does show that in certain
circumstances memory can be intensified by emotionally charged events.
As a result of evidence from eye-witness studies, the Devlin Report (1976)

recommended that judges should instruct juries that it is not safe to convict on a single
eye-witness alone, except in exceptional circumstances such as the witness is a friend or
relative, or when there is substantial corroborative evidence.
Improving recall
Hogg & Vaughan (1996) have examined a number of factors that lead to improved
accuracy of eye-witness testimony. For example, it can help if the witness goes back
over the scene or the crime to reinstate additional cues. It also helps if the witness was
exposed to the person’s face for a long time and give their testimony a very soon after
the crime. Certain personality factors are also important, i.e. does the witness habitually
attend to his/her surroundings and does he/she generally form vivid mental images.
Finally it helps if the person’s face was not altered by disguise and if he actually looks
dishonest!
More controversial is the idea that hypnosis will aid eye-witness memory. Many
studies have found no advantage from using this technique (e.g. Smith, 1983). Indeed,
Orne et al. (1984) have shown that hypnosis can actually distort recall.
Other methods of improving recall have been more widely accepted. One such
technique, the cognitive interview, has proved to be a better tool at extracting
information than the standard police interview with no more errors (Fisher &
Geiselman, 1988). The technique uses four strategies designed to maximise recall:
 Mentally reinstating the environmental and personal context that existed at the time
of the crime
 Reporting everything regardless of its perceived importance

 Recounting events in a variety of different orders
 Reporting the events from a variety of perspectives
 SAQ 11
Outline one practical application of research into EWT.
(a) Give a brief outline of the multistore model of memory (5 marks)
(b) A group of friends at a café order 10 drinks. Use you knowledge of

psychology to explain why the waiter would be unlikely to remember them all
without writing them down? (4 marks)
(c) Use psychological evidence to suggest one way in which the accuracy of
eyewitness testimony might be improved. (2 marks)
(d) Outline two explanations of forgetting. (6 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 2.1
Forming
impressions of
others
2.1.1 Sources of bias and distortion in impression formation
♦ Central and peripheral traits
♦ Primacy and recency effects
♦ Implicit personality theories
2.1.2 Stereotyping
♦ Positive and negative evaluations resulting from stereotyping
2.2.3 Applications and evaluations of studies

GCSE Psychology Unit 2.1: Impression formation

Aronson, E (1992) The Social Animal. 6th ed. NY: W.H. Freeman & Co. (Chapter 4)
Atkinson, et al (1996) Higard’s Introduction to Psychology. 12th ed. NY: Harcourt
(Chapter 17)
Cook, M (1979) Perceiving Others. London: Methuen (Chapters 2 & 6)
Hayes, N (1993) Principles of Social Psychology. London: Lawrence Erlbaum (Chapter
4)
Hinton, P. P. (1993) ‘The psychology of interpersonal perception. London: Routledge

1. Do first impressions matter? Try to remember your first impression of someone else
in the group. Did it turn out to be accurate?
2. What do you think the ‘typical’ Frenchman (or woman) is like? How does he/she
differ from the ‘typical’ German? How accurate are these stereotypes? What are the
dangers of using them?
3. How many uses of stereotypes can you find in an edition of a tabloid newspaper?
How do they compare with a broadsheet (try the Sun versus the Times). What does
this tell us about tabloid journalism?

Aim
To investigate the effects of attractiveness on person perception. (Based on Dion, 1972)

Attractive children will be perceived as more honest than unattractive children.
IV = attractiveness rating
DV = judgement of honesty
Method
Apparatus: You should obtain about 10-12 pictures of young children. You will also
need a paragraph that describes some wrongdoing by a child (e.g. ignoring a
neighbour’s request to stop playing football near a greenhouse and then breaking a glass
pane with the ball.)
Sampling: Sample of people to use as participants (over 16 years)
Design: Independent design experiment.
Procedure: You will first need to sort out the pictures into 2 groups – attractive and
unattractive. You should really use some judges to do this. If there are some pictures
that there is disagreement over then these should be replaced by others. Then give the
pictures to the participants and ask them how likely it is that the child would repeat the
wrongdoing. You should include some filler questions (e.g. about the child’s
personality) to disguise the purpose of the study.
Results
Presentation of results: Draw up a table and produce appropriate pie or bar charts etc.
to show the results.
Analysis of results: Compare the overall estimate for repeating the wrongdoing for
attractive and unattractive groups.
Did your results support your hypothesis?
Relate your findings to your aims and to relevant psychological research on the social
perception – for example, in relation to the halo effect.
Ethical issues
You need to take over where the photos come from – you wouldn’t like your own being
used. Also there is deception.

2.1.1 Forming impressions of others

The ways in which we form impressions of others is known as person perception.
Psychologists have found that we form impressions about others in a number of ways,
including the following:
♦ We tend to judge people by the first impressions they make on us, even if these are
incorrect.
♦ We use implicit personality theories where we assume that if people possess

certain characteristics or traits, they will also possess other characteristics.
♦ We develop our own personal theories about people, our personal constructs.
♦ We stereotype people by placing them into categories, for example, ‘she looks a bit
of a snob’. Prejudice is based on such stereotyping. This is when we judge an
individual according to characteristics that are thought to apply to all members of
the group, for example, categorising someone as an ‘English football supporter’.
Implicit personality theories in person perception

When we make judgements of other people, it is suggested that we make use of
implicit personality theories. These theories predict that someone who possesses one
characteristic or trait also possesses other characteristics or traits.
Central and peripheral traits

Some traits are more important or central than other more peripheral traits. For
example, Maier (1955) found that describing someone as either a manager of a small
business or as a trade union official affected the judgements that people made about
what the person was like.
Not all traits are important in determining impressions. Solomon Asch (1946) found
that describing someone as polite or blunt didn’t have much impact on how they were
perceived. So these are examples of peripheral traits, whereas describing them as
‘warm’ or ‘cold’ have a great effect on how people are perceived. These are, therefore,
central traits.
Rosenberg and his colleagues (1968) found that there were two major parts to implicit
personality theories:
♦ Intellectual, concerned with mental ability, which was related to positive traits such
as persistent, skilful, scientific; through to negative traits such as naive and foolish.
♦ Social, ranging from positive traits such as helpful, sociable, popular, to negative
traits such as cold, irritable and unsociable.
Someone who possesses a trait at the positive end of one of these ranges would
generally be expected to possess the other related traits. For example, someone who is
thought to be intellectual would also be thought of as scientific and persistent, while
someone perceived as cold would also be expected to be irritable and unsociable. Once
someone is perceived as possessing a particular central trait, we tend to ignore evidence
that they don’t possess related traits, but focus on evidence that they do. This is known
as a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’.

 Reading: Textbook pages 1-2 ‘Central and peripheral traits’
 SAQ 1
a) Explain what Asch meant by the term central trait.

b) Write a description of Asch’s study. Use the headings: aim, procedures,
results and conclusion.
c) What important variables needed to be controlled in this study?
 Activity
Think about how you make up your mind about someone you talk to for the
first time at a party. Which traits do you use to form an impression of them?
Can you decide which of these are central, and which ones are more
peripheral?
Primacy and recency effects in person perception

This refers to the extent to which our judgements of people are influenced more by first
(primacy) or last (recency) impressions.
Solomon Asch (1946) found that the first information (recency) we receive about
others creates a lasting impression despite later evidence to the contrary. He gave six
participants the following list of characteristics about a person, in the following order:
♦ intelligent; industrious; impulsive; critical; stubborn; envious
A second group was given the list in reverse order:
♦ envious; stubborn; critical; impulsive; industrious; intelligent
The group who saw the first list, formed a more favourable impression of the person
than those who saw the second list. For example, 90% of the first group said he was
generous, but only 10% of the second group.
A study by Pennington (1982) used a mock trial situation. One group heard the
prosecution evidence first, the second group heard the defence evidence first. The group
that heard the prosecution case first was more likely to find the defendant guilty than
the second group. Clearly, this has important implications for real-life trials. It has also
been found that negative first impressions are harder to change than positive ones.

Recency is the opposite of primacy, where the last things you find out about someone
are the most important in forming your overall impression. However, primacy seems
much more important than recency — first impressions really do matter and once
formed are difficult to change with later information.
 Reading: Textbook pages 2-4 ‘Primacy and recency effects’
 SAQ 2
a) Write a description of the Luchins’ study. Use the headings: aim, method,
procedure, results and conclusion.
b) What important variables needed to be controlled in this study
c) When is the primacy effect more likely to occur?
d) When is the recency effect more likely to occur?
Personal constructs
Psychologists have developed tests to help them to analyse personality. These use traits
such as neuroticism and introversion to explain individual differences in attitudes and
behaviour. However, these traits may not mean much to ordinary members of the
public. Personal constructs (Kelly, 1955) are the individual’s own ideas about traits,
based on their own personal experience. Personal constructs are used, among other
things, to guide future behaviour. It is a hypothesis about what to expect when we meet
certain types of people, but like all hypotheses, it is subject to modification by later
experience.
Personal constructs are a similar idea to implicit personality theories, but are more
concerned with the way the individual puts together a view of the social world. Kelly
found that most people use between six and eight major personal constructs when
forming impressions of other people. The exact constructs used, of course, vary from
individual to individual.
Personal constructs are like stereotypes, except that they are individual and unique,
whereas stereotypes are socially constructed and shared.
 Reading: Textbook page 6 ‘Personal constructs’
Stereotyping and implicit personality theories

Perception is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, and while we generally accept
the importance of the brain in human perception (see Unit 1.1), the role of social
factors is not as clear-cut. The key link, according to Tajfel, between the social world

and the inner world of beliefs and ideas is categorisation: basically grouping together
objects or ideas on the basis of shared characteristics or attributes. Stereotypes are
important social categories – a simplified set of ideas that we believe are shared by a
group of objects or people.
 Activity
Examine your own ideas about males and females. For example, consider what
sort of characteristics are shared by each gender. What things are men and
women good at? What are they bad at? Should women be encouraged to take
part in some sports and not others? Now ask yourself to what extent these are
stereotypes?
Stereotypes perform the essential function of simplifying information, that would

otherwise overwhelm the cognitive system. They enable us to respond to various
instances of phenomena in a similar, and usually appropriate way. When visiting a
doctor’s surgery, for example, we don’t need to know any particular personality
characteristics and attitudes of the doctor we eventually see. It is sufficient to know that
they belong to the category ‘doctor’ and we expect them to behave as such.
Although categories are a useful means of dealing with a complex social world, they are
not always accurate or reliable. Indeed, inaccurate stereotypes can form the basis of
prejudice and discrimination.
For example, social identity theory suggests that the social world has an important role
in defining the kind of person we think we are (a student, a Manchester United
supporter, etc). To reinforce this identity we tend to divide the social world into two
categories: ‘us’ and ‘them’. Once this division is made, this can have important
consequences, principally as a source of prejudice. We have a higher level of self-
esteem the more positively we perceive the group to which we belong. To value being a
member of the ‘in-group’ a definite distinction must be made between this group and
others (the out-groups). Tajfel (1971) uses the ‘minimal group paradigm’ to
demonstrate just how powerful these processes can be.
Stereotypes often contain beliefs about personality traits and characteristics of group
members, for example the belief that intelligent people are often ‘cold’. As such, these
stereotypes make use of implicit personality theories.
 Reading: Textbook pages 7-11 ‘Stereotyping’

 SAQ 3
a) What is a stereotype?
b) Are stereotypes always a bad thing?
c) What is meant by the term ‘illusory correlation’ (Textbook, pages 186 &
188)?
d) Explain two other ways in which stereotypes can distort social cognition.
Social schemas
Personal constructs and stereotypes can be viewed as examples of social schemas. A
schema is a mental structure that represents our knowledge about the self, other people,
situations or events. Schemas are used to simplify our world, allowing us to take in and
interpret information. They provide a guide for action.
In discussing the primacy and recency effect, Asch said that our early information
affects the meaning of later information, i.e. we change the later information to make it
consistent and perhaps pay less attention to it. Psychologists would now explain this in
terms of schematic processing. When we form impressions of others we create a
schema about them; first impressions determine the initial schema and later impressions
are filtered through that schema we already have. We tend to notice information that
confirms our schema and ignore that which is different, so later information, which
does not fit into our schema, is not attended to. This may be why the primacy effect is
strongest for those people we do not know. For those we know, however, the recency
effect is more powerful. Recency occurs if the first information we receive is positive
but it is followed by negative information, e.g. if a friend is sociable and is then banned
for drunk driving, you are likely to remember the last thing and your impression of him
or her will be negative.
 SAQ 4
a) Explain what Asch meant by the term ‘central trait’.

b) How can the primacy effect be explained in terms of schematic processing?
Schemas are ideas about what we expect will happen in social situations. However, they
not only affect our perception and interpretation of events, they also influence our
memory for what actually happened. Bower demonstrated this by asking participants to

produce a description of a restaurant schema (e.g. being shown to a table, given a menu,
ordering food, paying the bill). He then told a story about a meal in a restaurant. When
tested on the recall of the story later, participants gave details that had not been in the
original story. This indicated that an assumption had been made as to the contents of the
story relating to their existing restaurant schema.

(a) Outline one study in which sources of bias in impression formation was
investigated (e.g. primacy and recency effects, central traits). Indicate in
your answer the method used, the results obtained and the conclusion
drawn.
(5 marks)
(b) Explain what is meant by implicit personality theories. (2 marks)
(c) Use your knowledge of psychology to explain why stereotypes can lead to bias
in forming impressions of people. (4 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 2.2
Prejudice and
discrimination
2.2.1 Definitions of prejudice and discrimination.
2.2.2 Explanations of prejudice: individual, interpersonal and intergroup levels.
♦ Research by Adorno and Tajfel
♦ Contributions of individual, interpersonal and intergroup sources in

everyday situations
2.2.3 Psychological explanations of ways in which prejudice might be reduced.

GCSE Psychology Unit 2.2: Prejudice

Aronson, E. (1992) The Social Animal, 6th Edn. New York: Freeman. (Chapter 7)
Brigham, J.C. (1991) Social Psychology, 2nd Edn. New York: Harper Collins
(Chapter 11)
Sabini, J. (1995) Social Psychology. 2nd Edn. New York: WW Norton & Co.
(Chapter 4)

1. Think about some popular TV shows. Write a description of the non-white characters
portrayed in these shows. Do they have more stereotyped roles than the white
characters? How could TV help to reduce prejudice?
2. Similarly, consider the characteristics of the main female characters in a TV soap. How
do they compare with the male characters?
3. Imagine that you are someone of influence who has power to change social policy
within a community where strong racial prejudice exists. What changes would you
suggest to reduce the level of prejudice?

Aim
To examine age differences in prejudice.
Hypothesis
There will be a difference in the amount of prejudice shown towards students by young
and old people.
Method
Survey method using a questionnaire
Design: You will, first, have to design a questionnaire to measure prejudice. Collect a
number of statements that are for and against ‘students’ — interviewing people, whom
you know either like or dislike students, might help. The statements should reflect
common stereotypes about students (e.g. lazy/hardworking, tidy/scruffy). These can be
put into a questionnaire to obtain a measure of how favourable someone’s views are
towards students, e.g., the number of unfavourable statements agreed with minus the
number of favourable statements agreed with.
Procedure: Pilot your questionnaire with a small sample to begin with – this can help
check if the questions are OK. Choose an appropriate sample of ‘younger’ and ‘older’
participants (non-students, of course). Administer and score the questionnaire.
Results
Presentation: Draw up a table to show your results. This should show the ‘prejudice’
scores of the young and old groups. Produce an appropriate graph.
Analysis: Calculate the mean score of each group.
Relate your findings to your hypothesis and your knowledge of research into prejudice.
How do you explain your findings? How difficult was it to devise the questionnaire?
Was it a good (reliable and valid) measure of prejudice in this case?
Ethical issues
Would it have been ethical to examine prejudice in more sensitive areas (e.g., race)?
Did you consider issues such as confidentiality?
Teacher’s note
It might be an idea to provide students with a sample list of statements for the first stage
of the design.

2.2.1 Definitions
Prejudice can be understood as a negative attitude that would be considered unjustified
by an observer. However it can serve important functions such as lending meaning to
the world, promoting social adjustment, expressing values, or helping externalise
personal problems, e.g. frustration, low self-esteem or perceived threat.
Prejudiced attitudes are often based on stereotypes. These occur when we put together
a set of people and assume that they are all much the same. For example, someone
might see all teenagers as lazy, selfish, loud and unruly. This negative stereotype would
imply that he/she was strongly prejudiced against teenagers.
Discrimination means acting differently towards something or someone. We usually

refer to discrimination in a situation where someone acts on their prejudiced attitude
and behaves negatively towards another person. The most common examples are
racism and sexism. A black person might be discriminated at work by not being given a
promotion that he/she deserved. Prejudice is an attitude, but discrimination refers to
behaviour.
The study by Richard La Piere (1934) demonstrates the that attitudes (e.g. prejudice)
and behaviours (discrimination) are not always consistent.
 Reading: Textbook pages 13-14 ‘Prejudice and discrimination’.
 SAQ 1
a) Give an example of (i) a prejudiced attitude, and (ii) an act of discrimination.

b) Explain the circumstances in which a prejudiced attitude is most likely to lead
to discrimination.
2.2.2 Explanations of prejudice
Individual: Psychodynamic theory & Adorno

Psychodynamic theories have influenced a number of explanations of the origins of
prejudice. The idea that negative attitudes towards minority groups can serve a self-
protecting (ego defensive) function is called the scape-goat theory of prejudice,
because the person’s hostility often takes the form of blaming the outside groups for his
or her own personal and social problems.
Adorno and his colleagues at the University of California tested this theory in the late
1940s to see if it could explain the type of anti-Semitism that had emerged in Nazi
Germany. The results were published in 1950 in a book called ‘The Authoritarian

Personality’. The hypothesis that people, who were anti-Semitic, were also likely to be
prejudiced against other out-groups (gypsies, blacks, etc.) was confirmed. These
prejudiced individuals were also found to have come from families where the parents
were morally very strict, had a strong sense of a hierarchical family structure (father is
always right!), and for whom status was very important. This resulted in them
becoming submissive to those they considered their superiors, and contemptuous and
aggressive to those they considered to be inferior. In Freudian terms, they repress
knowledge of their own undesirable characteristics, refusing to recognise their
weaknesses. Instead, they project them onto members of ‘inferior’ out-groups. They
were labelled as authoritarian personality types.
Recent research suggests that this type of personality may be acquired through more
straightforward learning processes, which do not involve psychoanalytic mechanisms.
Thus, it is argued that if the parent has an authoritarian personality, then this will form a
model for the children to imitate.
The frustration-aggression hypothesis is also based on a psychoanalytic view. If,

during the course of socialisation, the child is constantly frustrated, (e.g. always waiting
to be fed, or to be given attention), Freud believed that this would lead to a long lasting
hostility toward his/her parents. The child would like to attack them, but this is not
possible, so the child displaces his/her aggression onto safer and less loved targets. So
they become scapegoats on which to take out his/her aggression.
 Reading: Textbook pages 14-15 ‘The authoritarian personality’.
 SAQ 2
a) What is meant by ‘the authoritarian personality’?

b) How can Adorno’s research be criticised?
Interpersonal (cognitive) approaches

These approaches to prejudice emphasise that prejudice is fundamentally a matter of
beliefs about other people. For this reason they can also be classified as cognitive
approaches. It is suggested that at the root of prejudice is the fact that our memories are
prone to error and therefore our beliefs about a group of people (i.e. stereotypes) do not
necessarily match our experiences of them. We tend to distort or reject information
which does not fit our stereotype (e.g. students who are quiet and hard working!) and
focus on events which confirm our prejudices. Not only that, our behaviour towards
people may encourage them to behave in a more hostile way. ‘Bikers’ who are refused
entry to a pub, may become abusive to the manager, reinforcing his prejudices against
them.

As well as stereotyping, cognitive explanations of prejudice also emphasise the role of

categorisation. When placing people into groups (men, women, Irish, Asians) we tend
to exaggerate the differences between them (e.g. saying that men are dominant but
women passive), and the similarities within the group (e.g. all students are lazy!) Henri
Tajfel has suggested that this is a major contributor to prejudice.
 Reading: Textbook pages 15-16 ‘The interpersonal level of explanation’
 SAQ 3
a) Explain what Tajfel means by social categorisation.

b) How did Tajfel show that individuals would favour an in-group over an out-
group?
Intergroup explanations
This approach sees the prejudiced individual as a product of relationships between
groups. One example of how this may occur can be seen in ‘Realistic Conflict Theory’
(Sherif) where it is argued that when two groups are in competition for scarce
resources, each group becomes more cohesive and hostile to the other group. The
famous Sherif field experiment (see below) demonstrated how competition between
groups could be manufactured as a result of controlling and limiting resources. The
attitudes towards immigrant people in this country may be due to a perceived
competition for resources.
 Activity
Have you ever heard people say ‘they come over here and take all the jobs’?
Why do you think it is difficult to get a person who believes this to change
his/her mind? (Hint: cognitive theory would be useful here)
As members of a particular society or culture we learn the prejudiced attitudes of our

own group. For example, many members of the Protestant and Catholic communities in
Northern Ireland hold prejudiced attitudes in relation to the opposite community.
Children learn such attitudes very early through a combination of imitation of their
parents’ behaviour and views, and a process of reinforcement of their own behaviour by
their parents. It is difficult to escape being prejudiced in such a society, particularly as
there are strong conforming pressures to maintain prejudice.

 Reading: Textbook pages 17-18 ‘The intergroup level of explanation’.
 SAQ 4
a) Outline Sherif’s ‘Robbers Cave study’.

b) What is meant by scapegoating?
c) How might children learn that it is the norm to be prejudiced?
2.2.3 Reduction of prejudice

Psychologists have suggested a number of ways in which prejudice can be reduced.
One obvious solution would be to engineering more contact between social groups.
Social contact/co-operation
In Sherif’s Robbers’ Cave study it was shown that when the two gangs had to co-
operate in order to succeed, hostility was reduced. It was thought that merely bringing
two groups of people into contact would be enough to reduce the level of prejudice.
Thus, legislation encouraging integrated housing schemes was implemented in parts of
the USA after the Second World War. Studies showed that in some cases these projects
did significantly reduce the amount of racial prejudice. However, historically, blacks
and whites, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics living together has not ended
racial prejudice. It has been suggested that the most important condition in such
situations is that the participants be of equal status, there is co-operation leading to a
successful outcome, social norms and authorities promote personal relationships and
friendship, and feelings of anxiety and social competition are minimised.
 Reading: Textbook pages 18-20 ‘Competition’ & Co-operation’

 SAQ 5
a) Why does social contact between minority and minority groups not always
result in the reduction of prejudice?
b) How can social contact be made more effective?
Challenging stereotypes
One of the most effective ways that stereotypes have been challenged is through
legislation involving discrimination. For example, Equal Opportunities legislation
actively makes it unlawful to discriminate in any way against someone because of their
gender, in the same way that racial discrimination policies make it illegal to
discriminate against someone on the basis of their race. For example, in some cases
women and racial minorities have been positively favoured in the job market, in an
attempt to redress the bias against them. Eventually, stereotypes will be challenged as
we get used to seeing women and those from minority groups represented in all walks
of life. There is some evidence that the higher the educational level, the less dependent
a person is on negative stereotypes. Discussing prejudice in a GCSE course could
therefor be helpful in reducing prejudice!
Changing social norms

Prejudice can be very hard to eradicate when it is the ‘norm’ to be prejudiced. In South
Africa under apartheid and in the Southern US States, it was quite unusual for a white
person not to show prejudice of some kind against blacks. Social norms can be affected
by bringing in laws against discrimination. It has been found that over a period of time
people’s attitudes will gradually change for the better, as they come to terms with the
inevitability of greater equality.
Practice exam questions
(a) Explain the difference between what is meant by the terms prejudice and
discrimination. (4 marks)
(b) Outline one psychological theories that attempts to explain prejudice.

(7 marks)
(c) From what you have learned in psychology, suggest one way in which
prejudice might be reduced. (12
marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 2.3
Social influence
2.3.1 The effects of the presence of others
♦ Studies demonstrating the effects of the presence of others: social

facilitation, social loafing, audience effects, bystander behaviour
♦ Application to everyday situations
2.3.2 Conformity, Obedience and deindividuation
♦ Definitions of conformity, obedience and deindividuation
♦ Description and evaluation of studies of conformity, obedience and

deindividuation
♦ Milgram, Asch, Zimbardo
♦ Factors which affect conformity, obedience and deindividuation
2.3.3 Sources of social influence
♦ Role of group norms, internal and external filters, scripts, and media
influences

GCSE Psychology Unit 2.3: Social influence

Gross, R (1995) Themes Issues and Debates in Psychology. Hodder & Stoughton.
Chapter 10 ‘Psychology and ethics’
Eysenck, M (1996) Simply Psychology. Hove: Psychology Press Chapter 15
Hewstone, M. et al. (eds) (1996) Introduction to Social Psychology, 2nd Edition.

Oxford: Blackwell.
Chapter 16 ‘Social influence in small groups
Sabini, J. (1995) Social Psychology, 2nd Edition. New York: W. W. Norton.
Chapter 2 has a detailed account of Asch and Milgram experiments.
Turner, J. C. (1991) Social Influence. Milton Keynes: OUP

1. Consider the implications for sports coaching of social facilitation and audience
effects.
2. Arrange for groups to role-play the Asch and Milgram studies.
3. Do you behave differently in a group of friends than when alone? Discuss the
reason for this.
4. Discuss how you are influenced by others around you. Give examples such as
tastes in clothes, music, football team etc. Of all the people who influence you,
who has the most influence?
5. Think of a real life example of conformity. What factors do you think might
affect conformity levels in this case?
6. A class discussion on whether studies of obedience like Milgram’s can ever be

ethical.
7. Discuss whether Milgram’s research can help us to understand one or more of these
examples of destructive obedience:
♦ The Mai Lai Massacre, following which an American officer, Lt Calley,

attempted to avoid the responsibility for the deaths of 102 civilians during the
Vietnam war by claiming that he was just following orders.
♦ The influence exerted on members by cults such as the Moonies.
♦ The Jonestown massacre where 900 members of Jim Jones’ People’s

Temple in Guyana committed suicide by taking poison at the request of their
leader.
♦ The Branch Davidians killing themselves at the request of their leader

David Koresh at Waco.

Aim
To investigate whether sex affects the degree of conformity.
Hypothesis: that females are less likely to conform than males.

IV= sex of subjects
DV= whether subject conforms
Method
Find several non-psychology students, half male, half female, matched as closely as
possible for other factors that might affect conformity.
Construct a set of cards similar to those used by Asch, and brief a group of six students,
three male and three female, to play the confederates. Invite each subject into the test
room and start the test, always asking the subject last. Record their answers. Escort the
participant from the room and de-brief them, explaining the purpose of your study.
Design:
Experiment, with matched pairs if possible. Male and female students from the same
course, and of similar age might be suitable, provided they were not allowed to
communicate with each other before all subjects had completed the experiment.
Results
The number of conforming subjects of each sex should be recorded.
Analysis of results:
Numbers conforming should be compared with expected numbers. Is the hypothesis
supported?
Presentation of results: Use appropriate graphs, charts etc.
Discussion
What other factors may account for your results?
Ethical issues
What ethical issues are raised by the study? Is it right to deceive subjects like this? Why
is it necessary to de-brief them?

2.3.1 Effects of others on individual behaviour
 Activity
Would you perform differently in front of an audience? Write down any ideas
about how your performance might change, and try to suggest reasons for this
change.
Social facilitation
Triplett (1898) noticed that cyclists doing the same time trials obtained better times
when other riders were either in direct competition with them or were riding with them,
than when they were alone. He carried out an experiment that supported his initial
observations — later recognised as the first experimental investigation in the field of
‘sports’ psychology. Triplett referred to this effect as ‘Dynamogeny’, now known as
social facilitation.
Allport (1924) broadened to scope of Triplett’s findings by investigating whether social

facilitation occurs in non-competitive situations. He carried out a study setting
multiplication tasks for students but instructing them not to compete with each other.
He still found that performance was improved in the condition when they were merely
working alongside others. However, although there was increased quantity and
increased speed in these tasks, there was a reduction in quality of performance. Dashiell
(1935) found that co-action effects occur even when individuals are simply told that
others are performing the same task at the same time elsewhere.
These studies looked at the effect of working with others (co-action). Travis (1925)
found that social facilitation can occur with a passive audience. He trained people in a
hand-eye co-ordination task until they reached a certain standard. They did 10 trials in
front of a passive audience and 10 trials alone. The results were that most did better in
front of an audience. However a later study by Pessin (1933) showed that the effect of a
passive audience was not always beneficial. He asked people to learn a list of seven
nonsense syllables (e.g. NIV) either alone or in front of an audience. The results were
that people took longer in front of an audience and also made more mistakes.
In fact, much work that has been carried out on social facilitation has produced results
that are contradictory. On some occasions it seemed that performance was enhanced
(i.e. social facilitation), whilst in other tasks performance was impaired (social
inhibition). Whether the presence of others affects performance or not depends on a
number of factors, but in particular how complex the task is and how well learned it is.
The following table summarises the findings.

Table 1: Influence of nature of task on task performance
Effect on performance
Nature of the task High Low
Task complexity Inhibition Facilitation
Extent well-learned Facilitation Inhibition
 Reading: Textbook pages 23-25 ‘Social facilitation’ & ‘Audience effects’
 SAQ 1
a) Explain what is meant by the term co-action.

b) Explain what is meant by the term audience effect.
c) Under what circumstances does social facilitation occur and when can the
presence of others hinder performance.
Social loafing
Another area of research on the effects of others is social loafing. This refers to the
tendency to reduce the amount of effort an individual puts in as the number of people in
the group increases. For example, would you put in the same effort in when singing in a
choir as you would when singing solo?
Bibb Latané studied this by having three conditions in an experiment:
♦ People working alone
♦ People in a group
♦ A pseudogroup — people thought that there were other people working with them
but they were actually alone.
The task was to clap or cheer as loudly as possible. The results showed that people
expended more effort when alone, than when in either a pseudogroup or real group.
Therefore, other people don’t actually have to be present; it is enough just to believe
that they are there.
Social loafing is affected by the culture you live in. Thus, it is less common in what are
described as collectivist cultures (China, Japan, etc.), than in individualistic cultures
(UK, USA). Studies of Chinese subjects showed that they worked harder when in a
group than when alone.
 Reading: Textbook pages 25-26 ‘Social loafing’.

 SAQ 2
a) Explain what you understand by the term ‘social loafing’.

b) How did Latane demonstrate social loafing?
c) How could coaches try to minimise social loafing in team sports such as
football or net-ball?
Conformity, obedience and deindividuation

The main focus of research into social influence has been the areas of conformity and
obedience. The area became especially popular in the 1950s, when psychologists were
setting up experiments into types of behaviour that had been observed, often to
destructive effect, during the war. However it is not only in extreme situations that
conformity and obedience pressures operate. Although we are often encouraged to think
for ourselves, there are many forces at work to prevent us from doing so.
Conformity
This refers to the influence of the group on the individual. We conform when we go
along with majority opinion in the group.
 Activity
a) Students often consider themselves to be independent and unique, yet a

feature of adolescent behaviour is the strong need to conform to peer group
pressure. Identify some of the student sub-cultures around at the moment
(grunge, Goths, clubbers, etc). For each one, list the distinguishing dress
characteristics that define the group. Are some dress codes enforced more
strongly than others?
b) Describe an experience you have had of conforming to group pressure in the
last week. An example would be agreeing to the plans made by your friends
for Saturday night even though you wanted to do something else. Make a list
of these and discuss what the pressure to conform felt like. Why was it so
difficult to go against the tide of opinion? What would have made it easier to
express difference?

Solomon Asch did the classic studies on conformity in the 1950s. He was influenced by
the earlier research of Sherif, but he wanted to see the effect of conformity in less
ambiguous situations than those that Sherif had used.
In Asch’s studies, participants believed they were participating, with six other
‘subjects’, in an experiment on perceptual judgement. All seven were shown one white
card with a black line and another white card with three black lines. Their task was to
say which of the three lines was the same length as the single line on the other card. The
correct answer was extremely obvious. Six of the ‘participants’ were, in fact,
confederates of the experimenter, and when each person was asked to give his answer
in turn, in front of the whole group, they all gave the same incorrect answer. They were
deliberately giving the incorrect answer to exert conformity pressure on the one naive
subject, who had to give his answer at the end. From numerous experiments, Asch
found that most of the naive participants conformed and gave the same answer as the
majority.
Factors affecting conformity

Individuals who wish to be accepted by the group, or those who are unsure of the group
norms of behaviour are more likely to conform than someone who is more
independently minded. Other factors affecting conformity include group size, with
conformity increasing as size increases, status of group members, uncertainty and the
presence of other non-conforming group members. Where privacy was guaranteed,
conformity is markedly less.
There is evidence (see Zimbardo, below) that a process of attempting to remove a

person’s identity and re-build it can increase conformity. We can see this phenomenon
in total institutions such as prisons, concentration camps and military bases, where the
individual is often treated in a de-humanised way in a deliberate attempt to mould them
into conformity and obedience. Clearly, all such institutions rely on a large degree of
conformity and obedience.
Reading: Textbook: pages 27-30 ‘Conformity’
 SAQ 3
a) Define conformity.
b) Write a brief summary of Asch’s study of conformity. Use the headings: aim,
type of study; method; sample; procedure, results and conclusions.
c) Outline two factors that may influence rates of conformity in a study based
on Asch’s procedure.

Evaluating studies of conformity

Asch’s research studies have been very influential in determining how psychologists
investigate and think about conformity. However, there have also been criticisms of the
research.
A number of questions have been raised about the ethics of Asch’s research. The
people who took part in the studies were clearly both deceived and subjected to stress.
Is it clear what steps Asch took to minimise these problems?
Critics of Asch have suggested that his research cannot be applied to real life (i.e. it
lacks ecological validity). How often are we faced with making a judgement like the
one he used where the answer is plain to see. Asch replied that he wanted to investigate
a situation that was different from that used in earlier research (e.g. Sherif) where the
participants could be in no doubt what the correct answer was. In so doing he could
explore the true limits of social influence.
Another criticism made of Asch’s research is that his findings might not apply outside
the historical limits of 1950’s America. (“Were Asch’s findings a reflection of the
times?”) Support for this comes from studies in the 1970s and 1980s that show lower
conformity rates (e.g. Larsen, 1974, Perrin & Spencer, 1981). However other studies
have shown results close to those of Asch’s 1950 study. One problem in comparing
these studies is that sometimes very different types of participants are used. Perrin &
Spencer used science and engineering students who might be expected to be more
independent by training when it came to making perceptual judgements.
Other studies have undertaken replications of Asch’s studies, comparing conformity in

different cultures. In these studies, rates of conformity have sometimes been lower than
those found by Asch. Smith & Bond (1998) in reviewing 31 different studies suggest
that the variation in findings could be explained in terms of cultural differences. In
collectivist cultures such as those in many parts of Africa and Asia, conformity is likely
to be greater because people are more aware of and place a higher value on the group
than in individualist cultures such as Britain and the US.
Reading: Textbook page 30 ‘Evaluation of research on conformity’
 SAQ 4
a) To what extent is it true to say that Asch’s research lacks ecological validity?
b) How specific are Asch’s results to the 1950s?
c) How specific are Asch’s results to the culture in which the studies were
conducted?

Obedience
Obedience is simply doing what we are told by an authority figure. Psychologists are
interested in the extent to which people are obedient even when asked to do things
unpleasant or unacceptable, such as inflicting pain on others or even themselves. Some
of the most extreme forms of obedience appear to be the mass suicides associated with
certain religious cults on the orders of the cult leaders.
An area of particular interest has been the actions of the guards and even some of the
prisoners in the concentration camps associated with the Nazis in the Second World
War. For example, in Auschwitz-Birkenau in Poland gassing, starvation and deliberate
overwork and neglect systematically killed approximately one million (mainly Jewish)
inmates. More recently, we have seen similar atrocities in Rwanda and Bosnia. The
work of Milgram in the early 1960s throws some light on the extent to which ordinary
people will obey the most extreme orders in such situations.
 Reading: Textbook pages 30-31 ‘Obedience’
 SAQ 5
a) Identify the ‘experimenter’, ‘teacher’ and ‘learner’ in the Milgram procedure.

(These terms sometimes cause confusion.)
b) Write a brief summary of Milgram’s study of obedience. Use the headings:
aim; type of study; method; sample; procedure; results and conclusions.
 Activity
Read the procedure (but not the results) of the Milgram experiment to a sample
of friends and relatives. Ask them whether they would obey the orders. What
obedience level (i.e. average level of shock given) would they predict for the
kind of participants that Milgram used?
Conditions that influence obedience

It was relatively straightforward to adapt Milgram’s procedure in order to investigate
the conditions that foster obedience. Important factors were shown to be:
♦ Closeness to the victim: When the victim was remote and could not be seen,
obedience levels were highest. They were lowest when the ‘teacher’ had to

physically touch the ‘learner’ (by forcing his hand onto the plate). Most compassion
is shown when the victim is ‘personalised’.
♦ Closeness and legitimacy of the authority: Obedience was lowest when the
experimenter issued instructions by telephone, and is greatest when the
experimenter and ‘teacher’ are physically close. The authority must also be seen as
legitimate. When another participant (actually a confederate of Milgram) was asked
to take over the authority role because the experimenter had to leave the room,
obedience level dropped markedly (80% refused to comply).
♦ Institutional authority: In Milgram’s original study obedience was strengthened

by the prestige of Yale University, where the experiments were conducted.
However, this was not crucial. Obedience levels remained robust although
somewhat diminished, when the setting was transferred to a commercial building.
♦ Group influence: Some of the most dramatic reductions in conformity occurred

when the participants were paired with confederates who refused to continue with
the experiment.
 Reading: Textbook: page 32 ‘Factors affecting obedience’
 SAQ 6
c) Outline one factor that can increase obedience in situation such as that used
by Milgram.
d) Outline one factor that can make obedience less likely.
Evaluating of studies of obedience

Two main kinds of criticism are made of obedience studies: ethical criticisms,
concerning the extent to which ethical guidelines are breached by such studies, and
methodological criticisms, focusing on how far we can generalise from such studies to
real world settings and the representativeness of the subjects.
Orne & Holland suggest that the main failings of Milgram’s research are that it lacks:
 Experimental validity: for example were the participants actually taken in

by the scenario? Did they actually believe that they were administering real shocks
or were they just ‘going along with the experimenter’?
 Ecological validity: for example, can the results be applied beyond the
laboratory setting that Milgram used; were his samples representative, etc.?

Obedience in everyday life

Milgram’s study represented a fairly extreme situation. But to what extent are we
prepared to obey orders even when they conflict with rules and procedures? Hofling
(1966) showed that nurses were prepared to break many rules, including prescribing a
dosage of drug that they knew to be dangerous, when instructed to do so by doctors.
Perhaps there are parallels here with the rule breaking that is often used at work to
facilitate work tasks. Indeed, under English law, sticking rigidly to workplace rules is
actually defined as industrial action — the ‘work to rule’, implying that much work
activity depends on rule breaking.
Factors identified by Milgram can help explain why obedience occurs in controversial
situations such as the Midlands FE college where the chief executive was sacked for
mismanagement and bullying of staff. Many staff in the college carried out orders that
they felt were wrong, despite their misgivings they obeyed their boss. The subsequent
inquiry into the management of the college posed the question why rules and
procedures were ignored.
 Activity
Imagine you have been called as an expert witness to the inquiry into the
running of the college cited above. Suggest reasons why staff may have obeyed
orders despite this involving breaches of rules and procedures.
 Reading: Textbook page 32 ‘Evaluation of Milgram’s research’
 SAQ 7
a) List the BPS guidelines breached by Milgram’s study.

b) Consider whether Milgram’s results can be applied to real life?
Deindividuation
Gustav LeBon (1896) attempted to analyse the factors that lead to the mass hysteria
and violence of mob behaviour. He said that people in a crowd are more susceptible to
mob behaviour, because they feel anonymous and invulnerable. They start acting like
animals rather than people, and become impulsive and irrational. It is thought that this
results from a process of deindividuation: becoming less self-aware, and therefore less
in control of their behaviour. Diener highlights four factors that may result in reduced
self-awareness:

♦ Anonymity
♦ A high level of arousal
♦ A focus on external events (i.e. what is going on around you)
♦ Close group unity
These are precisely what happen in the type of mob situation which LeBon identified.
The consequent loss of individual identity, resulting in a reduction in the barriers
towards socially unacceptable behaviour, can explain why normally restrained people
can become angry and violent.
In the famous Zimbardo prison study, male volunteers were randomly assigned to be
either ‘prisoners’ or ‘guards’. The basement of the psychology department building was
converted into a ‘jail’, and various deindividuating techniques were used. For example,
the prisoners wore uniforms and nylon stocking masks, and were referred to by serial
numbers instead of names. Guards also wore uniforms and mirrored sunglasses to hide
their eyes, and they carried clubs. What started as a simulation became a nightmare!
Guards started acting like real guards, showing hostility and, in some cases, actual
violence to the ‘prisoners’. The experiment was terminated when it became obvious that
it was getting out of control. Once they become deindividuated, people can act in ways
they never thought possible.
 Reading: Textbook pages 33-34 ‘Deindividuation’
 SAQ 8
a) What is meant by the term deindividuation?

b) How did Zimbardo demonstrate that anonymity can increase aggression?
c) What other factors affect deindividuation?
Sources of social influence
Group norms
Group norms are behaviours that are expected of someone who belongs to a particular
social group. Norms are an important source of social influence because they are often
internalised.
 Reading: Textbook pages 34-35 ‘Group norms’

Internal filters: scripts and social roles

Scripts are based on the idea of the script of a film or play, where social actions are
based on a pre-defined sequence of events, such as the behaviour of waiters when a
customer enters a restaurant, or of teachers in a school. Although we know nothing
about the individuals, we expect them to behave in such ‘scripted’ ways. It used to be
quite popular for Social Psychology and Sociology lecturers in colleges to start their
courses by behaving in unpredictable ways such as sitting amongst the students, or
refusing to speak, in order to make the point to students that much of our social
behaviour is scripted.
 Activity
Discuss how you would react, if your teacher didn’t say anything at all for the
first ten minutes of the class.
Scripts depend on people knowing their roles, as in a film or play, and also knowing
about the roles of others, so that they will know what behaviour to expect.
Misunderstandings can arise when the roles or the script aren’t known. For example, in
most of Europe it is customary, when entering a bar or cafe, to remain seated until
approached by a waiter. But, in most English pubs and cafes one is expected to
approach the bar or counter for service.
Scripts enable us to know how to behave in a situation, and how to interpret the
behaviour of others by relating it to our knowledge of the social role they are filling.
For example, when a child starts at a new school, they are able to use their knowledge
of the social roles of teacher and pupil, and the scripts associated with these roles in
order to make sense of the behaviour of the new teachers and pupils.
 Reading: Textbook pages 35 ‘Scripts’
 SAQ 9
a) How are scripts related to social roles?

b) How do we learn scripts?
The media as external filters of information

The media play an important role in deciding which issues to bring to our attention, and
in deciding which aspects of those issues should be emphasised. Those in positions of

power and control in the media are said to be gatekeepers, in the sense that they choose
which events to present to us. The media can be said to be creators of events and
manipulators of social reality, and this is particularly evident in the use of the media for
propaganda and advertising.
The personal constructs of those in positions of power in the media can be used to
structure the selection and interpretation of events by the media, and in some societies
the media are directly controlled by the government.
The media also consistently present and define social roles to us, thereby reinforcing
those roles. However, the media can also be used to challenge stereotypical social roles
and scripts, for example, through the sympathetic portrayal of groups such as lesbians
in certain soap operas.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 35-36 ‘The media’
 SAQ 10
a) What are media gatekeepers?

b) In what ways does the media influence our perception of events?

(a) Use your knowledge of psychology to explain how the prescience of others
can improve performance. (4 marks)
(b) Give an example from everyday life when obedience to authority would be
useful. (2 marks)
(c) What are some of the factors that influence whether a person obeys or
conforms? Use psychological studies in your answer. (7 marks)
(d) Explain one factor that might influence whether or not a person conforms.
(2 marks)
(e) Evaluate the research into obedience. How useful is this research in helping us
to understand how other people may influence our behaviour? (7 marks)
(f) Using your knowledge of psychology, explain how the media can be a source
of social influence. (4 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 3.1
Making attachments
to others
3.1.1 Attachments
♦ Secure and insecure attachments
♦ The contribution of Ainsworth.
♦ Effects of secure and insecure attachments
♦ Practical application for the care of young children and development of

parenting skills
3.1.2 Maternal deprivation
♦ Bowlby’s work on maternal deprivation
♦ Possible long and short term effects of breaking attachment bonds,
♦ The work of Rutter
♦ Critical appraisal of theories and evidence

GCSE Psychology Unit 3.1: Attachments

Bee, Helen (1997) The Developing Child. 8th Edn. N.Y: Harper Collins.
(Chapter 11, Page 305-321 & Chapter 13, Page 386 onwards)
Schaffer, D. R. (1993) Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. 3rd
Edn. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. (Chapter 11)
Smith, P.K., Cowie, H. & Blades, M. (1998) 3rd Edn. Understanding Children’s
Development. Oxford: Blackwell. (Chapter 3)

1. A class discussion on whether mothers instinctively form attachments to their
babies (works best, if there are mothers in the group). Do fathers feel the same
way? It is possible to pursue this as a project by surveying new mothers and
fathers for their views.
2. As a class, construct descriptions of the ideal care-giver. Then discuss whether

or not this must be the mother.
3. Working as small groups, choose a different study relating to attachment

familiar to the groups. They are to imagine that they are the research team and
prepare the study for presentation to the class. When each group is ready, hold
a ‘conference’ with each ‘research team’ presenting their findings, while the
rest of the class plays the role of the audience. Include a question time for the
class to ask questions of the presenting group about ‘their research’.
4. A class discussion on failure to bond, and its possible relationship to child

abuse. Newspaper articles could provide suitable case study material.
5. A class debate on the effects of divorce. This could be in the form of groups
presenting topical material on divorce collected from magazines etc.

Aim
To observe the interaction between a mother and a child, and compare with that
between a father and a child
Method
Design: A naturalistic observation study. You will need to consider choice of
participants, ages, where to carry out the study, how long to observe, what to observe
and how this will be recorded. Will your presence affect the behaviour observed?
Results
Analysis of results: Can you categorise your data in any way? For example, you could
note the types of interactions you observed and measure how often they occurred in
each condition, comparing with mother and with father.
Presentation of results: Use appropriate graphs, charts etc.
Discussion
Do mothers and fathers behave differently with their children? Why do you think this
might be? Does it depend on the gender of the child? Can attachment theory help
explain your findings?
Ethical issues
Among the ethical issues to consider are: ensuring that permission is obtained from
participants; that confidentiality is assured and that you are unobtrusive.
Note to teachers
The main problem in this study is likely to be categorisation and sampling. Some will
try to record everything that is happening, and then have problems summarising the
data. Others will give some thought to categorising, but then perhaps later wish they
had used different categories! Encouraging a small-scale pilot might be a good idea.

3.1.1 Attachments
Attachments are an important sub-variety of affectional bonds. They are the
emotional bonds that children form with their caregivers during the first year of life.
Following on from the work of John Bowlby, Ainsworth described it as ‘a relatively
long-enduring tie in which the partner is important as a unique individual and is
interchangeable with none other. [It is] an affectional bond [where] there is a desire to
maintain closeness to the partner.’ (1989, p.711.) When attached, an infant feels (or
expects to feel) a special sense of security and comfort in the presence of the other
person and uses the other as a ‘safe base’ to explore the world.
Attachments are internal states and so cannot be directly observed. Instead we must
observe the infant’s behaviours. Thus if a baby is attached then it should show
behaviours to maintain proximity, such as smiling, making eye contact, crying,
clinging, calling out and so on.
By the time that a clear attachment has been formed, a number of related behaviours
occur, principally fear-of-strangers (or stranger anxiety) and separation anxiety. The
former is usually triggered when a stranger tries to make contact with the baby. Male
strangers cause the most anxiety, wheras child strangers elicit the least. Separation
anxiety first appears at around six months and reaches a peak at around 15 months.
Separation anxiety can be reduced if the child is in familiar surroundings (such as a day
care centre) or left with a brother or sister or other familiar person.
The ethologists (scientists who study animals in their natural surroundings) suggest that
attachment bonds are important, because they ensure the survival of the infant by
keeping it close to its caregiver. A similar process of bonding (imprinting) occurs in all
higher animals (including humans). Thus, ethologists have suggested that human
infants imprint onto their mother resulting in the formation of an attachment bond
between the infant and its mother. From a different viewpoint, Sigmund Freud
suggested that close emotional relationships with our parents were essential for the
normal development of the personality — especially the superego (conscience).
In the 1940’s the British psychiatrist Bowlby, influenced by the theories of both Freud
and the ethologists, suggested that sometimes bonding could fail between children and
their mothers, and that such maternal deprivation could have serious consequences for
the child (see section 1.2).
 Reading: Textbook pages 27-38 ‘The development of attachments’

 SAQ 1
a) Give a definition of ‘attachment’.

b) How can we tell that a baby is attached?
Secure and insecure attachments

During the first three months of life, babies respond in a more or less similar way to
everyone. They are unattached and show no fear of strangers. At around four months
they begin to stare at unfamiliar people, suggesting a recognition of the unusual. By six
or eight months infants will show fear when a stranger approaches, and will become
distressed when separated from their primary care-giver. Fear of strangers and
separation anxiety are indications that an attachment has been formed.
Research has shown however that not all infants react in the same way to separation and
strangers. Mary Ainsworth noticed this when conducting naturalistic observations of
infants and their mothers in Uganda. In order to measure the differences more
scientifically, Ainsworth and her colleagues developed a standardised test known as the
‘Strange Situation’.
In the ‘Strange Situation’ an infant is observed in a set sequence of seven episodes: with
the mother (or caregiver); with the mother when a stranger is present; with just the
stranger; and on its own. The infant’s reactions are observed providing measures of
stranger fear and separation distress.
Ainsworth found that infants could be classified into one of three categories: anxious
avoidant (Type A); securely attached (Type B); and anxious-resistant (Type C).
♦ Securely attached infants are relatively unconcerned by the stranger so long as the
mother is present. They are distressed when the mother leaves but quickly reassured
when she returns.
♦ Insecurely attached infants are either indifferent towards the mother (Type A) or
ambivalent towards her (distressed when she leaves but resist contact when she
returns – Type C). The pattern of response varies from culture to culture, but in the
West the proportions that fall into each category are roughly 20%, 70% and 10%
respectively.
The basic findings of the Ainsworth & Bell’s study have been confirmed by numerous
studies. Infants do seem to fall into one of these categories (although there is also
evidence for a fourth type: insecure-disorganised/disorientated) and the patterns remain
constant (at least up to five years).
However, there have been some criticisms of her approach. Because it is generally
carried out in the laboratory, the Strange Situation can be criticised as lacking
ecological validity. The laboratory situation could induce a degree of stress in the infant
that it would not normally experience at home. The procedure has also been criticised

for being limited in terms of the amount of information that is gathered (in contrast to
less structured observational methods) and for not taking sufficiently into account the
mother’s behaviour. It has also been suggested that the pattern of response is not
consistent and can vary as family circumstances change, particularly the degree of
stress that mothers are subjected to.
 Reading: Textbook pages 38-39 ‘Secure and insecure attachments’
 SAQ 2
a) Summarise the procedure used in the ‘strange situation’ study.

b) Distinguish between Type A, B & C attachment behaviour.
c) Give two criticisms of Ainsworth’s research.
3.1.2 Maternal deprivation

Bowlby believed that maternal behaviour was instinctive in humans as is in animals.
Mothers and their babies form an instinctive attachment to each other using genetically
inherited skills such as smiling, grasping, crying and so on. If a separation occurs
between mother and infant within the first few years of the child’s life, Bowlby
believed that the bond would be irreversibly broken, leading to severe emotional
consequences for the infant in later life. He referred to this as maternal deprivation.
Bowlby claimed that maternal deprivation had the following consequences:
1. Aggressiveness 5. Depression
2. Delinquency 6. Dependency anxiety (being

'clinging')
3. Dwarfism (retarded 7. Affectionless psychopathy

growth) (showing no feelings for others)
4. Intellectual retardation 8. Social maladjustment
(To help you remember these, the first letters of each spell ADDIDDAS)
In support of Bowlby’s ideas, Goldfarb (1943) showed that institutionalised children

performed poorly on IQ tests compared with those that had been fostered. Spitz (1945)
provided evidence that children raised in poor South American orphanages suffered
from depression and apathy, while Spitz & Wolf (1946) claimed to show that recovery
from early deprivation was rare. Finally, Bowlby himself (1944) claimed that there was
an association between early deprivation and delinquency (the 44 juvenile thieves
study).

 Reading: Textbook pages 41-43 ‘Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis’.
 SAQ 3
a) Define the term ‘maternal deprivation’.

b) List the consequences of ‘maternal deprivation’ according to Bowlby.
c) Summarise one study that can be used in support of Bowlby.
Bowlby’s ideas had far-reaching effects, leading to a much more child-centred

approach by many institutions and organisations. It became regarded as best to try to
avoid the break-up of families if at all possible, because of the claimed consequences of
maternal deprivation.
The recent debates about child abuse and the question of whether or not to remove ‘at
risk’ children from their natural parents can be seen to be related to the idea of maternal
deprivation. If Bowlby is right, it may be better to leave such children with their parents
— the long-term damage that could result from maternal deprivation might be a more
important consideration than the risk of abuse. On the other hand, if Bowlby is wrong,
children could be left in a potentially dangerous situation. However, one of the major
effects of Bowlby’s claims was to direct greater attention to the child’s emotional and
psychological needs, which weren't considered as important in the 1920s and 1930s as
they are today.
 Activity
Put yourself in the place of a mother with small children, who is thinking of
returning to full-time work. Would Bowlby’s views be more or less likely to
persuade you that it would be a good idea? If you can, discuss your views with
other people.
Deprivation versus privation

During the last 40 years, psychologists have developed a much better understanding of
the effects of deprivation. We now know that maternal deprivation is much too vague a
term and that in the early studies it was often confused with privation.
Deprivation really means the loss of or separation from an attachment figure (i.e.
mother). While Bowlby saw that separation experiences in infancy and early childhood

were the cause of affectionless psychopathy and delinquency, Rutter has argued that
these are more likely to result from privation – failure to establish an attachment.
Rutter’s Isle of Wight study

Rutter suggests that rather than separation itself being responsible for the behaviour, it
is much more important to look at the cause of the separation. Rutter (1970) looked at
delinquency in young teenage boys from both London and the Isle of Wight. He could
find little evidence for a link between early separation and delinquency. What mattered
was the type of relationship the child had with the parent before separation. Where
these were poor (for example as a result of conflict in the family) the child was more
likely to show later delinquent behaviour. Rutter argued that family discord (e.g.
arguing, lack of affection, stress) rather than separation was a contributory factor in
later antisocial behaviour, possibly because it prevented the formation of attachments
(privation). It is important to realise that Rutter isn’t saying that these factors alone are
the cause of delinquency, but that the underlying stress in the home can lead to
increased vulnerability in children, whether or not the family remains together.
Tizard: studies of institutionalised children

In further studies of institutionalised children by Barbara Tizard and her colleagues, it
has been found that children’s development will suffer if they experience the kind of
privation found in understaffed orphanages, where they are given little opportunity to
form attachments. However adoption, especially if this is at a sufficiently early age, can
reverse some of the effects.
The effect of discouraging relationships and the high staff turnover meant that children
in the institutionalised group had not formed strong attachments. Following up the
sample of children at eight years, Tizard found that the majority of early adopted
children had formed close relationships with their adopted parents, despite the lack of
early attachments when they were in care. Most of the original group of 26 had now
been adopted. On some, though not all measures, it was found that this late adoption
group still had behaviour problems, particularly when assessed by teachers. This pattern
was confirmed at age 16.
This study has limitations. It is not a tightly controlled laboratory experiment, and the
children in the comparison groups inevitably differed in important respects (e.g. gender
and racial background). The investigators were aware of the background of each child
and this could have biased their assessments. Also, reliance on caregivers’ (and in later
studies teachers’) reports is another potential source of bias. Such reports will not be as
reliable as actual observations of the child.
However, despite the limitations, Tizard’s overall conclusion was that experiencing
privation in early years was a risk factor in developing later behaviour problems, but
that early adoption into a good home, could go some considerable way to mitigate these
risks.
 Reading: Textbook pages 45-47 ‘Deprivation’ & ‘Privation’

 SAQ 4
a) Explain the difference between deprivation and privation.

b) What did Rutter conclude about the relationship between separation
experiences and delinquency?
c) Write a brief summary of the Skeels’ study, its conclusions and implications
for Bowlby’s theories.
d) Write a brief summary of the Hodges & Tizard study.
e) What implications does this study have for Bowlby’s theory?
There are also some interesting studies of children brought up in extreme deprivation
and neglect. In the case of identical Czech twins born in 1960, and kept isolated from
practically all human contact for five-and-a-half years, great progress was made
following a careful programme of rehabilitation. Despite not being able to walk or talk
at six years, the twins made rapid progress, and, by the age of eleven, their intellectual
development was almost normal. Latest reports show the twins to have almost
completely recovered from their dreadful early experiences. According to Bowlby’s
theory, they should have been irreversibly retarded and have become affectionless
psychopaths.
Bowlby and maternal deprivation: conclusions

While early studies appeared to support Bowlby’s views, later studies showed
conflicting results. The problem with Bowlby’s theory is that the concept of maternal
deprivation is just too wide, and his early claims about the effects of maternal
deprivation were too extreme; a point Bowlby himself had realised by the late 1950’s.
Evidence from studies of separation has concluded that Bowlby's concept of maternal
deprivation is too vague, and tends to ignore the influence of attachments other than
those with the mother. Psychologists now use the term parenting in order to emphasise
that ‘mothering’ can be provided by people other than the natural mother, and even by
several people, both male and female.
 SAQ 5
Give two implications for social policy derived from research carried out by
psychologists into attachment, deprivation and their consequences.

(a) What are secure and insecure attachments? (4 marks)
(b) Use your knowledge of psychology to consider practical applications of

Ainsworth’s research into attachments for care of young children. (7 marks)
(c) Outline Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis. (6 marks)
(d) Describe one study that supports Bowlby’s views. (6 marks)
(e) Describe one study that disagrees with Bowlby’s views (6 marks)
(f) Describe two problems that researchers may have in trying to study the effects
of maternal deprivation. Suggest how one of these problems may be
overcome. (7 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 3.2
Cognitive
development
3.2.1 Piaget’s theory of intellectual development.
♦ Schema, adaptation and equilibration
♦ Role assimilation accommodation in the development of schema
3.2.2 Piaget’ four stages of development
♦ Egocentrism, conservation, classification and inferential reasoning
3.2.3 Critical appraisal of Piaget’s theory
♦ Experimental studies of Piaget's theory
3.2.4 Application of Piagetian principles in working with young children

GCSE Psychology Unit 3.2: Cognitive development

Bee, Helen (1997) The developing child. 8th Edn. NY: Harper Collins
(Chapters 6 & 7)
Moshman, D., Glover, J. A. & Bruning, R. H. (1987) Developmental psychology: a
topical approach, Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
(Chapter 8: ‘Theories of cognitive development’)
Smith, P. K., Cowie, H. & Blades, M. (1998) Understanding children’s development,
3rd Edn. Oxford: Blackwell (Chapter 11)

1. Ask class members to try to obtain photographs of local play groups and
nurseries and to discuss the suitability of the toys and activities for children at
various Piagetian stages.
2. You have been asked by a local pub to advise on the choice of toys and
equipment for a play area for 2-7 year olds. Use your knowledge of Piaget to
advise them.
3. If anyone has recently learned to drive, it might be interesting to consider how

many schemas must be developed before you can pass your test! Note that they
will range from actions (clutch control, etc.) to operational schemas (highway
code, etc.)
4. What are the implications of Piaget’s theory for education? Would he think that
learning multiplication tables by rote is a good thing?
5. How can we explain learning to ride a bicycle in terms of Piaget’s concepts of

adaptation, assimilation and accommodation?
6. What problems are there in carrying out studies with very young children and
babies?

Aim, hypothesis & variables

To explore the understanding of conservation in pre-school and infant school children.
It is suggested that the ability to conserve will be dependent on the child’s age.
IV = age of child; DV = whether child can conserve or not
Method
Experimental Design: An experiment, although strictly speaking, because it is not

possible to allocate children at random to different ages, should be called a quasi-
experiment. A large sample of children would be preferred, but you will probably have
to make do with those that are available (an opportunity sample). Ensure that testing the
two age groups takes place in similar conditions. It is vital to use standardised
instructions.
Apparatus: A ball of plasticine (or similar) about the size of a tennis ball
Procedure: Divide the plasticine in half, roll into two balls, and ask the child if the two
pieces are the same. Check that this is what the child really thinks. Now, roll one into a
sausage shape and ask the child if each has the same amount of plasticine. Record the
child’s answer, and ask him/her to explain it. Roll the sausage back into a ball, ask the
child if there is the same amount, and again to explain his/her answer. Carefully record
all the child’s answers at each stage. Repeat the procedure with each child. It would be
nice to give the child a small reward for helping you.
Results
Use graphs and charts to show how conservation varies with age. Compare the
percentage of pre-schoolers who can conserve, with the percentage of infant school
children who can.
Was the hypothesis/null hypothesis supported? How do your results compare with those
of other psychologists? Relate your findings to aims and to Piaget’s research. The main
problem in this experiment may well be whether the child really understands your
questions or not, and whether they are saying what they believe, or what they think you
want to hear!
Ethical issues
Was permission obtained from teachers and parents before testing the children? Was
the child upset in any way by the testing?

3.2.1 Piaget’s theory of intellectual development

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who lived and worked in Geneva for most of his
life (1896-1980). He made an enormous contribution to the study of children’s thinking
(known as the study of cognitive development), overturning many of the accepted ideas
of nature and intelligence.
Piaget was originally interested in intelligence testing, and this led him to investigate
why children in tests gave the answers that they did. He noticed that, although their
answers may have been incorrect from our (adult) point of view, they sometimes made
sense, if you looked at things from their viewpoint. The child’s way of looking at and
understanding the world was very different from that of an adult.
 Reading: Textbook pages 18-24 ‘Piaget’s theory of cognitive development’
According to Piaget, when studying children’s intellectual development we need to

keep in mind the following key ideas:
The child plays an active role in its own development: Piaget believed that children
had a natural inborn curiosity about their world and desire to make sense of it. They
acquire their own ideas and insights about their environment. We can see support for
this, if we observe the way toddlers investigate everything that they come across. They
do this simply at first by, e.g. putting everything in their mouths, but later in ever more
complex ways.
Children think in different ways to adults: Children know less than adults, but the
way in which they think may be totally different. Piaget believed that children did not
think in a logical way, but that adults do. Consider, as an example, a child who walks
into a table. She says ‘naughty table’ then, turns and smacks the table. This illustrates a
young child’s different way of thinking. Would you (seriously!) say the same?
Schemas
A schema is the basic unit of cognitive structure. It is the basic idea and mental
representation (inside the head, as it were) of how to deal with something. The first
schemas are reflexes. As a child’s behaviour becomes more complex, so do his or her
schemas. At first, this is the result of actions (and the schemas which represent them)
being put together to form more elaborate actions and schemas. Grasping and reaching,
e.g. will be combined so that the child can pick things up. Later the schemas become
more complex: symbolic schemas and, ultimately operational schemas. The process
is: basic actions combine to produce a more complex action — basic thoughts combine
to produce more complex thoughts.
Piaget believed that the method in which our intelligence develops (through adaptation)
is the same in all higher animals. It has evolved and become part of our nature, because
it makes us successful.
Assimilation and accommodation

Just as animals adapt their behaviour to suit their environment in order to survive,
Piaget suggests that the concept of adaptation could be used to explain the
development of the intellect too. Children adapt their thinking in order to make sense of
their constantly changing environment. Adaptation has two parts: as children assimilate
new information, their schemas expand to accommodate the new ideas. When the

child’s schema are adequate to cope with the world at a particular time, then it is said to
be in a state of equilibrium — environment and mental structures are balanced.
 Reading: Textbook pages 48-49 ‘Piaget’s theory of intellectual development’.
 SAQ 1
a) The process of taking in and incorporating happenings and
experiences into our existing schemas is called:
generating hypotheses,
an operation,
accommodation, or
assimilation.
b) The modification of the schema as a result of taking in new
experiences is called:
generating hypotheses,
an operation,
accommodation, or
assimilation.
c) Schemas change as a result of assimilation and accommodation.
True or False? Explain your answer.
d) In the following example identify which process is assimilation and
which is accommodation.
A child pulls a cork from a bottle and drinks the contents. She attempts to
open all other bottles in the same way. However, one day she comes across a
screw-capped bottle, so she must discover an additional method of opening
bottles.
e)What does Piaget mean by the term equilibrium?
3.2.2 Piaget’s four stages of intellectual development

Piaget saw adaptation as the main process guiding development through four
maturational stages.
By maturational, he means that the timing and order of the stages are under genetic
control, although they may be influenced by environmental factors. Thus, all children
progress through the four stages that Piaget advocated, in the same order at roughly the
same ages. (This is another example of Piaget’s biological assumption).
These four stages (and approximate ages) are:

Sensory motor 0-2 years
Pre-operational 2-7 years
Concrete-operational 7-11 years
Formal operational 11+ years
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)

This stage begins with just reflexes, and ends with the child beginning to think in
symbols (e.g. using words to represent the world). The major developments in the
sensory motor stage are:
♦ Learning to interpret sensory information.
♦ Development of motor skills.
♦ Mental representations of actions in the form of schema.
♦ Development of object permanence.
Some of the main developmental milestones in the sensory motor stage are as follows
(but remember that Piaget emphasised that while the sequence was much the same in all
children, the ages could vary quite a lot):
0-1 months Use of reflexes like sucking and grasping
1-4 months Co-ordination of reflexes into more elaborate actions
4-10 months Make external things happen
10-12 months Search for hidden object
12-18 months Play more with objects
18-24 months Manipulating mental images (especially through language:

symbolic thinking)
 Reading: Textbook pages 49-50 ‘Sensorimotor stage’
 SAQ 2
a) What does Piaget mean by egocentricity?
b) What is meant by object permanence?

Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)

During this stage the child’s thinking can only operate with objects that are real. It can’t
really imagine what things might be like, seeing only things as they are. This makes
thinking limited and rather unrealistic. These limitations are shown mainly in the
following ways:
♦ Animism: objects are treated as though they were people, for example a child will
smack a ‘naughty’ chair that has fallen on him/her.
♦ Egocentricity: a child’s inability to see things from another’s point of view. The
classic experiment to illustrate this is the ‘three mountains task’.
♦ Problems with centration: the tendency to pay attention to only one aspect of a
situation (usually the most striking).
 Reading: Textbook pages 50-51 ‘Pre-operational stage’
 SAQ 3
How did Piaget demonstrate egocentricity in the pre-operational child?
Piaget conducted many studies on the pre-operational child, but you should note that
some psychologists are unhappy with his conclusions. The feeling is that he wasn’t
really ‘fair’ to the children and probably underestimated their abilities. Making the tests
that Piaget set more appropriate to the ages of the children tested (using simpler
language, for example), enables very much younger children to succeed.
A well known example of this is Martin Hughes’ re-casting of the ‘three mountains
task’. Hughes used a doll which the child was asked to hide from a policeman doll. The
apparatus consisted of four walls in the form of a cross. Children as young as three and
four years had little problem placing the dolls so that they were out of sight from each
other. This was so, even though the child might still be able to see them both from its
own point of view, as in the diagram below:
Fig E1.1
Plan View Walls
Polic eman Boy

doll doll
Child’s Position

 Reading: Textbook page 52 ‘Critical research’
 Activity
If you can find some very young children, try this simple test for egocentricity
yourself. Give the child a mirror and ask her (or him) to look at herself. Now, while
directly facing her, ask her to hold the mirror so that you can see yourself. How old do
children have to be, before they reliably turn the mirror so that it faces you?
(Remember to ask permission before doing the test).
Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)

From around the age of seven, the child’s thinking processes change once more as
he/she develops a new set of thinking strategies (concrete operations). But, it can still
only apply them to immediate objects and not to abstract ideas. Thinking becomes more
flexible and the child begins to understand conservation of things like length and
volume. The child finds less difficulty with classification and ordering. Finally, the
egocentrism typical of the younger child changes, and the child is able to understand
that someone else’s viewpoint can be different from his/her own.
 Reading: Textbook pages 52-55 ‘Concrete operational stage’
 SAQ 4
Describe an example of how Piaget tested children for their understanding of
conservation.
As we have seen in connection with the pre-operational stage, studies have suggested
that Piaget may have underestimated the abilities of children. McGarrigle, for example,
has shown that by making the questions more understandable, children will show
understanding of class inclusion at 6 years of age.
 Reading: Textbook page 55 ‘Critical research’

 Activity
Ask children around 7-11 years old (with their parents’ permission), ‘Which is the
heavier: a kilogram of feathers or a kilogram of lead?’ What age do they have to be
before they can reliably answer correctly?
Formal operational stage (11+ years)

This is the stage of adult thought, according to Piaget. It is typically achieved between
eleven and fourteen. Many, however, never reach this stage, probably because of a lack
of secondary schooling.
 Reading: Textbook pages 55-56 ‘Formal operational stage’
Evaluation of Piaget’s theory

Piaget’s theory has been by far the most important theory of cognitive development,
and has had an enormous influence not only on psychology, but also on the way that
teachers, parents and others think about childhood. It is not surprising, however, to find
that the theory has been extensively criticised.
Many of the criticisms concern the extent to which Piaget was able to successfully
demonstrate the limitations of childrens thinking at each stage. Researchers have
consistently shown, particularly in the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages, that
Piaget underestimated children’s abilities. Children develop certain cognitive structures
earlier than Piaget claimed. For example, object permanence has been demonstrated as
young as 3½ months. This is partly due to the appropriateness of tasks used by Piaget.
Donaldson and others have suggested that Piaget’s tasks may have confused children
and underestimated their capabilities. In some tests there are obvious demand
characteristics. This means that children will be giving the answer which they think
pleases the investigator, rather than the one which, in other circumstances, they might
provide.
 Reading: Textbook pages 56-57 ‘Critical Appraisal of Piaget’s theory’

 SAQ 5
Using conservation as an example:
a) Explain why research suggests that children can acquire these concepts
earlier than Piaget had thought.
b) What aspects of Piaget’s methodology might have resulted in this
underestimation?
Applications of Piaget’s principles

It is often claimed that Piaget’s ideas have had a major impact on ideas about
education, on playgroups, and types of activities and toys that are suitable for children
of different ages. Most teachers in the UK are exposed to Piaget’s ideas during their
training, and this is bound to influence their perspective on children’s development.
However, many teachers will claim to have been influenced by Piaget, without actually
being able to explain exactly how. In fact, there are only a few direct references to
educational practice in Piaget’s writings. But that does not mean to say that there aren’t
significant implications of his theories to educational practice.
The general approach to education most often associated with Piaget is known as
discovery learning, and emphasises learning by doing rather than more traditional
book-learning approaches. The basis of this approach includes:
 The concept of readiness: children advance their knowledge because of

biologically-regulated cognitive changes. Outside influences should not have a
significant effect on the nature and rate of development, and children should be
offered stimuli which are novel when they are ready.
 Self-discovery and self motivation: it is important not to tell children how

to do something, since this may prevent their complete understanding and remove
their intrinsic sense of self-satisfaction.
 Individualised learning: since each child matures at a different rate and

has different schemas, his/her learning programme should be unique.
 Discovery learning: learning should be child centred and active. The

teacher is not there to impart knowledge but to act as a facilitator: to ask questions
and create situations which challenge the child’s own understanding.
 Reading: Textbook pages 28-29 ‘Application of Piagetian principles’

 SAQ 6
Explain what ‘discovery learning’ means.
 Activity
a) How could sand and water play help in children’s development?

b) Try to explain why three-year-olds do not usually play team games.
(a) Explain what Piaget meant by the term schema. (2 marks)
(b) Explain the role assimilation and accommodation in the development of

schema. (5 marks)
(c) Describe an example of egocentric thought or behaviour. (6 marks)
(d) Discuss research into conservation in young children. (10

marks)
(e) Explain how Piaget’s ideas have influenced how we work with young
children. (9 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 3.3
The development of
gender
3.3.1 Sex differences
♦ Distinction between sex identity and gender identity
♦ Biological differences, role of chromosomes and hormones on sexual

development
3.3.2 Acquisition of gender
♦ Psychoanalytic approach
♦ Social learning approaches.
♦ Critical appraisal of the two approaches.
3.3.3 Promotion and reinforcement of gender differences and stereotypes:
♦ Influence of the family and media
♦ Practical applications

GCSE Psychology Unit 3.3: Gender development

Bee, Helen (1997) The Developing Child, 8th Edn. NY: Harper Collins (Chapter 10,
p291 onwards)
Gleitman, H (1995) Psychology. 4th Edn. Norton p556–658
Shaffer, D.R. (1993) Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. Pacific
Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. (Chapter 13)

1. Ask the class to each produce a list of 10 characteristics that they think are
typical of each sex, and see if there is a difference between the average male
and female list of ‘typical’ characteristics for each sex.
2. Investigate the aspirations of the class, attempting to classify them into sex-
stereotypical or otherwise. This could then lead to a discussion of where we get
our aspirations from, and the extent to which we are influenced by parents,
peers and the media.
3. Each class member could produce a list of the characteristics they look for in
prospective boy/girlfriends, and the extent to which they are looking for
stereotypical characteristics.

Aim
To find out whether males and females watch different programmes on television

Gender affects the type of TV programme watched
IV = gender/sex
DV = type of programme
Method
Sampling: quota sample of males and females, controlled for age and social class
Design: matched pairs, with one male and one female in each pair, matched as closely
as possible for age, education level, social class etc.
Each participant is asked to fill in a questionnaire about programmes they have watched
in the last month.
Results
Presentation of results: draw up a table to show the results. Produce appropriate
graphs, bar charts etc. to show the results.
Analysis of results: calculate mean number of programmes of each type watched by

males and females.
Do males and females prefer different programmes on TV? Could these different
programmes reinforce gender stereotypes? Relate your findings to aims and to relevant
psychological research, particularly to theories of gender and the influence of TV on
gender roles.
Conclusion
Was the hypothesis/null hypothesis supported? How do your results compare with those
of other psychologists?
Ethical issues to consider

What ethical issues does the study raise? Did you have the consent of
participants/parents? What safeguards were in place to make sure they suffered no
distress? Did you deceive participants in any way? Were they exposed to any risks?

3.3.1 Sex differences
Defining sex and gender

Sex and gender tend to be used interchangeably, but it might be better to use the term
‘sex’ when referring to our biology, while gender is a cultural construct.
♦ Sex identity refers to the biological ‘fact’ of being male or female
♦ Gender identity is a person ‘sense of being male or female
Two other concepts that are important in discussing sex and gender are:
♦ Gender or sex role refers to the set of behaviours, attitudes and obligations that are
part of the role of being a boy or a girl, a male or a female.
♦ Gender or sex-role stereotypes are beliefs about psychological differences

between males and females (for example that males are more aggressive than
females).
 Reading: Textbook page 61-62 ‘Sex identity and gender identity’.
 SAQ 1
Explain the difference between sex identity and gender identity.
Biological basis of gender differences

The genetic sex of a child is determined at conception. If the 23rd pair of chromosomes
is XX then the child will be female, if this pair is XY then the child will be male.
Gonads (sex glands) secrete hormones; in the female they are the ovaries and in the
male they are the testes. Adrenal glands are also a source of sex hormone in both sexes:
oestrogens in the female and androgens in the male.
 Reading: Textbook pages 60-61
 SAQ 2
Describe the role of hormones in the development of gender.

While there are many obvious physical differences between males and females,
psychological differences are harder to establish. This is despite extensive
psychological research comparing the abilities and behaviours of males and females.
While many behaviours appear to be more common amongst one or other sex in a
particular society, we find that there are very few behaviours that differ consistently
between the sexes in all societies. The major differences have been summarised by
Maccoby and Jacklin:
♦ Males tend to be more aggressive from age 2 years on, show higher levels of
dominance from pre-school onwards, and show more confidence about undertaking
new tasks.
♦ Males from adolescence onwards are superior in mathematical reasoning and in

visualising spatial relationships e.g., they tend to be better at reading things like
maps, architectural and engineering drawings, etc.
♦ Girls show faster language development in the first 2 years; superior verbal
reasoning; and are on average more fluent with words from adolescence onwards.
♦ Girls achieve higher average grades through their school years.
 Activity
a) You might like to assess how far people in your class show these sex
differences. For example, try carrying out a survey of exam grades for
languages and maths. Is there a difference between the performance of males
and females in the two subjects? What kind of factors might explain these
differences?
b) Compare the performance of girls and boys in single sex schools at GCSE
and A levels. (This information is available in school league tables.)
3.3.2 The acquisition of gender

If there are differences in the behaviour of males and females, we need to explain how
these come about. Much of the debate on this topic is about nature versus nurture. It is
possible that the differences between the sexes have their basis in biological factors,
and that the (obvious) anatomical and physiological differences between male and
female may be responsible for the behavioural differences. On the other hand, social
learning explanations suggest that it is society (e.g. media, parents, schools) which
produces behavioural differences not biology. We learn ways of feeling, thinking and
acting that are appropriate to our gender through socialisation. Sigmund Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory lies somewhere between these two. He suggested (very
controversially at the time) that it was through coming to terms with sexual feelings
(i.e. biological urges) during early childhood that the child identifies with a particular
gender.

Psychoanalytic explanations of gender

According to Freud, gender roles are acquired through identification with parents, as
part of the resolution of the Oedipus or Electra conflict. This conflict comes about as a
result of instinctual drives.
 Reading Textbook pages 62-63 ‘Psychoanalytic theory’.
As with much of Freud’s theory, there is a lack of empirical evidence to support his
claims. Freud’s account of the Electra complex seems particularly far-fetched! Cross-
cultural studies show that in cultures where it is the norm for children to be raised only
by a mother, gender roles still emerge. This is not to say that the role of the mother and
father is not important in the development of gender roles, rather that their influence is
better explained by other theories, such as social learning theory. It is wise to remember
when evaluating Freud’s theory, that he only saw clients who had difficulties with
gender identification. This and the fact that he lived in a time when the expression of
sexual identity was very strictly governed by moral codes, could be the basis for many
of his ideas.
 Reading: Textbook page 63 ‘Critical appraisal’
 SAQ 3
a) According to Freud, where do children’s gender concepts originate?

b) What criticisms have been made of Freud’s theory?
Social learning theory explanations

Social learning theory (SLT) accepts that genes and hormones determine physical sex
differences, but does not accept that they control behavioural differences. Behaviour is
seen as being learned from society through the process of reinforcement and modelling
(imitation). Complex behaviours such as sex-role behaviour can be learned by
vicarious reinforcement, where we are more likely to copy a behaviour, if we have
seen others (particularly significant others such as our parents or older brothers and
sisters) rewarded for that same behaviour. Boys and girls are treated very differently in
our society. Many studies provide empirical evidence to support this view.
For example, Beverly Fagot has conducted detailed studies of children in the US. She
was particularly concerned with the effect of their parents behaviour towards them. She
concluded that children are actively shaped into their gender roles. Parents were shown
to be very keen to discourage behaviour which did not fit their gender role. This starts
as young as 18 months, with parents choosing different kinds of toys and also
encouraging appropriate play activities. Siegal provides evidence that fathers are more

likely than mothers to treat their sons and daughters differently. Fathers seem to be
particularly concerned about ‘girlish’ behaviour in their sons.
 Activity
Can you recall aspects of the behaviour of your own parents (or other parents
you know) which support the findings of Beverly Fagot and Siegal?
Social learning theorists have also used the evidence from cross-cultural studies such
as those of Margaret Mead to support their view. Mead found striking differences in
the behaviour of males and females in different societies. Not at all as would be
expected from a biological theory.
Cross-cultural studies are useful in psychology, but they are also very difficult to carry
out, so they are not very common. In the 1980s David Freedman criticised Mead’s work
and since then there has been some doubt as to the reliability of her data.
 Reading Textbook pages 64-65 ‘Social learning theory’
 SAQ 4
Outline the social learning explanation of how a child acquires a gender role.
Some research, however, does not support social learning theory. Instead it suggests
that the basis of gender differences may be biological. This evidence includes:
♦ Animal studies. As humans are related to animals, it follows that gender

differences observed in higher order animals may also exist in humans.
Experiments involving sex hormones can be carried out on animals which would be
unethical on human subjects. Young injected a pregnant female monkey carrying a
female foetus with the male hormone testosterone. After birth the female infant
monkey showed many of the behaviour traits of male monkeys (e.g. aggression).
♦ Studies of the effect of hormones. This research is based around instances of

androgenital syndrome. John Money studied two girls whose mothers had been
given male hormones during pregnancy. Money found results that were consistent
with the animal research, above. The girls showed many of the characteristics of
boys in their behaviour. They preferred boy’s activities, were more career than
family orientated, and were generally more ‘tomboyish’.
 Reading Textbook pages 43-45 ‘Biological explanations’.

 SAQ 5
a) Outline one study which supports the idea that sex differences in behaviour
have a biological basis.
b) Why should we be careful when using the results of animal studies for
drawing conclusions about human sex differences ?
Summary
The main features of the two psychological theories of gender development can be
summarised in the following table (adapted from Gleitman, 1995):
Psychoanalytic Social learning
Resolution of Oedipal conflict Reinforcement/imitation of gender

appropriate behaviour
 
Identification with same sex parent Gender role
 
Gender identity and role Gender identity
3.3.3 Social influences on gender development

The media is thought, by social learning theory, to be another major influence in
children’s developing gender roles. The issue of the way that the media influences our
behaviour is also discussed in the module on the construction of social reality. The
media bombard us daily with consistent images of male and female roles that are often
stereotypical, for example the ‘Page 3 girl’ images of women. But, the media can also
be used to present images which challenge stereotypes, and to raise awareness of
gender issues.

 Activity
It might be interesting to carry out a brief survey of gender roles as they are
presented on TV or in books. Think about how often the roles are traditionally
portrayed through gender stereotypes, next time you watch your favourite soap
opera.
Social learning theory provides an explanation for how family members can influence
the development of sex role behaviours, through observation and vicarious
reinforcement.
Research suggests that parental reinforcement can explain some of the earliest gender-
differences. Fagot & Hagen (1991) found that parents appear to reinforce sex typed
activities through choice of toys etc, starting as young as 18 months. However,
differential treatment of sons and daughters is more common with fathers than mothers
(Seigal, 1987). Also, there are no consistent differences in the way that males and
females are reinforced for aggressive behaviour and other traits such as warmth and
dependency.
 Reading Textbook pages 50-51 ‘Social influences on gender development’.
(a) What is the role of chromosomes in determining sex? (3 marks)
(a) What is gender identity? (4 marks)
(b) Describe examples of gender differences shown by psychological studies.

(6 marks)
(d) Describe two different psychological theories which explain how children
learn their gender. (12
marks)
(c) In what ways do psychologists believe that parents or peers or the media
encourage gender differences? (10
marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 4.1
The development of
moral behaviour
4.1.1 Definition of moral behaviour
4.1.2 Psychoanalytic approach to moral development
♦ Role of unconscious mental process (Freud)
4.1.3 Cognitive approach to moral development
♦ Piaget and Kohlberg
4.1.4 Behaviourist approach to moral development
♦ role of reinforcement
4.1.5 Social learning approach to moral development
♦ role of observation and imitation

GCSE Psychology Unit 4.1: Moral development

Bee, Helen (1997) The developing child. 8th Edn. NY: Harper Collins
Chapters 6 & 7
Smith, P. K., Cowie, H. & Blades, M. (1998) Understanding children’s development,
3rd Edn. Oxford: Blackwell
Sabini, J. (1995) Social Psychology. 2nd Edition. NY: W.W. Norton. (p304-307 —
Development of pro-social behaviour.)

1. Do children (and adults) behave in ways that are consistent with their moral
reasoning?
2. Are ideas about moral behaviour the same in all societies?
3. To what extent do members of the class make their own judgements about what
is right and wrong, and to what extent are they influenced by others? What
types of people are important influences?
4. How can moral behaviour be encouraged? How important are parents, religion
and the mass media in encouraging (and discouraging) moral behaviour?

Aim
To investigate sex differences in moral reasoning

That males demonstrate moral reasoning which is at higher levels, in Kohlberg’s terms,
than that of girls of the same age.
IV = Gender of participant
DV = Level of moral reasoning
Method
Sampling: Quota sample of male and female college students
Design: Matched pairs, one of each sex matched as closely as possible for age, ability,
cultural background etc.
Procedure: Use two or more of the moral reasoning stories which were used by
Kohlberg (e.g., the Heinz dilemma). Give the stories to the participants, record in detail
their reactions. Try to identify the stage that the answers represent.
Results
graphs and charts e.g. pie charts to show the percentage of each sex who exhibited
moral reasoning at each of Kohlberg’s stages.
Analysis of results: Calculation of average level of reasoning for each sex (a mode
might be most appropriate)
Relate your findings to aims and to relevant psychological research, e.g. Freud’s claims
that women had less well developed moral reasoning than men, because they had
weaker superegos.
Conclusion: Did your results support your hypothesis?
Ethical issues
What ethical issues does the study raise? Did you have the consent of
participants/parents? What safeguards were in place to make sure they suffered no
distress? Did you deceive subjects in any way?

4.1.1 Moral behaviour

Moral behaviour is that which is accepted as ‘good’ behaviour in society today. It is
about what is considered ‘right’ and ‘wrong’, for example, being polite to older people,
helping others, considering the needs of others as well as ourselves etc. Such behaviour
is also known as pro-social behaviour. Studies of moral thinking have tended to
concentrate on children’s judgements about what is ‘bad’ behaviour, and how they
make such judgements, whereas studies of pro-social behaviour are more concerned
with explaining children’s reasoning about what is ‘good’ behaviour.
Ideas about what is accepted as moral behaviour differ from society to society, and
change over time. For example, it used to be considered wrong to have children, if you
weren’t married. In the early years of this century in Britain, women who did so, risked
being confined to mental hospitals and labelled as mentally ill. Today, while some
people still frown on childbirth outside marriage, most consider it quite normal.
Psychologists are also interested in how children judge how bad some action is,
whether they only take account of the amount of damage done when a child breaks
some plates, for example, or whether they also take account of the child’s intent. To an
adult, a child who is trying to help its parents wash-up and who breaks six plates is
clearly considered less bad than one who breaks only one plate as a result of throwing it
on the floor in a temper tantrum. However, children may form a different judgement
about which child is the naughtier based on the number of broken plates.
Our ideas about what is moral come from the society of which we are a part, as a result
of the socialisation process. Socialisation means the way in which we learn and accept
the norms of behaviour and values of society.
Socialisation takes place, firstly, through the family, where we learn accepted norms
from our parents, and then from wider society — mainly through the influence of
school. Other agencies of socialisation include our friends or peers, other adults in
positions of authority, work and the mass media.
 Reading: Textbook page 71 ‘Moral behaviour’
 SAQ 1
In a short paragraph, explain what is meant by moral behaviour.
If we look at children, we can see plenty of evidence that their standards of moral
reasoning and behaviour are different from adults. For example, two year olds will
often try to wrench a toy away from each other, even though it causes the other child to
cry. They often disobey requests from their parents and touch things that they have been
told to leave alone. Psychologists have come up with several different theories to
explain how moral reasoning develops. We can distinguish four basic groups of theory:
psychodynamic, cognitive-developmental (Piaget and Kohlberg), and learning theories.

4.1.2 Freud’s psychoanalytic approach to moral

development
Freud provided a comprehensive theory of personality development, of which moral
development played an important role. Freud attaches a great deal of importance to
powerful instinctual drives in our unconscious minds, and it is these that move the
individual through the various stages of psycho-sexual development. Freud’s case
studies led him to see the personality as comprising of three parts — the id, ego and
superego.
♦ The id is the instinctual part of our personality, and is guided by the pleasure
principle — the desire for satisfaction of our desires. Anyone who has seen a young
child of around two, will know that when they want something, they usually want it
straight away!
♦ The superego emerges later as a result of the process of identification with our
same-sex parent, and is the part of our personality that acts as a control on us. It is
made up of two parts: the ego-ideal (the kind of person we would like to be) and the
conscience.
♦ The ego is the third part of our personality, and its primary job is to manage the
conflicting demands of the id and superego. This is the self, of which we are
normally aware.
Conflict occurs, then, between the pleasure-seeking demands of the id and the
restrictions imposed by the superego, and it is the job of the ego to manage this conflict
in acceptable ways. This isn’t always easy, and such unresolved conflicts may lead to
psychological problems in later life.
 SAQ 2
a) Distinguish between the id and the ego

b) What is the superego?
According to Freud, at about three years old, we enter the phallic stage of development.
In this stage, we start to have feelings of desire for our opposite sex-parent, but we fear
that our same sex-parent will become aware of these feelings and punish us for them,
leading to feelings of jealousy and anxiety. However, we still feel love for our same sex
parent, leading to confusing emotions that Freud called the Oedipus conflict in boys,
and the Electra conflict in girls, named after two figures from Greek mythology. We
normally overcome the Oedipus or Electra Complex by trying to become as much like
our same sex-parent as we can, which Freud called identification.
Part of the process of identification involves taking on board the attitudes and values of
our same-sex parent, so Freud’s theory is also a theory of socialisation. By internalising
the same values as our parent, we develop moral reasoning, since we come to see

situations in the same way as our parent. The phallic stage is the most important stage,
as it is through successful resolution of Oedipal conflict that identification occurs, and
identification is vital both for moral development and for the development of gender
roles.
Although common sense suggests that the more we do wrong the more guilt we feel,
Freud believed that the opposite is the case – those who demonstrate the highest level of
moral behaviour are in fact more prone to guilt. Some support for this is provided by
the study by MacKinnon (1938) that investigated cheating.
 Reading: Textbook pages 77-78 ‘The Psychoanalytic approach’
 SAQ 3
a) Describe the procedure and findings of MacKinnon’s investigation of

cheating and guilt.
b) How do the findings of this study support Freud’s theory of moral behaviour?
Freud’s theory of moral development: some criticisms

There are large number of criticisms of Freud’s claims about the development of
morality. Here are just four:
♦ In Britain a single woman heads about one in ten families, yet boys in such families
still seem to learn moral standards. There is also no evidence for Freud’s claim that
girls have weaker superegos, and therefore weaker consciences, than boys!
♦ Although Freud studied many adults, he didn’t ever study any children directly.
Indeed, his techniques for revealing the unconscious wouldn’t be suitable for use
with children. Later psychoanalysts, however, have developed other techniques for
use with children, the best known being play-therapy.
♦ We also have to be careful, when forming theories about the normal course of
development, about using evidence from people who have psychological problems
too. A broken TV set doesn’t tell us much about how a TV functions.
♦ Psychodynamic theory is too general to allow the scientific testing of its claims and
theories. There are few experiments, therefore, to back up Freud’s claims.
 Reading: Textbook pages 78-79 ‘Critical evaluation’

 SAQ 4
Outline two criticisms of Freud’s theory of moral development.
4.1.3 Cognitive approaches to moral development.

Often known as the cognitive-developmental approach, the two most widely known
examples of this way of looking at moral development are the approaches associated
with Piaget and Kohlberg.
Piaget’s theory
Piaget believed that as children’s reasoning about the world changes when they grow
older and gain more experience, so does their reasoning about morality. Cognitive
development basically leads to more sophisticated moral development.
Piaget identifies stages of moral development, much as he identified stages of cognitive

development (See Unit 3.2). Infants don’t understand much about morality until they
are about 3 or 4 years of age. From then, their development divides into two main
stages. What causes them to move from one stage to the next is basically their ability to
think about the world in more complex ways: their cognitive development.
Table 2: Summary of Piaget’s approach to moral development

Pre-moral stage: (up to 3 or 4 Children don’t understand about rules, and so they
years) don’t make moral judgements.
Stage of heteronomous Children think rules are absolute and

morality: (aged 3-6 years) unchangeable, and the goodness or badness of an
action is judged largely on the basis of its
consequences rather than by taking intent into
account, as in the example in the introduction
about children breaking plates.
Stage of autonomous morality: Children now see rules as more changeable, and
(from around 6 or 7) account is taken of intentions. Children also start
to believe that it is possible to break rules and ‘get
away with it’, whereas earlier they tend to think
they will always be found out and possibly
punished.
 Reading: Textbook pages 74-75 ‘Piaget’s theory of moral development’.

 SAQ 5
a) Give an example of Piaget’s method of investigating moral judgements.
b) Explain the difference between heteronomous and autonomous morality.
c) Outline one criticism of Piaget’s theory.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Kohlberg refines Piaget’s stages and extends them into the teenage and early adult
years. He investigated moral reasoning by posing ‘moral dilemmas’ such as:
‘Heinz was a man whose wife was dying from a serious illness. He heard about a
new drug that might save her, but it was very expensive and was being sold by its
inventor for ten times its cost of production. The man asked if he could have some
of the drug and pay later, or have some at half price since that was all he could
afford, but the inventor refused on the grounds that it was his invention. So that
night the man broke into the inventor’s laboratory and stole some of the drug for
his wife.’
The child or young person is then asked a series of questions about the story: should the
man have stolen the drug, what if the person dying was a stranger and so on. Their
responses are recorded and analysed.
As a result of such investigations, Kohlberg identified three levels of moral

development, each of which has two stages associated with it (making six in all). The
first two levels are broadly similar to Piaget’s stages of heteronomous and autonomous
morality.

Table 3: Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
Level I Pre-conventional morality: These are the dominant stages found in primary
school children.
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience stage — the child decides what is wrong on the
basis of what is punished , and obedience is seen as desirable. Actions for
which the child is punished are seen as wrong.
Stage 2: Instrumental stage — the child decides what is good on the basis of what
brings it desirable consequences.
Level II Conventional morality: Here there is a shift to judgements based on social

norms rather than personal gain, and account is taken of intentions. By about age
fifteen, half of teenagers will be at this stage according to Kohlberg. Most adults
never get beyond this stage.
Stage 3: Interpersonal conformity stage — actions that meet the expectations and
approval of the family, or other immediate small group to which the child
belongs are judged as good. Trust, loyalty, respect etc. are values as ‘good’
in themselves.
Stage 4: Social system stage — the focus shifts to the wider society, with
judgements based on what is the law etc.
Level III Post-conventional morality: very few adults reach this stage — according
to Kohlberg, as little as around 10%.
Stage 5: Social contract stage — an awareness that laws and rules can be changed,
and that their overall purpose is to achieve what’s best for as many people
as possible. Individual rights should be upheld regardless of the
consequences, for example, the right of a suspected murderer to a fair trial,
even though the overwhelming evidence points to him/her having
committed the crime. Modern societies are usually based on this kind of
moral reasoning,
Level 6: Self-chosen ethics stage — the young person or adult chooses their own
ethical principles in deciding what is right and wrong, even where this
conflicts with the law. So-called ‘terrorists’ may fall into this category,
such as the Republican movements in Ireland, and the Palestinian liberation
movements. In the past, some such individuals who at one time were
wanted terrorist murderers have later been awarded Nobel Peace prizes!
 Reading: Textbook pages 75-77 ‘Kohlberg's theory’

 Activity
Make your own version of table 3, adding another column which shows examples of
the typical kind of responses people can make to the Heinz dilemma at each of the
three levels of moral development.
Evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory

Kohlberg’s research has been criticised since it may underestimate moral understanding
because participants have difficulty expressing what the think. He has also been
criticised for being ethnocentric — biased towards the values of the west.
 Reading: Textbook page 71 ‘Critical evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory’
An important critic of Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan, has also argued that there is a sexist
bias to Kohlberg’s theory in that adult women, by comparison with men, seem to come
off less well in terms of their moral development— on average they appear at lower
stages than men. (Note that these sex differences do not occur in children or
adolescents, however.) Gilligan suggests that women’s moral reasoning is different
from men’s, not inferior. She suggests that women are more likely to emphasise the
importance of care (not turning away from someone in need) rather than justice (not
treating others unfairly). Their answers to moral dilemmas such as the Heinz story, will
therefore be based on different criteria. Helen Bee suggests that this difference in moral
orientation may be related sex differences in styles of social interaction and friendship
patterns. However, it is generally accepted that more research on Gilligan’s ideas is
necessary before firm conclusions can be drawn.
 Reading: Textbook page 81 ‘Gilligan’s research’.
 SAQ 6
a) Explain, as far as possible in your own words, the difference between pre-
conventional and conventional morality. Which of Piaget’ stages do they
correspond to?
b) Outline two criticisms of Kohlberg’s approach.

4.1.4 Behaviourist explanations of moral development

Behaviourist theories are based on the ideas of classical and operant conditioning
outlined in Unit 1.2. In operant conditioning, habits are built up by reinforcement.
While a reinforcer is designed to strengthen a desired behaviour, punishment is
designed to weaken an undesired behaviour. However studies such as that by Hoffman
(1970) suggests that reinforcement is usually more effective than punishment at
encouraging moral behaviour.
Moral behaviours such as helping others, which are reinforced, are more likely to be
repeated than behaviours that are not reinforced. Therefore, it is important to make sure
that such desirable moral behaviour is rewarded. But, it isn’t necessary or even
desirable to reinforce such behaviour every time it occurs, since partial reinforcement
actually makes the reinforced behaviour stronger, than does reinforcement every time
the behaviour occurs.
 Reading: Textbook pages 71-72 ‘The behaviourist approach.
 SAQ 7
a) How can reinforcement be used to encourage moral behaviour (such as
telling the truth)?
b) Outline the findings of Hoffman’s study into the role of punishment in moral
development.
4.1.5 Social learning and moral behaviour

Social learning theory states that we learn by observing what happens to others
(observational learning). For example, if we see another person reinforced for a
particular action, we are more likely to perform the action ourselves (imitation), and
this applies just as much to moral behaviours as to any other kind of behaviour. We can
learn moral behaviour by observing others who are reinforced for such behaviour.
Social learning theory grew out of behaviourism, but in place of direct reinforcement.
Social learning theory emphasises the importance of indirect or vicarious
reinforcement. This is when we observe the consequences of behaviour in others. If we
observe an individual being reinforced for a particular behaviour, we are more likely to
display the same behaviour ourselves in appropriate circumstances, even though we
have never been directly reinforced for the behaviour.
An example might be a girl, Sally, who observes another child, Eve, helping a younger
child who is crying. Eve is subsequently rewarded by being praised by a teacher.
Observing Eve being reinforced would, according to social learning theory, make Sally
more likely to display the same type of ‘helping’ behaviour in similar circumstances.

Social learning theory is really best at explaining moral behaviour. It doesn’t say much
about moral understanding. Children may learn not to be naughty, but what do they
understand by being naughty? How do they make judgements about other people’s
behaviour? These issues are probably best explained by theories like Kohlberg’s.
 Reading: Textbook p39-41 ‘The social learning approach’.
 SAQ 8
a) How does Bandura explain why children show moral behaviour in one
situation and not in another?
b) How did Friedrich & Stein investigate the influence of TV on moral
behaviour?
 Activity
How would each of the explanations of moral development discussed in this
unit help us to understand the following:
a) Cheating in an exam
b) Stealing sweets from a corner shop
c) Selling a car which had a serious (but hidden!) fault.
Would the different theories suggest ways of dealing with these behaviours?
1.(a) What, according to psychodynamic theory, is the superego? (2 marks)
(b) Explain how, according to psychodynamic theory, the superego develops.

(3 marks).

2.(a) Distinguish between the Behaviourist and Social Learning approaches to

moral development. (3 marks)
(b) Explain how either of these approaches might suggest ways in which parents
can encourage the moral behaviour of their children. (4 marks)
4. Describe and evaluate one study conducted by a cognitive psychologist to

investigate of moral behaviour. (6 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 4.2
Pro-social behaviour
4.2.1 Definitions of pro-social behaviour, altruism and empathy
4.2.2 Development of pro-social behaviour
♦ Stages in the development of empathy: Hoffman
♦ Factors affecting pro-social behaviour, including socialisation and social

norms
4.2.3 Bystander intervention
♦ factors influencing bystander intervention, e.g.
♦ Studies of bystander intervention: Latane and Darley, Batson and Pilliavin

GCSE Psychology Unit 4.2: Pro-social behaviour

Clarke, M. S. (1991) Pro-social behaviour. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Contains a series of papers on all aspects of pro-social behaviour.
Gunter, B (1998) Telebuddies: Can watching TV make us more considerate?
Psychology Review, 5, 6-9.
Hewstone, M. Stroebe W., Stephenson, G. M. (Eds.) (2001) Introduction to Social
Psychology. 3rd Ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
Chapter 9.
Myers, D. G. (1994) Exploring social psychology. NY: McGraw Hill.
Sabini, J (1995) Social Psychology 2/e NY: Norton Chapters 9 & 13

1. Discuss under what circumstances people help their fellow human beings.
2. Under what circumstances would you go out of your way to help someone?
What would prevent you helping someone?
3. Consider the circumstances of the Kitty Genovese case.
a) Could this incident have happened just as easily in a rural area?
b) Do you think people who live in cities are different from people who live in
suburban or rural areas? If so, in what ways?
c) Are there any more recent examples of people’s failure to help others in
distress? What may account for their behaviour in these cases?

Aim
To investigate whether gender affects helping behaviour.
Hypothesis & variables:

Females will help more often than males (there are many other possible hypotheses)
IV = Sex (male or female)
DV = Whether they help person in distress or not
Method
Design: A controlled situation is set up outside the laboratory (a field experiment) in
such a way that variables can be controlled and behaviour measured, but subjects are
unaware of their part in an experiment. Variables to control include: situation, gender of
distressed person, time of day, number of bystanders.
Procedure: An accomplice carrying a large pile of books attempts to open a door and
pass through, but fails and drops the books all over the floor. The experimenter is
unobtrusively noting the number of people who offer help and whether they are male or
female. Record number of males who helped and number of females who helped.
Results
graphs, bar charts etc. to show the results, e.g. pie charts to show the percentage of
males and females helping.
Analysis of results: Calculate the mean for each gender.
Relate your findings to aims and to relevant psychological research, e.g. Latané &
Darley. Was the hypothesis/null hypothesis supported? How do your results compare
with those of other psychologists?
Ethical issues
This study, like many in this area, raises a number of ethical issues. Did you have the
consent of participants? What safeguards were in place to make sure they suffered no
distress? Did you deceive subjects in any way? Were they exposed to any risks?

4.2.1 Definitions
Pro-social behaviour is that which is to the benefit of someone else; it includes actions
that are co-operative, affectionate and helpful to others. The clearest examples of pro-
social behaviour are often called altruism. Altruism is acting selflessly, with the sole
motive of someone else’s good, not your own personal satisfaction, and sometimes at
considerable personal cost. Examples of altruism might be saving someone from
drowning or donating one of your kidneys to help someone with kidney disease. While
it is easy to explain why you might help a close relative or loved one it is more difficult
to explain altruism when the person is unrelated or even unknown to you.
 Activity
Make a list of all prosocial behaviour that you notice in the course of one day.
In class, discuss this material paying particular attention to finding a definition
of prosocial behaviour. What are the problems that occur when deciding
whether a particular behaviour is truly altruistic? What motivates people to
help others in the examples you have collected?
Empathy is a feeling for someone else’s distress (feeling their emotions as you imagine
they feel them) coupled with the motivation to reduce the distress. Note that you may
feel sympathy toward someone (i.e. feel sorry for them) but not necessarily feel
empathy with them (i.e. actually ‘feel’ their distress). According to Batson empathy an
important requirement in wanting to help someone.
 Activity
Think of ways that altruistic behaviour could be encouraged in society
generally by:
a) parents
b) teachers
c) the media
d) social policy-makers.

4.2.2 The development of pro-social behaviour
The development of empathy

Batson proposed that there are two distinct emotional responses to seeing another
person suffer: personal distress and empathy. Personal distress, for example when you
see the blood of an injured person, leads to selfish motivation while empathy can lead
to genuine altruism. Because empathy means experiencing the same emotion as another
person, this heightened emotion increases the desire to help, if the other person is in
distress.
Empathy and pro-social behaviour have been linked in the study of children’s
development. Studies have shown that children who feel this type of empathic concern
are more likely to help a victim than those who feel mainly personal distress (a concern
for their own discomfort).
Martin Hoffman describes four broad steps in the development of empathy:
Stage 1: Global empathy Begins in first year, matching expression of strong

emotion e.g. crying when someone else cries.
Stage 2: Egocentric empathy Begins 12-18 months, responding to another’s distress

with distress of their own, and offering what they,
themselves, would find most comforting, e.g. show
sadness when another child is hurt and offer their
favourite toy.
Stage 3: Empathy for Begins 2-3 years, noting others’ feelings, partially
another’s feelings matching them, responding in non-egocentric way.
Gradually, children distinguish a wider range of
emotions.
Stage 4: Empathy for Begins late childhood/early adolescence — more

another’s life condition generalised notion of others’ feelings and responding to
general plight, not specific situation.
 Reading: Textbook pages 83-84 ‘The development of empathy’
 SAQ 1
a) Explain the importance of role-taking in the development of empathy.

b) Give an example of how a child might demonstrate each type of empathy.

 Activity
Observe children of different ages in a play situation, looking for evidence of
empathic responses. Does their behaviour conform to Hoffman’s theory?
Factors affecting pro-social behaviour

Social norms and pro-social behaviour
There is no law that says we must help people, but we often feel as though we ought to
help. This feeling originates in the unwritten rules of conduct, social norms, that exist
in everyday life, and which we acquire through the socialisation process, whereby we
learn social norms from our family, at school and from our peers. In most cultures there
are norms to say that it is good to help and that it is bad to hurt others or to act selfishly.
The norm of social responsibility states that we should help those who depend upon
us. When this norm is internalised, we act on behalf of others, not for material reward
but for the satisfaction that we are doing what is right. Suppose that you have a job in
which your supervisor is evaluated (i.e. by her superiors) in relation to how hard you
work. Would this make you work any harder? A series of experiments by Berkowitz &
Daniels suggest that you probably would. This would be true even when you receive no
additional reward for your extra effort. Your supervisor depends on you, so you help
her by working harder.
The norm of reciprocity states, ‘do unto others as they have done unto you’. If
someone has done something to help you, you should you feel an obligation to
reciprocate. This is closely related to the principal of equity, which states that people
expect to receive in proportion to what they give. Therefore, in an equitable relationship
people, who have been helped, should expect help in return. Research on this suggests
that it is a strong norm, but a number of situational factors determine whether behaviour
is guided by it, for example:
♦ People feel obliged to return a favour only when the help given to them was
intentional and voluntary.
♦ People feel more gratitude when helper’s efforts have been great in proportion to
their means. We would feel more grateful for money lent by a relative on a pension
than by one who was rich.
A criticism of the idea that norms affect helping behaviour is that norms are general
rules but helping behaviour is very specific to situations. Therefore, each instance may
prove to be the exception to the rule. For example, a parent who has taught a child to
give generously to others may be upset, when the child gives all her piggy bank savings
to a beggar!
 Reading: Textbook pages 84-85 ‘Social norms’

 SAQ 2
a) Explain what is meant by a social norm.

b) Give an example of a social norm.
c) In what way could pro-social behaviour be affected by social norms?
d) Give an example of a study on social norms and pro-social behaviour.
 Activity
a) List the norms that you think control your own behaviour.
b) Look through recent newspapers for instances of heroism. Can you link these
up with social norms? Was there another explanation?
Socialisation and pro-social behaviour
 Activity
Can you think of ways in which, as a child, you were encouraged to be helpful to
others?
The emergence of pro-social behaviour in children can be explained in a variety of

ways. It could be the result of:
♦ A greater understanding of the needs of others (cognitive theory) — Piaget’s work

suggests that until children overcome egocentrism (the ability to take someone
else’s viewpoint), they can’t respond to another’s distress

♦ Identification (psychodynamic theory) — we take-on the attitudes, values and

norms of behaviour of our same-sex parent
♦ Observational learning (social learning theory) — we imitate the behaviour of

those close to us such as parents, and are reinforced for such imitation
Children are ready to help once they can take on the viewpoint of others. But for a child
to actually become generous, they need to develop the motivation to help others. This
comes from socialisation: the identification with and imitation of adults who set an
example to them.
Studies have found that parents who are more helpful, empathetic, and generally more
sensitive to others, have children who are also more likely to exhibit these traits. Zahn-
Waxler and her colleagues found that mothers, who explained the rules as well as the
consequences of actions to their children (e.g. ‘If you take that doll away from Kevin,
he’ll cry’. ‘You mustn’t make children cry’) had children, who were more likely to
show pro-social behaviour.
Hay & Murray showed that children could be encouraged to develop pro-social
behaviour, if parents encouraged ‘give and take’ from an early age. Playing games that
involved this could help.
It is important both to tell children what they should not do, and why; and to tell them
what they should do, together with the reasons why. It is also important that parents
don’t say one thing and do another, since it is their actions rather than what they say
that children are most likely to copy.
One interesting finding with young children is that they are less likely to help when in a
bad mood. Conversely, in older children and adults, we find that a bad mood makes
people more likely to help. It seems that children need to learn that helping someone
else is a good way of making you feel better when you are in a bad mood. They don’t
really know what is good for them, but learn eventually that trying to be good to others
is one way to overcome their bad moods.
 Reading: Textbook pages 85-86 ‘Socialisation’
 SAQ 3
a) What is meant by the term socialisation?

b) What are the stages in the development of helping behaviour according to
Cialdini?

4.2.3 Bystander intervention

A form of pro-social behaviour that has been studied in great detail (perhaps because it
lends itself to empirical study) is bystander intervention. A famous example of the
lack of bystander intervention, and a stimulus for much research, was the Kitty
Genovese murder in New York in 1964. As Ms Genovese was returning home to her
New York apartment from a night-club at 3.00 a.m., she was repeatedly stabbed over a
period of half an hour by a man who eventually killed her. Thirty eight people in the
apartment block heard her scream, but no-one came to her assistance or called the
police.
The decision model (Latané & Darley)

As a result of the Genovese case, psychologists such as Latané & Darley began to
study this aspect of behaviour, sometimes known as bystander apathy, in an attempt to
find explanations for pro-social behaviour.
For example, Darley investigated the influence of the presence of others on altruistic
behaviour. They seated two people in a room and made sounds come from the next
room, as though someone were being seriously hurt. In one condition the two people
faced each other, and in the other condition they were back to back. When the pairs
were face to face, the vast majority (75%) helped. Yet, when the pairs were back-to-
back only 20% helped. The conclusion was that the back-to-back people could not see
each other’s reaction, and were unable to compare their own response with another’s.
The situation remained ambiguous and was defined as non-serious. However, those
facing each other were able to confirm their startle response with the reaction of the
other person, and therefore define the situation as an emergency.
The focus of the Latané/Darley model is on the factors that affect a bystander’s
decision to help or not. The decision model outlines a number of steps that lead him or
her to make this decision. In particular, Latané and Darley’s research brought to
attention the phenomena of pluralistic ignorance (the lessened likelihood of defining a
situation as an emergency if there are others present) and diffusion of responsibility
(the more people present, the more likely people assume that someone else will offer
assistance). They suggest that both these processes are possible explanations for the
surprising finding from both case studies and experimental investigations that the more
people are present at an emergency the less the likelihood that someone will offer
assistance.
 Reading: Textbook pages 87-91 ‘The decision model’
 SAQ 4
List the five stages in coming to a decision to help people in distress according
to Latané/Darley
Explain why the presence of other bystanders makes it less likely that a person
will help a victim in distress?

Other researchers have looked at the relationship between personality and helping
behaviour. For example, Batson arranged situations in which their subjects helped
another person and subsequently were led to attribute their helpfulness either to
compassion (a personal characteristic) or to being forced to help (an external factor).
When another opportunity to be helpful arose, 60% in the ‘compassion’ condition
helped again but only 25% in the external condition did so. The interpretation was made
that those who see themselves as compassionate are self-rewarding, and therefore more
likely to repeat the action than those who don’t perceive any reward for their behaviour.
 Activity
Consider the following scenario. You are leaving your local park after an
afternoon sunbathing (and revising psychology!). Suddenly you hear a rustling
sound and notice that two figures appear to be ‘struggling’ behind some bushes
in an otherwise deserted corner of the park. One is making groaning sounds,
but it is not clear what they mean.
What action would you take? How would the presence of other bystanders
affect your behaviour?
Piliavin’s research
An alternative approach by Jane Piliavin focuses more on the way in which bystanders
calculate the costs and benefits of helping or not helping. The main motivation to
engage in helping behaviour initially is a need to reduce the arousal caused by seeing
someone in distress (empathy). But the decision to help depends on the potential
rewards exceeding the costs to the helper. For example if helping is very costly (you
might risk your life), then helping is less likely.
Another cost might be the potential embarrassment of helping someone when they are
not actually in trouble. This might have been a factor in the Kitty Genovese case.

 Activity
In a group, consider the following scenarios:

a) You are late for class and notice someone has just dropped their bag and is
desperately trying to collect everything together again. Do you stop to help?
b) You are walking home one afternoon and you think you hear a cry for help
coming from an alley. Do you go to investigate?
c) You notice a man and woman struggling together but are not sure whether it
is playful or someone is in trouble. What do you do?
For each of these situations, note down the thoughts that go through your mind as you
try to make your decision. What other information would help you to make that
decision?
(a) Explain, using an example, the meaning of the terms altruism and empathy.
(6 marks)
(b) Describe one psychological study of bystander intervention. (6 marks)
(c) Explain how social norms might affect pro-social behaviour. (6 marks)
(d) Explain two factors that may affect whether or not one person helps another.
(9 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 4.3
Anti-social behaviour:
aggression

4.3.1 Explanations of aggression
♦ Theories of the nature and origins of aggression: ethological, biological,

psychodynamic and social learning approaches
4.3.2 Reducing of aggression
♦ Psychological explanations of ways to reduce human aggression
4.3.3 Child rearing styles
♦ Studies of the authoritarian, democratic and permissive child rearing styles

and evaluation of these studies.

GCSE Psychology Unit 4.3: Anti-social behaviour

Aronson, E. (1992) The Social Animal. 6th Edn. N.Y: W.H. Freeman & Co.
(Chapter 6)
Saks, M.J. & Krupat, E. (1988) Social Psychology and its Applications. N.Y: Harper &
Row. (Chapter 8)
Brigham, J.C. (1991) Social Psychology. 2nd Edn. N.Y: Harper Collins. (Chapter 10)

1. As a group, write down a word that you think is the opposite of ‘aggressive’. Discuss
the different words that are suggested. What does this tell us about what people mean
by the term ‘aggressive’?
2. Individually, list as many examples of aggression that you can think of. Form a group
with three or four classmates and compare your lists. Are all the examples physical
aggression? What other types of aggression do you have on your lists? How many types
of aggression do you think there are?
3. Consider the case of Jamie. He is nine years old and constantly in trouble for behaving
violently. In school he pushes the other kids around, misbehaves in class, pretends to be
characters he has seen on TV. The teachers are aware that Jamie’s father is a violent
man, and there seems to be a violent streak running through the male members of the
family.
What do you think might be causing Jamie’s violent behaviour? Write down as many
possible explanations as you can.
4. Choose a recent topical example of violent behaviour reported in a newspaper or

magazine. After dividing into groups, try to explain the example from one
psychological perspective (each group should try to choose a different perspective).
Have a vote on what appears to be the most convincing perspective for this case.
5. How far do sports like boxing encourage aggression in spectators? Do you think that
after a particularly violent contest the spectators may have, in some way, ‘got their
aggression out of their system’?


Influence of the media on aggression (learning theory): a time survey on incidence of
aggression in TV programmes at different times of day.
Aim
To measure the amount of aggressive behaviour shown on TV within a particular time
period.
Hypothesis
The amount of aggression will vary with time of day
Method
Survey using time sampling
Design: Choose specific time periods throughout the day when you can video some TV
— how many clips will you have? Choose only one channel and one particular day.
Decide on your definition of aggression — be very specific. Prepare record sheets to
tick off aggressive incidents in the clips
Apparatus: Video recorder and TV Guide
Results
Presentation: Draw up a table to show your results. Produce graphs where appropriate.
Analysis: Calculate the average number of aggressive incidents for each time slot.
Relate your findings to the hypothesis and your knowledge of the relationship between
TV violence and aggressive behaviour, in particular to theories of aggression. Are there
peaks and troughs in the amount of aggression on TV? What about the so-called 9
o’clock watershed? Did you find it difficult to identify what was aggression? Are all
forms of aggression we see on TV the same — could some be more harmful than
others?
Conclusion
Did you prove your hypothesis?
Ethical Issues
It is unlikely that this study will involve ethical concerns.

4.3.1 Theories of aggression

We can define aggression as behaviour that is intended to injure another person either
physically or verbally, or is intended to destroy property.
It is important to distinguish between aggression and violence. Violence is the use of

physical force, so some aggressive behaviour is also violent, for example, the
playground bully who beats up another child. But, aggression can also be verbal, such
as children calling each other names, or threats of violence. Verbal aggression is an
everyday feature of Parliament.
Sometimes aggression is confused with assertiveness, which is standing up for what

you think, or speaking your mind about something. Assertiveness is not aggression.
You can be confident and persuasive without being aggressive, though some people
have to learn this.
 Activity
a) Find an example of each of the following: aggression, assertiveness, violence

and verbal aggression.
b) Is aggression always bad? Give some examples of aggression that are
acceptable in our society.
Psychologists have mainly studied violence rather than non-violent forms of aggression,
because many groups in society are concerned about violence, its effects and causes.
However, aggression isn’t always seen as a bad thing. For example, the use of
aggression and violence by the police to arrest somebody, or aggression by the armed
forces in times of war are two examples of aggression which society regards as justified
in the circumstances.
As in many other areas of psychology, there is a nature-nurture debate about the

causes of aggression. Some see aggression as some kind of biological instinct or drive,
perhaps controlled by hormones, whilst others see it as the result of environmental
influences, for example as a result of learning. A third view, represented by the
psychoanalytic approach, sees aggression as a biological instinct, which can be
influenced by environmental factors.
Psychodynamic theories of aggression

Freud believed that we were all born with aggressive instincts that reside in the id, the
primitive part of the personality, but that normally our aggressive impulses are
channelled into acceptable forms of behaviour such as sport. (This is known as
catharsis) It is when they are not appropriately controlled that people become violent.
Freud took a rather bleak view of human nature in his latter work. This was
understandable; he lived through the carnage of the First World War, and experienced
the Nazi persecution of the Jews in the 1930’s.

A modification, by Dollard, of Freud’s theory (in fact, it is a return to some of his

earlier ideas about human aggression) is the frustration-aggression hypothesis. In his
view, aggression is not an instinct, but a drive which results from frustration — in much
the same way that the drive to eat results from hunger. Although experience suggests
that frustration is related to aggression, research studies do not support Dollard’s claim
that frustration is always the cause of aggression. Whether frustration spills over into
violence depends on other factors, such as the presence of aggressive cues.
 Reading: Textbook pages 96-98 ‘Psychodynamic approach’.
 SAQ 1
a) What is meant by the term ‘death instinct’?

b) What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?
c) Outline the main criticisms of psychodynamic theories of aggression?
Ethological theories of aggression

Like psychoanalytic theories, ethological approaches see aggression as an instinct.
However, this time it is a survival instinct, similar to that present in animals. We, like
animals, have evolved with an aggressive instinct that is necessary to find food,
territories, mates and to defend against attackers. This is linked to gender differences, as
males are usually the hunters and also the more aggressive in animal species (although,
not always). Konrad Lorenz believed, like Freud, that release must be found for this
aggressive drive. If this did not happen naturally, the energy would build up, until it
erupted into violent behaviour.
 Activity
a) Discuss what animals (including humans) might gain from being aggressive.
b) Think about the ways in which human and animals differ in their behaviour.
Is it just that we are more intelligent, or are there more fundamental
differences? Are we the only animals with a conscience, perhaps?

 Reading: Textbook pages 94-95 ‘Ethological approach’
 SAQ 2
a) Explain the function of fighting according to Lorenz.

b) Explain why Lorenz believed that appeasement rituals were not effective in
the case of human aggression.
c) What criticism have been made of Lorenz’s theory?
Biological explanations of aggression

To some extent, both the psychodynamic and ethological explanations of aggression are
biological explanations in part. However, in this section we concentrate on explanations
in terms of genes, hormones and the role of the brain.
Sometimes, one hears calls for the castration of male sex offenders, in the belief that
their (aggressive) behaviour is caused by their hormones, since studies of raised
testosterone levels in rats and some other animals have shown increased levels of
aggression.
However, such a view ignores the fact that human behaviour, compared with rat
behaviour, is much more consciously controlled, and that aggression may be regarded
as a positive trait and encouraged through reinforcement.
Genetic explanations of aggression argue that aggression can be transmitted genetically,

perhaps the best known examples being the various studies that have claimed a higher
incidence amongst the male prison population of individuals with an extra Y
chromosome. However, it has been pointed out that such individuals are usually very
tall and simply better fit our stereotypes of aggressive types, so are more likely to be
arrested and convicted.
 Reading: Textbook page 235 ‘Biological approach’
 SAQ 3
Give one example of how brain damage can cause aggressive behaviour.

Social learning approach to aggression

Aggressive behaviour could be learnt from the environment in the same way that we
learn many of our behaviours. One example is through imitating the way that other
people behave. This was studied by social learning theorists such as Bandura. He
suggests that we imitate behaviour that we see in others, especially if we see the
behaviour being reinforced, or if we see important figures such as our parents, teachers
or friends displaying the behaviour. According to social learning theory, violent and
aggressive parents are likely to have violent and aggressive children, since the children
will copy their parent’s behaviour, thinking that such behaviour is an acceptable way of
dealing with situations.
There have been many studies of the effects of observing aggressive behaviour.
Bandura and his colleagues carried out several experiments. There have also been
numerous studies on whether TV encourages violence, since the most obvious
aggressive models to which children are exposed come from the media; especially TV.
Another study of the effects of observing aggression was Patterson, Littman and
Bricker’s study of aggression amongst nursery school children. They concluded that if
children observe other children successfully using aggression, this could cause them to
act aggressively as well. Such results could explain why schoolchildren often gang up
on one or two other children.
 Reading: Textbook pages 98-100 ‘Social learning approach’
 SAQ 4
a) What conclusions result from Bandura’s experiments on the effects of

observing aggressive models?
b) How did Eron investigate the link between TV and violence?
c) If learning theory is correct, how does it explain why boys are more
aggressive than girls?
4.3.2 Ways of reducing aggression

There have been several methods of reducing violence that have been suggested by
psychological approaches to understanding aggression, particularly the social learning
approach. This approach suggests that aggression is learned and so has the potential to
be unlearned. Practical suggestions include:
Positive reinforcement: Rewards for behaving aggressively could be reduced,

particularly for boys who are more often rewarded for being aggressive (‘macho’). Eron
suggested that the general level of violence in society will only be reduced, when males

subscribe to the same standards of behaviour that have been traditionally encouraged
for women.
Modelling: Effects of TV viewing on children’s level of aggression has been explored

in many studies. It is assumed that, the less aggression watched, the less violent people
should become. Singer & Singer (1981) worked with parents teaching them how to
monitor and control their children’s viewing. On a larger scale, changing ‘watersheds’
and the amount of aggression on TV generally could have an effect.
Removal of stimuli and cues: Environmental factors which encourage aggression could
be changed, e.g. over-crowding, excessive noise, lack of resources, presence of
aggressive cues. Note the greater incidence of violence in countries such as USA where
weapons are legalised.
 Reading: Textbook pages 101-103 ‘Ways of reducing aggression’
 Activity
Imagine that you, as a psychologist, have been asked to provide advice, based
on research findings, on how social policies could be changed in order to
reduce aggression in society. What advice would you give?
 SAQ 5
Describe, using psychological evidence, two ways in which aggressive
behaviour could be reduced.
4.3.3 Effect of child-rearing styles on aggression

Parents can act as role models for children. If parents behave aggressively, children
may copy this behaviour. Some studies that show this are as follows:
♦ Rothart & Maccoby (1966) found, from tape recordings of family interactions,
that mothers and fathers treated their sons and daughters differently. Aggression in
sons was tolerated more than aggression in daughters.
♦ The Newson’s found, in their study of parents of four-year-old children, that

tolerance for aggressive behaviour was different between social classes. Middle-
class parents were more likely to object to their children’s aggressive behaviour
than working-class parents.

♦ Sears, Maccoby and Levin, interviewed mothers of five year olds about
punishment. From the results they classified the mothers into three child-rearing
styles permissive, authoritarian and democratic. In a follow-up study, six years
later, Sears explored the effects on the children of these different styles.
♦ Diana Baumrind carried out a later study on child-rearing styles and supported the
view that there were three types of child-rearing style, each of which could have
different consequences for the development of aggression. Aggression was more
likely if children had been brought up either in the authoritarian or the permissive
style.
 Reading Textbook pages 104-106
 Activity
Looking back at your own childhood, try to identify which style of child-
rearing your parents predominantly used. Explain your choice.
 SAQ 6
a) Make a table that summarises the characteristics of the four child-rearing

styles discussed by Maccoby et. al.
b) Choose one study of the effects of child-rearing styles on children’s
aggressive behaviour and describe it.
(a) Explain the difference between the ethological and social learning approaches
to aggression (4 marks)
(b) Using your knowledge of psychology discuss the likely success of an attempt
to reduce aggression based on Social Learning Theory. (6 mark)
(c) Describe and evaluate one study of the effects of child-rearing styles on
behaviour. (6 marks)

GCSE AQA PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 5
Research Methods
Specification requirements
Methods of investigation:
♦ Experiments and field experiments
♦ Survey
♦ Observational methods
♦ Case study: advantages and disadvantages of different types of investigation
♦ Correlation
Methods of control:
♦ Sampling, randomisation, counterbalancing
♦ Independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs
♦ Standardised procedures and instructions
♦ Objectivity in measurement and recording
♦ Naturalistic and controlled settings
Ethical considerations:
♦ Invasion of privacy
♦ Need to minimise pain and stress
♦ Informed consent and debriefing of participants

GCSE Psychology Unit 5: Research methods

Coolican, H. (1996) Introduction to Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology, 2nd
Edition. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Dyer, C. (1995) Beginning Research in Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell

1. Collect as many reports of psychological research studies as you can from
newspapers and magazines. Classify the studies in terms of the different
methods used. Identify any ethical issues associated with each study.
2. Collect some examples of proverbs about human behaviour such as ‘birds of a

feather flock together’ and ‘he who laughs last laughs longest’. Try to think of a
study which might test the truth or otherwise of each. Identify the IV and DV
(often not as easy as it seems!)
3. Try ‘observing’ someone for a short period of time (10–15 minutes). How
easy/difficult is this task? What problems are there in recording what you see?
4. Towards the end of the course, look through the studies which have been
discussed and check them against the ethical guidelines. Which studies would
be difficult to justify nowadays?
5. A class debate on the pros and cons of (psychological) research involving

animals.

5.1 Theories and research in psychology

Psychologists try to develop theories about behaviour. A psychological theory is
simply an explanation, based on objective evidence, for some aspect of behaviour. But
how are theories to be developed?
The psychologist may observe some particular behaviour that leads him or her to ask
questions about its cause. This leads to the formulation of a hypothesis (a testable
statement) about the behaviour. This hypothesis is then tested, using an appropriate
psychological method. The results of testing are a record of what happens during the
test.
The psychologist will then interpret the results, reaching a conclusion about whether or
not the hypothesis has been proved. Depending on the results of the study, he or she
may need to refine the original hypothesis and repeat the procedure again until satisfied
with the conclusions.
An example
A psychologist, Albert Bandura, noticed that children often imitate adult behaviour.
He wanted to find out whether children would imitate an adult’s aggressive behaviour.
He formulated an hypothesis that children who see an adult commit an act of physical
aggression are more likely to commit acts of physical aggression than those who see an
adult behaving non-aggressively. Nursery school children were divided into two
groups. Just one group watched a film of a man smacking and hitting a large inflatable
toy (a Bobo doll). All the children were then placed, one at a time, in a playroom and,
after a short while were made frustrated by having the toys they were playing with
taken away. Bandura watched their behaviour towards the Bobo doll, which was left
with them. There was much more aggression in the group which had watched the
aggressive adult than in the group which had not. He found that after watching the
adult, both boys and girls behaved aggressively towards the doll, performing many of
the detailed acts of aggression that the adult had displayed.
 SAQ 1
a) What hypothesis was Bandura testing?

b) What behaviour is being observed?
c) What conclusion did Bandura reach about his hypothesis?
d) Explain why the psychologist’s approach to his study is scientific.
Bandura’s study is an example of how an experiment can be used to test a hypothesis.

There are also a number of types of research study in use in psychology.

5.2 Methods of studying behaviour

Psychology is concerned with the study of behaviour and psychologists try to use
objective scientific methods to study observable behaviour. This section looks at some
of the ways psychologists try to achieve this.
Observation
Psychologists study their participants by observing them. Scientific observation
involves trying to record behaviour in as unbiased a way as possible. There are several
different types of observation, each with its own advantages and disadvantages:
Naturalistic observation. This involves observing people (or animals) in their natural
environment. Their behaviour should be true-to-life, although it is always possible that
the presence of the observer could influence their behaviour.
Controlled observation: Naturalistic observation may be more true-to-life, but there

are many influences on the behaviour of the people being observed which are not
controlled. If this is seen as a particularly important potential problem, psychologists
will take the observation into a controlled environment, perhaps even a laboratory.
Controlled observation may also take place during an experiment. For example, in the
Bandura study discussed above, children were observed to see how they would behave
toward the Bobo-doll. Controlled observation can be more reliable, but the behaviour
under study may not be altogether natural. It may be distorted by the fact that it takes
place in a different setting than usual.
Participant observation: This is a form of observation in which the investigator

becomes a part of the group or setting that is being studied. Those being studied may
not even be aware of the fact that they are being studied at all. Festinger conducted a
well-known example of participant observation. Along with his co-workers, he
infiltrated a cult group who predicted that their city would be destroyed by flood on
December 21st. They were interested in what the group’s reaction would be when the
prophecy turned out to be incorrect. It would be fun to report that the researchers
drowned while taking notes, but, of course, they did not! With participant observation,
you can get very realistic behaviour. The problem, however, is that by taking part, you
may influence the behaviour of the people you are observing.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 151-152 ‘Observation’.

 SAQ 2
a) Which method of observation would you choose to study children’s play?

Which method could be used to study the behaviour of adolescents in a gang?
b) What is observer bias and why is it important?
c) Give one advantage and one disadvantage of participant observation.
Surveys: interviews and questionnaires

Surveys are widely used by social scientists. Opinion polls about voting and
contemporary issues are a good example. Psychologists also study behaviour by using
interviews and questionnaires. For obvious reasons, written questionnaires aren’t very
useful with young children, but they come into their own with adults, particularly when
you need to get information from a large number of people. The problem with
questionnaires is that you can’t be sure that you are getting the truth, because people
might be afraid or even ashamed to say what they really think. Interviews can be more
in-depth than questionnaires. Both interviews and questionnaires have the problem of
leading (or biased) questions. Here is an example:
Q. If you think carefully about the issue, it is not really sensible to vote
Liberal Democrat in the next election since that party is very unlikely to be
able to form a government.
A. Agree/disagree/don’t know.
 Activity
Rewrite the above question to make it less biased. Now, try to rewrite it so the
bias is in the other direction (disagree). Look at examples of surveys to see
whether you can find more examples of biased questions.
Find out what the advantages and disadvantages of yes/no (i.e. closed)
questions are compared with open-ended questions in surveys.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 149-151 ‘Survey’

Case studies
These are in-depth studies of one person or a small group of people, e.g., studies of
members of gangs. They are often used, together with clinical interviews, to study
individuals with psychological problems. Freud’s theories were based largely on case
studies.
 Reading: Textbook: page 153 ‘Case study’
Correlation
People often claim that two things go together. For example, John Bowlby claimed that
maternal deprivation and delinquency were related. This is known as correlation.
Correlation studies show us the degree to which two things go together, e.g., food
intake and weight gain or loss; smoking and a bad cough.
If two things go together in the same direction, such as amount of work done and your
GCSE grade, they are said to be positively correlated — as one increases, so does the
other. However, if two things move in opposite directions, e.g., amount of alcohol
consumed and snooker score, they are negatively correlated. For many pairs of things
there is no (or zero) correlation.
The actual degree of correlation can be worked out precisely. But it is not necessary to
do this at GCSE level. However, you do need to know that the strongest correlation is
given the number +1 (–1, if negative), the weakest (i.e., no correlation at all) is given 0.
Note that it is a very common mistake for students to say that a correlation of –1 is no
correlation. In fact, it is just as perfect a correlation as +1.
 Reading: Textbook: page 153 ‘Correlation’
 SAQ 3
Are the following positively or negatively correlated? Give reasons for your
answer:
a) Temperature and rainfall in this country.

b) Children’s age and shoe size.
Remember that correlation cannot show that one thing causes another. It may just be a
coincidence.

 Activity
A researcher once pointed out that between the two World Wars there was a
correlation between the divorce rate and the number of apples imported into
the country. Coincidence or cause? What do you think?
Psychologists use a variety of methods to study behaviour: they have to decide whether
to use cross-sectional, longitudinal or cross-cultural approaches, and then whether to
use observation, experiment, survey, correlational or case study methods. It is only then
that they can think about how to select their participants and how to design their
investigation — topics we will look at in the following sections.
5.3 Samples: choosing who to study

All psychological research needs people or animals to study. The researcher has to
select a sample of participants from the target population. Researchers usually want to
be able to generalise from their sample to the wider population. They can only do this,
if their sample is representative. Sampling is concerned with the selection of
representative participants.
In sampling, researchers need to identify:
1. The target population under study. For example, all GCSE students in schools
in Britain.
2. The number of participants to study. Too few participants and our sample will
be unrepresentative (biased). Too many participants will take lots more time
and money to study than is needed. As a general rule, however, the more
participants, the more representative our study will be.
3. How to select the sample group.
Sampling methods
1. Random Sampling is where every member of the target population has an equal
chance of being chosen for the sample. We can only use random sampling, if we can
get a complete up-to-date list of every member of the target population. We could then
put all the names into a hat (or box) and draw out the number of participants we have
decided on. This is known as the lottery method, for obvious reasons. Or, we could use
a computer to generate a list of random numbers. Suppose the first number is 77; we
then select the 77th name on our list of the target population and so on.
In practice, it’s often impossible to get complete lists (or sampling frames) for our
target population, so other methods are often used instead. Some examples of sampling
frames are the electoral register for all adults living in a particular area, or all the
registers for pupils in a school.
2. Multi-stage sampling is where we overcome the problem of sampling frames by

leaving them until the last stage. Suppose we wished to study all GCSE Psychology

students in British colleges. It is obviously impossible to get a list of them all — it

would take much too long as there are about 500 Further Education colleges. We can
use multi-stage sampling.
First Stage
(a) Obtain a list of all Local Education Authorities (there are about 90)
from the library.
(b) Use the lottery method to randomly select a small number of Local
Education Authorities (say six).
Second Stage
(a) Our sample now contains the names of six Local Education
Authorities. Go back to the library and get the name of every Further
Education college in each Local Education Authority.
(b) For each Local Education Authority, use the lottery method to pick out one
college from each.
Third Stage
(a) We now have the names of, say, six Further Education colleges
that have been chosen randomly. We can now write to each of the six
asking for a sampling frame of GCSE Psychology students.
(b) Again, use the lottery method to select the required number of participants
(say fifteen) from each college.
(c) We eventually end up with the names of 90 students from six colleges. We
can be reasonably confident that such a sample will be representative and
it’s much easier to obtain our sample using the above procedure than to
write to 500 or so colleges.
3. Quota sampling is the preferred method where no sampling frames (i.e., complete
lists of names) are available. It is widely used by market researchers and social
scientists and has been shown to be reliable. Here, the target population is sub-divided
into groups by factors that might affect the research. For example, a survey of GCSE
Psychology students might divide them into sub-groups by age, sex and whether they
are full or part-time students. The researcher then finds a quota of people in each such
group. They might choose, for example, 10 female part-time students over 30 and 10
male full-time under 20. This will be done in such a way that the proportions of each
sub-group are the same in the sample as they are in the population. Since all the
different sub-groups of the target population are included, we can be reasonably sure
that our sample is representative.
4. Self-selected sample is where people are asked to volunteer for some research, for
example, through advertisements in the newspapers. Since the type of person who
volunteers to take part in research is not typical of the population as a whole, we can’t
really generalise from such self-selected samples.
5. Opportunity sample is where those participants who are easiest to find are used.
Like self-selected sampling, it is unlikely to be representative.

 Reading: Textbook: page 154-155 ‘Sampling’
 SAQ 4
a) What is the difference between a population and a sample?

b) Explain the difference between a random and an opportunity sample.
5.4 Experimental design
Variables
In an experiment the psychologist deliberately changes some part of the situation and
then observes and records any changes in the behaviour of the subjects (the participants
who are being experimented on). For example, in the study referred to at the beginning
of this unit, Bandura had children watching an adult behave violently towards a Bobo
doll, and then tested them to see how aggressive they were. Anything that can change in
an experiment is called a variable. There are two types of variables that it is important
to understand. The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter is called the
independent variable (IV). The variable that is measured is called the dependent
variable (DV). In this example these are:
IV = whether children watch the adult behaving aggressively
DV = amount of aggressive behaviour observed later in the children
The purpose of the experiment is to test whether the changes in the DV are the result of
changes in the IV. Of course, such an experiment would have to be carefully
controlled, since there are lots of factors (or confounding variables) that could cause
differences in aggression. Such factors could be the children’s backgrounds and ages,
how long they watched the film, and so on. There are two classes of such variables to
be controlled in an experiment:
♦ Subject variables: relating to individual differences in participants e.g., differences

in age, temperament, intelligence etc.
♦ Situational variables: such as the temperature in the room where the experiment is
carried out, distractions, the instructions to subjects.
The researcher needs to be sure that all variables other than the IV are held constant, so
that they can be sure that any change observed in the DV is due solely to the change in
the IV. This is more difficult than it might at first appear!

 SAQ 5
Explain what is meant by the term ‘confounding variable’ in an experiment. Give an
example of one, and say whether it is a subject or a situational variable.
Hypotheses
While an aim describes, in general terms, the research question in which we are
interested, a hypothesis is a precise prediction about what we expect to happen in an
experiment. It is a testable statement that predicts the effect of a given change in the IV
on the DV. For example, (i) that drinking one glass of wine (IV) will increase a
person’s reaction-time (DV) or (ii) that the average number of words in the sentences of
seven-year old children will be greater than that of four-year old children.
 SAQ 6
Identify the IV and DV in the second example of a hypothesis given above.
Hypotheses must always be carefully worded in such a way that it is clear exactly what
the IV and DV are, and what effect it is predicted the IV will have on the DV. The
process of carefully specifying just how a variable is to be measured is known as
operationalising variables. To do this, it is usually necessary to define the DV in such
a way that it is measurable on some sort of scale (quantifiable). With reaction time this
could be in terms of milliseconds. Some variables are not so easy to quantify; for
example, Bandura had to devise a measure of aggression in his experiment on
observing aggression.
 Activity
Imagine you had to observe children’s aggressive behaviour in a playground,
comparing the amount shown by girls and boys. How would you define aggression in
such a way that you could measure it?
Testing hypotheses
In the example of the experiment by Bandura we would probably find that some
children showed aggression after watching the adult, while others did not. Does this
mean that the hypothesis is proved or not? Bandura needed to predict how likely it was
that any changes in aggression (the DV) occurred by chance, rather than as a result of
changes in the IV. If chance was the likely cause of the changes in the DV, then he

would have accepted what is termed the null hypothesis. In fact, he showed that the
majority of children who watched an adult being violent, were aggressive, but that few
of the children who did not watch the adult being violent, were also aggressive towards
the doll. He used statistics to show that chance was very unlikely to have produced a
difference as great as the one he had observed.
 SAQ 7
Explain the difference between an hypothesis and a null hypothesis.
Control and experimental groups

In any psychology study the fact that the participants are aware that they are being
studied can affect their behaviour, so we need to make sure that any observed changes
in the DV really are the result of changes in the IV, and not simply due to experimental
effects. One way to do this is to divide participants into two groups, an experimental
group where the DV is changed, and a control group where there is no change in the
DV. In all other respects the groups must experience the same conditions, however,
including being observed. This is what Bandura did. The group that did not see the film
of the adult being violent, was his control group.
Medicines are usually tested in this way, with the control group receiving a dummy pill
(placebo) that does not have any effect (but, of course, the control group does not know
the medicines are placebos). Differences in the control and experimental groups can be
assumed to be due to the medicine under test, provided the two groups are strictly
comparable in the way that they are selected and treated during the study.
 Activity
We have described the control group in Bandura’s study as ‘the group who did not
watch the film of the adult being violent towards the doll’. Consider whether this is a
good idea. Should they watch no film at all, or is there a better way of conducting the
study?
Allocating participants to control and experimental groups

We need to make sure that any differences between control and experimental groups are
really caused by the IV, so we need systematic ways of allocating participants to each
group. There are three ways in which participants can be allocated:
1. Independent measures/groups
This is the easiest design to understand. The participants are allocated to experimental
and control groups randomly (as in Bandura’s study). However, there are problems with
this design because, for instance, there may be a difference between the participants in

the two groups. For example, we may end up with all the more timid children in one
group. To overcome such problems, we can consider using the repeated measures
design.
 Reading: Textbook: page 155-156 ‘Independent measures design’
2. Repeated measures
Here all participants go into both the control and the experimental groups, so that there
are no differences between the two groups. However, the experience of being in one
group may affect behaviour in the other. Such effects are known as order effects and
can be dealt with by the use of counterbalancing. In some studies, it is just not possible
to use this type of design.
 Activity
Try to imagine how the Bandura study could be conducted using the repeated
measures design. Would it work as well? Compare your ideas with others in the
group.
 Reading: Textbook: page 156 ‘Repeated measures design’
3. Matched pairs
This method lies somewhere between the previous two. Different participants are used,
but they are paired together so that each pair is as alike as possible for any factors that
could affect the IV. One member of each pair is then allocated randomly to each of the
control and experimental groups. Some experiments have even been conducted using
identical twins as the matched pairs.
 Reading: Textbook: page 156 ‘Matched pairs design’
 SAQ 8
Compile a table that shows one advantage and one disadvantage of each of the three
experimental designs.
Summary on controlled experiments

Experiments involve the testing of a hypothesis in a controlled environment in order to
see if predicted changes in behaviour occur. The results of the experiment are carefully

recorded, and analysed to see if the hypothesis is proven true or not. The conclusion
states whether or not our original hypothesis was proven. The results from experiments
are considered to be more generalisable than results from other studies using non-
experimental methods. However, many topics in psychology can’t be investigated using
experiments because, for example, they are concerned with long-term influences on
behaviour, or they would involve procedures that are unethical.
Natural experiments and field experiments

Natural experiments are situations where the independent variable changes in the
normal course of events. For example, an isolated community might get TV for the first
time. In a natural experiment, the researcher does not manipulate the independent
variable. It changes naturally.
A field experiment is conducted in the natural environment of the participant, rather

than in the controlled environment of the laboratory. The naturalistic environment
provides more realism, but less control of variables. Remember, however, that ‘good’
controlled experiments, like Bandura’s, try to make the environment as natural as
possible. This is particularly important when testing children.
 Reading: Textbook: pages 157-158 ‘Research in natural and experimental settings’
 SAQ 9
Imagine an experiment to test the hypothesis that children who are taught their
multiplication tables perform better in maths SATs tests. How would you test this
using:
(i) a natural experiment, and (ii) a field experiment?
5.5 Ethical guidelines for research

♦ Investigators must consider the ethical implications and psychological
consequences for the participants in their research.
♦ Investigators should inform participants of the objectives of the research and gain
their informed consent. If this is not possible, special safeguarding procedures must
be followed.
♦ Withholding of information or misleading participants is unacceptable, if they are

likely to object, or show unease, once they are debriefed and become aware of the
deception. Intentional deception should be avoided whenever possible.
♦ In all studies where the participants are aware that they have taken part in an
investigation, they must be fully debriefed, so that he/she understands the nature of
the research.

♦ Investigators must emphasise the subject’s right to withdraw from the experiment
at any time, should he/she so wish.
♦ All data obtained must be treated as confidential, unless otherwise agreed in

advance.
♦ Investigators must protect participants from physical and mental harm during, or
arising from, investigations.
♦ Studies based on observation must respect the privacy and psychological well-
being of the people studied. Covert observation without prior consent is only
permissible in situations where those observed would expect to be observed by
strangers.
♦ Investigators must not give advice on psychological problems, but they may refer
people to someone who can offer appropriate professional help/advice (e.g., a
counselling psychologist).
♦ Investigators share responsibility for the ethical treatment of their participants with
associates, employers or students, all of whom should comply with these
guidelines.
 Activity
a) Draw up a checklist that you can use, in order to make sure your proposed
piece of coursework is acceptable and conforms to ethical guidelines.
b) Apply this checklist to the Bandura study we have been considering.
Practice questions
A psychologist wanted to know if there were any differences between the television
programmes watched by males and females. He placed an advertisement in ‘The Sun’
newspaper, giving a telephone number for people to ring if they wanted to take part.
When people contacted him, he asked them what programmes they watched on
television. From the results, he concluded that there were differences between the
programmes watched by males and females.
(a) Given the aim of the above study, what might the hypothesis be? (1 mark)
(b) What are the independent and dependent variables in the above study?
(2 marks)
(c) What sampling technique was used in the above study? (1 mark)

(d) Explain one reason why the sample in the above study is unlikely to be
representative of the population. (3 marks)
(e) How would you carry out a study to try to find out whether males and females
watched different programmes on television? Outline the method you would use
and give reasons for your choice. (4 marks)
(f) How would you choose your sample to ensure that it was as representative as
possible? (3 marks)
(g) Outline the procedure you would follow and give reasons for your choice.
(6 marks)
(h) Explain how you would make sure that your study was ethical. (5 marks)

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A RESOURCE PACK FOR

Written by: Mike Battye & Steve Hill

Psychology Series Editor: Mike Battye

Unit 1.1 Perception

Unit 1.2 Learning

Unit 1.3 Memory

Unit 2.1 Forming impressions of others

Unit 2.2 Prejudice and discrimination

Unit 2.3 Social Influence

Unit 3.1 Attachment and separation

Unit 3.2 Cognitive Development

Unit 3.3 Sex and Gender

Pro- and anti-social behaviour

Unit 4.1 The Development of Moral Behaviour

Unit 4.2 Pro-social Behaviour

Unit 4.3 Anti-social behaviour

Unit 5.1 Methods of investigation

Unit 5.2 Methods of control

Unit 5.3 Ethical considerations

2003 Hartshill Press 2

Experienced teachers will recognise that the specification is essentially an

The specification is made up of four sections: cognitive, social, developmental, and

Structure of the resource pack

♦ Full guidance to the range of the specification requirements

♦ Full coverage of specification content including research methods

♦ Supplementary material to clarify difficult areas and add depth to teaching

♦ Suggested individual and class activities

♦ Short answer and exam practice questions

♦ Ideal for classroom-based or distance learning

2003 Hartshill Press 3

Barbara Woods (2002) ‘Understanding Psychology’ London: Hodder & Stoughton

2003 Hartshill Press 4

♦ Sensation and perception

♦ Types of illusion: ambiguity, distortion, paradox and fiction

♦ Everyday examples of illusions and explanations

♦ Perception as a modelling process

♦ Gregory’s theory of cues and hypotheses

1.1.2 Distance perception

♦ Monocular and binocular depth cues

♦ 2D images and 3D percepts, e.g. Gregory

♦ Everyday examples of distortions of perceived distance, size and

♦ Size constancy: distortions of perceived size, distance and movement

1.1.4 The visual system

♦ Structure and functioning of the eye.

♦ Description f the visual pathways to the cortex.

1.1.5 Factors affecting perception:

♦ Motivation, perceptual set, emotion, previous experience, context,

♦ Evaluation of studies conducted to investigate factors affecting perception

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Suggested further reading for teachers

Topics for class activities/discussions

5. Do you think it is possible for stimuli to be received without the individual

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Suggested sample coursework template

Aim, hypothesis & variables

IV= the order of presentation

DV= the perceived sex of man/woman ambiguous image

Procedure: Select a sample of non-psychology students and randomly allocate them to

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1.1.1 Perception as an active process

 Reading: Textbook page 109

Figure 1: The Muller-Lyer illusion

 Reading: Textbook: pages 109-110