1

Analytic signal - 3D total gradient

The concept of analytic signal applied to magnetic anomalies was developed in two
dimensions by Nabighian (1972) based on a concept initially proposed by the French Ville in
M ( x, y, z )

1948. In two dimensions, the complex analytic signal of the magnetic signal
be expressed as (Thurston and Smith 1997):

can

A ( x , y )=| A ( x , y )|. exp ( j )

with

| A(x , y)|=

M 2 M
+
x
y

)( )

and
=tan 1

( Mz |Mx )

|A| is the 2D analytic signal amplitude, the local phase. A common theme of the normalized
derivatives is the concept of mapping angles (or functions of angles) derived from the
gradients of the magnetic intensity.
Using 3D dimensional grid, the amplitude of the analytic signal A of M(x,y,z) is calculated
by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of each of the directional first derivatives
of the magnetic field.

| A(x , y)|=

M 2 M 2 M
+
+
x
y
z

)( )( )

The resulting shape of the analytic signal is expected to be centered above the magnetic body
(Figs. Error: Reference source not found.8, Error: Reference source not found.9). This has the
effect of transforming the shape of the magnetic anomaly from any magnetic inclination to
one positive body-centered anomaly at least in 2D (Nabighian 1972). Analytic signal has been
utilized widely for mapping of structures and for determining the depth of sources (Roest et
al. 1992; Florio et al. 2006; Pilkington et al. 2000).
The main advantage of the total gradient over the maximum horizontal gradient is its lack of
dependence on dip and magnetization direction, at least in 2D. When interpreting the analytic

signal it is assumed that the causative sources are simple near-vertical or step-like geological
structures (Roest et al. 1992; Roest and Pilkington 1993). Therefore, the 2D analytic signal
has significant advantages over the simple derivatives and this application was utilized to map
changes in basement structure, fabric and trends. Synthetic modelling has proved that the
maxima of the analytic signal are located over the edge of anomalous sources (Nabighian
1974, 1984, Roest et al. 1992). This simplification of the potential field, however, results in
the compromise whereby during computation the sign of the original gravity and magnetic
field is lost. Therefore, it cannot be determined whether the analytic signal anomaly represent
positive or negative density or magnetic susceptibility contrast compared to its surroundings.
However, it should be reminded that the total gradient expressed in 3D is not so independent
of the direction of magnetization (Xiong 2006), nor does it represent the envelope of both the
vertical and horizontal derivatives over all possible directions of the Earths field and source
magnetization. Thus, despite its popularity, the 3D total gradient is not the correct amplitude
of the real analytic signal in 3D. In a recent review, it appears that what is commonly called
the analytic signal should be rather called "total gradient" in 3D (Nabighian et al. 2005).
In the 3D case, some factors produce offsets that are more difficult to predict than in the 2D
case. Such factors primarily include the interference from neighbouring magnetic bodies, or
from varying magnetization directions, terrain effects, 3D corners on body edges, or irregular
boundary. Roest et al. (1992) have demonstrated that this is true for any 2D anomaly and
suggested their generalization to 3D. However, the data should be interpreted with care in the
3D case. The properties of the analytic signal are strictly valid for isolated 2D bodies and one
should use caution in extrapolating the conclusion of the 2D case to the 3D case. For 3D case,
the shape and the absolute value of the analytic signal are also dependent of the directions of
magnetization and of the Earth's field. The amount of offset is primarily determined by the
depth to the top edge of the boundary below the observation level and by the dip of the
boundary and by the directions of magnetization and of the Earths field. In the most common
3D cases, the locations of the total gradient are always offset from edges of the causative
bodies. The best results are obtained for vertical and relatively shallow thick dikes (Xiong
2006). For the 2D finite dipping step model, the locations of the maximas vary with both
burial depth and dipping angle. All these factors become important as the size of study area
becomes smaller because the small amounts of offset they cause become more significant. For
local scale magnetic surveys, mutual interference from different bodies is the greatest limiting
factor of the analytic signal method and this can render the method virtually useless. For
large-scale magnetic surveys like the NB-07 or for shallower depths of causative bodies, the
analytic signal method remains nevertheless a useful and fast way of delineating magnetic
boundaries in the subsurface (Fig. 5.8).
The technique therefore requires interpretation in conjunction with other geophysical and
geological information to maximize its potential. After calibration with known structures or

other derived potential field products the analytic signal can be interpreted geologically with
better confidence.