The History of

S u p e r c o n d u c t o r
s
Superconductors, materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity, are one of
the last great frontiers of scientific discovery. Not only have the limits of superconductivity
not yet been reached, but the theories that explain superconductor behavior seem to be
constantly under review. In 1911 superconductivity was first observed in mercury by
Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes of Leiden University (shown above). When he
cooled it to the temperature of liquid helium, 4 degrees Kelvin (-452F, -269C), its resistance
suddenly disappeared. The Kelvin scale represents an "absolute" scale of temperature.
Thus, it was necessary for Onnes to come within 4 degrees of the coldest temperature that
is theoretically attainable to witness the phenomenon of superconductivity. Later, in 1913,
he won a Nobel Prize in physics for his research in this area.

Walter Meissner

The next great milestone in understanding how matter behaves at extreme cold
temperatures occurred in 1933. German researchers Walter Meissner (above) and Robert
Ochsenfeld discovered that a superconducting material will repel a magnetic field (below
graphic). A magnet moving by a conductor induces currents in the conductor. This is the
principle on which the electric generator operates. But, in a superconductor the induced
currents exactly mirror the field that would have otherwise penetrated the
superconducting material - causing the magnet to be repulsed. This phenomenon is known
as strong diamagnetism and is today often referred to as the "Meissner effect" (an
eponym). The Meissner effect is so strong that a magnet can actually be levitated over a
superconductive material.

In subsequent decades other superconducting metals, alloys and compounds were

discovered. In 1941 niobium-nitride was found to superconduct at 16 K. In 1953 vanadium-
silicon displayed superconductive properties at 17.5 K. And, in 1962 scientists at
Westinghouse developed the first commercial superconducting wire, an alloy of niobium
and titanium (NbTi). High-energy, particle-accelerator electromagnets made of copper-
clad niobium-titanium were then developed in the 1960s at the Rutherford-Appleton
Laboratory in the UK, and were first employed in a superconducting accelerator at the
Fermilab Tevatron in the US in 1987.

The first widely-accepted theoretical understanding of superconductivity was advanced

in 1957 by American physicists John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer (above).
Their Theories of Superconductivity became know as the BCS theory - derived from the
first letter of each man's last name - and won them a Nobel prize in 1972. The
mathematically-complex BCS theory explained superconductivity at temperatures close to
absolute zero for elements and simple alloys. However, at higher temperatures and with
different superconductor systems, the BCS theory has subsequently become inadequate to
fully explain how superconductivity is occurring.

Brian Josephson
 Another significant theoretical advancement came in 1962 when Brian D. Josephson
(above), a graduate student at Cambridge University, predicted that electrical current
would flow between 2 superconducting materials - even when they are separated by a non-
superconductor or insulator. His prediction was later confirmed and won him a share of
the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physics. This tunneling phenomenon is today known as the
"Josephson effect" and has been applied to electronic devices such as the SQUID, an
instrument capabable of detecting even the weakest magnetic fields. (Below SQUID graphic
courtesy Quantum Design.)

The 1980's were a decade of unrivaled discovery in the field of superconductivity. In

1964 Bill Little of Stanford University had suggested the possibility of organic (carbon-
based) superconductors. The first of these theoretical superconductors was successfully
synthesized in 1980 by Danish researcher Klaus Bechgaard of the University of
Copenhagen and 3 French team members. (TMTSF)2PF6 had to be cooled to an incredibly
cold 1.2K transition temperature (known as Tc) and subjected to high pressure to
superconduct. But, its mere existence proved the possibility of "designer" molecules -
molecules fashioned to perform in a predictable way.

Then, in 1986, a truly breakthrough discovery was made in the field of

superconductivity. Alex Müller and Georg Bednorz (above), researchers at the IBM
Research Laboratory in Rüschlikon, Switzerland, created a brittle ceramic compound that
superconducted at the highest temperature then known: 30 K. What made this discovery so
remarkable was that ceramics are normally insulators. They don't conduct electricity well
at all. So, researchers had not considered them as possible high-temperature
superconductor candidates. The Lanthanum, Barium, Copper and Oxygen compound that
Müller and Bednorz synthesized, behaved in a not-as-yet-understood way. (Original article
printed in Zeitschrift für Physik Condensed Matter, April 1986.) The discovery of this first
of the superconducting copper-oxides (cuprates) won the 2 men a Nobel Prize the following
year. It was later found that tiny amounts of this material were actually superconducting at
58 K, due to a small amount of lead having been added as a calibration standard - making
the discovery even more noteworthy.
 Müller and Bednorz' discovery triggered a flurry of activity in the field of
superconductivity. Researchers around the world began "cooking" up ceramics of every
imaginable combination in a quest for higher and higher Tc's. In January of 1987 a
research team at the University of Alabama-Huntsville substituted Yttrium for Lanthanum
in the Müller and Bednorz molecule and achieved an incredible 92 K Tc. For the first time
a material (today referred to as YBCO) had been found that would superconduct at
temperatures warmer than liquid nitrogen - a commonly available coolant. Additional
milestones have since been achieved using exotic - and often toxic - elements in the base
perovskite ceramic. The current class (or "system") of ceramic superconductors with the
highest transition temperatures are the mercuric-cuprates. The first synthesis of one of
these compounds was achieved in 1993 at the University of Colorado and by the team of A.
Schilling, M. Cantoni, J. D. Guo, and H. R. Ott of Zurich, Switzerland. The world record
Tc of 138 K is now held by a thallium-doped, mercuric-cuprate comprised of the elements
Mercury, Thallium, Barium, Calcium, Copper and Oxygen. The Tc of this ceramic
superconductor was confirmed by Dr. Ron Goldfarb at the National Institute of Standards
and Technology-Colorado in February of 1994. Under extreme pressure its Tc can be
coaxed up even higher - approximately 25 to 30 degrees more at 300,000 atmospheres.

The first company to capitalize on high-temperature superconductors was Illinois

Superconductor (today known as ISCO International), formed in 1989. This amalgam of
government, private-industry and academic interests introduced a depth sensor for
medical equipment that was able to operate at liquid nitrogen temperatures (~ 77K).

In recent years, many discoveries regarding the novel nature of superconductivity have
been made. In 1997 researchers found that at a temperature very near absolute zero an
alloy of gold and indium was both a superconductor and a natural magnet. Conventional
wisdom held that a material with such properties could not exist! Since then, over a half-
dozen such compounds have been found. Recent years have also seen the discovery of the
first high-temperature superconductor that does NOT contain any copper (2000), and the
first all-metal perovskite superconductor (2001).
Also in 2001 a material that had been sitting on laboratory shelves for decades was
found to be an extraordinary new superconductor. Japanese researchers measured the
transition temperature of magnesium diboride at 39 Kelvin - far above the highest Tc of
any of the elemental or binary alloy superconductors. While 39 K is still well below the Tc's
of the "warm" ceramic superconductors, subsequent refinements in the way MgB2 is
fabricated have paved the way for its use in industrial applications. Laboratory testing has
found MgB2 will outperform NbTi and Nb3Sn wires in high magnetic field applications like
MRI.
Though a theory to explain high-temperature superconductivity still eludes modern
science, clues occasionally appear that contribute to our understanding of the exotic nature
of this phenomenon. In 2005, for example, Superconductors.ORG discovered that
increasing the weight ratios of alternating planes within the layered perovskites can often
increase Tc significantly. This has led to the discovery of more than 35 new high-
temperature superconductors, including a candidate for a new world record.
The most recent "family" of superconductors to be discovered is the "pnictides". These
iron-based superconductors were first observed by a group of Japanese researchers in
2006. Like the high-Tc copper-oxides, the exact mechanism that facilitates
superconductivity in them is a mystery. However, with Tc's over 50K, a great deal of
excitement has resulted from their discovery.
Researchers do agree on one thing: discovery in the field of superconductivity is as
much serendipity as it is science. Stay tuned!

[For additional, more-obscure history, visit the "Atypical" and "Type 2"pages.]
[Last page rev: March 2009]

Superconducting Materials
Highly oriented oxide superconductor films are fabricated by a dipping-pyrolysis
process using metal-organic compounds as starting materials. Epitaxial
YBa2Cu3O7-y(YBCO) films prepared by two-step annealing give high critical
current densities at 77K: 1.2x 106A/cm2 in zero-applied fields, and 1.0x105A/cm2
in a magnetic field of 8T. These values are comparable to those of the YBCO
films prepared by in situ deposition processes such as sputtering and chemical
vapor deposition.
High-temperature oxide superconductors and related materials are synthesized
and their crystal structures and physical properties are evaluated. The figure
shows the crystal structure of the Cu-based superconductor Cu1-xBa2Ca3Cu4O12-
y(transition temperature of 117K): determined by single crystal x-ray structure
analysis method for the first time.
 Crystal structure of Cul-xBa2Ca3Cu4O12-y

The Yamanashi MLX01 MagLev train.

Uses for Superconductors

Magnetic-levitation is an application where superconductors perform extremely well. Transport
vehicles such as trains can be made to "float" on strong superconducting magnets, virtually
eliminating friction between the train and its tracks. Not only would conventional electromagnets
waste much of the electrical energy as heat, they would have to be physically much larger than
superconducting magnets. A landmark for the commercial use of MAGLEV technology occurred
in 1990 when it gained the status of a nationally-funded project in Japan. The Minister of
Transport authorized construction of the Yamanashi Maglev Test Line which opened on April 3,
1997. In December 2003, the MLX01 test vehicle (shown above) attained an incredible speed of 361
mph (581 kph).
Although the technology has now been proven, the wider use of MAGLEV vehicles has been
constrained by political and environmental concerns (strong magnetic fields can create a bio-
hazard). The world's first MAGLEV train to be adopted into commercial service, a shuttle in
Birmingham, England, shut down in 1997 after operating for 11 years. A Sino-German maglev is
currently operating over a 30-km course at Pudong International Airport in Shanghai, China. The
U.S. plans to put its first (non-superconducting) Maglev train into operation on a Virginia college
campus. Click this link for a website that lists other uses for MAGLEV.

MRI of a human skull.

An area where superconductors can perform a life-saving function is in the field of

biomagnetism. Doctors need a non-invasive means of determining what's going on inside the
human body. By impinging a strong superconductor-derived magnetic field into the body,
hydrogen atoms that exist in the body's water and fat molecules are forced to accept energy from
the magnetic field. They then release this energy at a frequency that can be detected and
displayed graphically by a computer. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) was actually discovered
in the mid 1940's. But, the first MRI exam on a human being was not performed until July 3, 1977.
And, it took almost five hours to produce one image! Today's faster computers process the data
in much less time. A tutorial is available on MRI at this link. Or read the latest MRI news at this
link.
The Korean Superconductivity Group within KRISS has carried biomagnetic technology a step
further with the development of a double-relaxation oscillation SQUID (Superconducting QUantum
Interference Device) for use in Magnetoencephalography. SQUID's are capable of sensing a
change in a magnetic field over a billion times weaker than the force that moves the needle on a
compass (compass: 5e-5T, SQUID: e-14T.). With this technology, the body can be probed to
certain depths without the need for the strong magnetic fields associated with MRI's.

Probably the one event, more than any other, that has been responsible for putting
"superconductors" into the American lexicon was the Superconducting Super-Collider project
planned for construction in Ellis county, Texas. Though Congress cancelled the multi-billion
dollar effort in 1993, the concept of such a large, high-energy collider would never have been
viable without superconductors. High-energy particle research hinges on being able to accelerate
sub-atomic particles to nearly the speed of light. Superconductor magnets make this possible.
CERN, a consortium of several European nations, is doing something similar with its Large
Hadron Collider (LHC) now under construction along the Franco-Swiss border.
Other related web sites worth visiting include the proton-antiproton collider page at Fermilab.
This was the first facility to use superconducting magnets. Get information on the electron-proton
collider HERA at the German lab pages of DESY (with English text). Lastly, Brookhaven National
Laboratory features a page dedicated to its RHIC heavy-ion collider.

Electric generators made with superconducting wire are far more efficient than conventional
generators wound with copper wire. In fact, their efficiency is above 99% and their size about half
that of conventional generators. These facts make them very lucrative ventures for power utilities.
General Electric has estimated the potential worldwide market for superconducting generators in
the next decade at around $20-30 billion dollars. Late in 2002 GE Power Systems received $12.3
million in funding from the U.S. Department of Energy to move high-temperature superconducting
generator technology toward full commercialization. To read the latest news on superconducting
generators click Here.
Other commercial power projects in the works that employ superconductor technology include
energy storage to enhance power stability. American Superconductor Corp. received an order
from Alliant Energy in late March 2000 to install a Distributed Superconducting Magnetic Energy
Storage System (D-SMES) in Wisconsin. Just one of these 6 D-SMES units has a power reserve of
over 3 million watts, which can be retrieved whenever there is a need to stabilize line voltage
during a disturbance in the power grid. AMSC has also installed more than 22 of its D-VAR
systems to provide instantaneous reactive power support.

The General Atomics/Intermagnetics General superconducting

Fault Current Controller, employing HTS superconductors.

Recently, power utilities have also begun to use superconductor-based transformers and "fault
limiters". The Swiss-Swedish company ABB was the first to connect a superconducting
transformer to a utility power network in March of 1997. ABB also recently announced the
development of a 6.4MVA (mega-volt-ampere) fault current limiter - the most powerful in the world.
This new generation of HTS superconducting fault limiters is being called upon due to their ability
to respond in just thousandths of a second to limit tens of thousands of amperes of current.
Advanced Ceramics Limited is another of several companies that makes BSCCO type fault
limiters. Intermagnetics General recently completed tests on its largest (15kv class) power-utility-
size fault limiter at a Southern California Edison (SCE) substation near Norwalk, California. And,
both the US and Japan have plans to replace underground copper power cables with
superconducting BSCCO cable-in-conduit cooled with liquid nitrogen. (See photo below.) By
doing this, more current can be routed through existing cable tunnels. In one instance 250 pounds
of superconducting wire replaced 18,000 pounds of vintage copper wire, making it over 7000%
more space-efficient.
 An idealized application for superconductors is to employ them in the transmission of
commercial power to cities. However, due to the high cost and impracticality of cooling miles of
superconducting wire to cryogenic temperatures, this has only happened with short "test runs".
In May of 2001 some 150,000 residents of Copenhagen, Denmark, began receiving their electricity
through HTS (high-temperature superconducting) material. That cable was only 30 meters long,
but proved adequate for testing purposes. In the summer of 2001 Pirelli completed installation of
three 400-foot HTS cables for Detroit Edison at the Frisbie Substation capable of delivering 100
million watts of power. This marked the first time commercial power has been delivered to
customers of a US power utility through superconducting wire. Intermagnetics General has
announced that its IGC-SuperPower subsidiary has joined with BOC and Sumitomo Electric in a
$26 million project to install an underground, HTS power cable in Albany, New York, in Niagara
Mohawk Power Corporation's power grid. Sumitomo Electric's DI-BSCCO cable was employed in
the first in-grid power cable demonstration project sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy
and New York Energy Research & Development Authority. After connecting to the grid
successfully on July 2006, the DI-BSCCO cable has been supplying the power to approximately
70,000 households without any problems. The long-term test will be completed in the 2007-2008
timeframe.

Hypres Superconducting Microchip,

Incorporating 6000 Josephson Junctions.

The National Science Foundation, along with NASA and DARPA and various universities, are
currently researching "petaflop" computers. A petaflop is a thousand-trillion floating point
operations per second. Today's fastest computers have reached "petaflop" speeds - quadrillions
of operations per second. Currently the fastest is a U.S. Military Supercomputer call the "Road
Runner" operating at 1.026 petaflops per second (with multiple CPU's). The fastest single
processor is a Lenslet optical DSP running at 8 teraflops. It has been conjectured that devices on
the order of 50 nanometers in size along with unconventional switching mechanisms, such as the
Josephson junctions associated with superconductors, will be necessary to achieve the next level
of processing speeds. TRW researchers (now Northrop Grumman) have quantified this further by
predicting that 100 billion Josephson junctions on 4000 microprocessors will be necessary to
reach 32 petabits per second. These Josephson junctions are incorporated into field-effect
transistors which then become part of the logic circuits within the processors. Recently it was
demonstrated at the Weizmann Institute in Israel that the tiny magnetic fields that penetrate Type
2 superconductors can be used for storing and retrieving digital information. It is, however, not a
foregone conclusion that computers of the future will be built around superconducting devices.
Competing technologies, such as quantum (DELTT) transistors, high-density molecule-scale
processors , and DNA-based processing also have the potential to achieve petaflop benchmarks.

In the electronics industry, ultra-high-performance filters are now being built. Since
superconducting wire has near zero resistance, even at high frequencies, many more filter stages
can be employed to achive a desired frequency response. This translates into an ability to pass
desired frequencies and block undesirable frequencies in high-congestion rf (radio frequency)
applications such as cellular telephone systems. ISCO International and Superconductor
Technologies are companies currently offering such filters.

Superconductors have also found widespread applications in the military. HTSC SQUIDS are
being used by the U.S. NAVY to detect mines and submarines. And, significantly smaller motors
are being built for NAVY ships using superconducting wire and "tape". In mid-July, 2001,
American Superconductor unveiled a 5000-horsepower motor made with superconducting wire
(below). An even larger 36.5MW HTS ship propulsion motor was delivered to the U.S. Navy in late
2006

The newest application for HTS wire is in the degaussing of naval vessels. American
Superconductor has announced the development of a superconducting degaussing cable.
Degaussing of a ship's hull eliminates residual magnetic fields which might otherwise give away a
ship's presence. In addition to reduced power requirements, HTS degaussing cable offers reduced
size and weight.

The military is also looking at using superconductive tape as a means of reducing the length
of very low frequency antennas employed on submarines. Normally, the lower the frequency, the
longer an antenna must be. However, inserting a coil of wire ahead of the antenna will make it
function as if it were much longer. Unfortunately, this loading coil also increases system losses
by adding the resistance in the coil's wire. Using superconductive materials can significantly
reduce losses in this coil. The Electronic Materials and Devices Research Group at University of
Birmingham (UK) is credited with creating the first superconducting microwave antenna.
Applications engineers suggest that superconducting carbon nanotubes might be an ideal nano-
antenna for high-gigahertz and terahertz frequencies, once a method of achieving zero "on tube"
contact resistance is perfected.

The most ignominious military use of superconductors may come with the deployment of "E-
bombs". These are devices that make use of strong, superconductor-derived magnetic fields to
create a fast, high-intensity electro-magnetic pulse (EMP) to disable an enemy's electronic
equipment. Such a device saw its first use in wartime in March 2003 when US Forces attacked an
Iraqi broadcast facility.
 A photo of Comet 73P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 3, in the act of disintegrating ,
taken with the European Space Agency S-CAM.
Among emerging technologies are a stabilizing momentum wheel (gyroscope) for earth-
orbiting satellites that employs the "flux-pinning" properties of imperfect superconductors to
reduce friction to near zero. Superconducting x-ray detectors and ultra-fast, superconducting light
detectors are being developed due to their inherent ability to detect extremely weak amounts of
energy. Already Scientists at the European Space Agency (ESA) have developed what's being
called the S-Cam, an optical camera of phenomenal sensitivity (see above photo). And,
superconductors may even play a role in Internet communications soon. In late February, 2000,
Irvine Sensors Corporation received a $1 million contract to research and develop a
superconducting digital router for high-speed data communications up to 160 Ghz. Since Internet
traffic is increasing exponentially, superconductor technology may be called upon to meet this
super need. Irvine Sensors speculates this router may see use in facilitating Internet2.

According to June 2002 estimates by the Conectus consortium, the worldwide market for
superconductor products is projected to grow to near US $5 billion by the year 2010 and to US $38
billion by 2020. Low-temperature superconductors are expected to continue to play a dominant
role in well-established fields such as MRI and scientific research, with high-temperature
superconductors enabling the newer industries. The above ISIS graph gives a rough breakdown
of the various markets in which superconductors are expected to make a contribution.

All of this is, of course, contingent upon a linear growth rate. Should new superconductors
with higher transition temperatures be discovered, growth and development in this exciting field
could explode virtually overnight.

Another impetus to the wider use of superconductors is political in nature. The reduction of
green-house gas (GHG) emissions has becoming a topical issue due to the Kyoto Protocol which
requires the European Union (EU) to reduce its emissions by 8% from 1990 levels by 2012.
Physicists in Finland have calculated that the EU could reduce carbon dioxide emissions by up to
53 million tons if high-temperature superconductors were used in power plants.
The future melding of superconductors into our daily lives will also depend to a great degree
on advancements in the field of cryogenic cooling. New, high-efficiency magnetocaloric-effect
compounds such as gadolinium-silicon-germanium are expected to enter the marketplace soon.
Such materials should make possible compact, refrigeration units to facilitate additional HTS
applications. Stay tuned !

June

Type 1 Superconductors
And a Periodic Chart Comparison

The Type 1 category of superconductors is mainly comprised of metals and metalloids

that show some conductivity at room temperature. They require incredible cold to slow
down molecular vibrations sufficiently to facilitate unimpeded electron flow in accordance
with what is known as BCS theory. BCS theory suggests that electrons team up in "Cooper
pairs" in order to help each other overcome molecular obstacles - much like race cars on a
track drafting each other in order to go faster. Scientists call this process phonon-mediated
coupling because of the sound packets generated by the flexing of the crystal lattice.
Type 1 superconductors - characterized as the "soft" superconductors - were
discovered first and require the coldest temperatures to become superconductive. They
exhibit a very sharp transition to a superconducting state (see above graph) and "perfect"
diamagnetism - the ability to repel a magnetic field completely. Below is a list of known
Type 1 superconductors along with the critical transition temperature (known as Tc) below
which each superconducts. The 3rd column gives the lattice structure of the solid that
produced the noted Tc. Surprisingly, copper, silver and gold, three of the best metallic
conductors, do not rank among the superconductive elements. Why is this ?

Lead (Pb) 7.196 K FCC

Lanthanum (La) 4.88 K HEX
Tantalum (Ta) 4.47 K BCC
Mercury (Hg) 4.15 K RHL
Tin (Sn) 3.72 K TET
Indium (In) 3.41 K TET
Palladium (Pd)* 3.3 K (see note 1)
Chromium (Cr)* 3K (see note 1)
Thallium (Tl) 2.38 K HEX
Rhenium (Re) 1.697 K HEX
Protactinium (Pa) 1.40 K TET
Thorium (Th) 1.38 K FCC
Aluminum (Al) 1.175 K FCC
Gallium (Ga) 1.083 K ORC
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.915 K BCC
Zinc (Zn) 0.85 K HEX
Osmium (Os) 0.66 K HEX
Zirconium (Zr) 0.61 K HEX
Americium (Am) 0.60 K HEX
Cadmium (Cd) 0.517 K HEX
Ruthenium (Ru) 0.49 K HEX
Titanium (Ti) 0.40 K HEX
Uranium (U) 0.20 K ORC
Hafnium (Hf) 0.128 K HEX
Iridium (Ir) 0.1125 K FCC
Beryllium (Be) 0.023 K (SRM 768) HEX
Tungsten (W) 0.0154 K BCC
Platinum (Pt)* 0.0019 K (see note 1)
Lithium (Li) 0.0004 K BCC
Rhodium (Rh) 0.000325 K FCC
*Note 1: Tc's given are for bulk (alpha form), except for Palladium, which has been
irradiated with
He+ ions, Chromium as a thin film, and Platinum as a compacted powder.

Many additional elements can be coaxed into a superconductive state with the
application of high pressure. For example, phosphorus appears to be the Type 1 element
with the highest Tc. But, it requires compression pressures of 2.5 Mbar to reach a Tc of 14-
22 K. The above list is for elements at normal (ambient) atmospheric pressure. See the
periodic table below for all known elemental superconductors (including Niobium,
Technetium and Vanadium which are technically Type 2).
**Note 2: Normally bulk carbon (amorphous, diamond, graphite, white) will not superconduct
at any temperature. However, a Tc of 15K has been reported for elemental carbon when the
atoms are configured as highly-aligned, single-walled nanotubes. And non-aligned, multi-
walled nanotubes have shown superconductivity near 12K. Since the penetration depth is
much larger than the coherence length, nanotubes would be characterized as "Type 2"
superconductors.
***Note 3: For a list of elements that are naturally diamagnetic, click HERE.

Author's Comment: The information posted on this page was obtained from a variety of
sources including, but not limited to, the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, the
Technische Universität München, Reade Metals and Minerals Corp., industry news
sources, and various private researchers. A special thanks to Professor Bertil Sundqvist,
Department of Experimental Physics, Umea University, Sweden, also to Dr. Jeffery Tallon,
Industrial Research Ltd., New Zealand, and to Dr. James S. Schilling, Department of
Physics, Washington University.
A Type 2 Layered Cuprate

Type 2 Superconductors
Except for the elements vanadium, technetium and niobium, the Type 2 category of
superconductors is comprised of metallic compounds and alloys. The recently-discovered
superconducting "perovskites" (metal-oxide ceramics that normally have a ratio of 2 metal
atoms to every 3 oxygen atoms) belong to this Type 2 group. They achieve higher Tc's than
Type 1 superconductors by a mechanism that is still not completely understood.
Conventional wisdom holds that it relates to the planar layering within the crystalline
structure (see above graphic). Although, other recent research suggests the holes of
hypocharged oxygen in the charge reservoirs are responsible. (Holes are positively-charged
vacancies within the lattice.) The superconducting cuprates (copper-oxides) have achieved
astonishingly high Tc's when you consider that by 1985 known Tc's had only reached 23
Kelvin. To date, the highest Tc attained at ambient pressure for a material that will form
stoichiometrically (by formula) has been 138 K. And the highest Tc overall is 233K for a
material which does not form stoichiometrically (see below list). One theory predicts an
upper limit of about 200 K for the layered cuprates (Vladimir Kresin, Phys. Reports 288,
347 - 1997). Others assert there is no limit. Either way, it is almost certain that other, more-
synergistic compounds still await discovery among the high-temperature superconductors.
The first superconducting Type 2 compound, an alloy of lead and bismuth, was
fabricated in 1930 by W. de Haas and J. Voogd. But, was not recognized as such until later,
after the Meissner effect had been discovered. This new category of superconductors was
identified by L.V. Shubnikov at the Kharkov Institute of Science and Technology in the
Ukraine in 1936(1) when he found two distinct critical magnetic fields (known as Hc1 and
Hc2) in PbTl2. The first of the oxide superconductors was created in 1973 by DuPont
researcher Art Sleight when Ba(Pb,Bi)O3 was found to have a Tc of 13K. The
superconducting oxocuprates followed in 1986.
Type 2 superconductors - also known as the "hard" superconductors - differ from Type
1 in that their transition from a normal to a superconducting state is gradual across a
region of "mixed state" behavior. Since a Type 2 will allow some penetration by an external
magnetic field into its surface, this creates some rather novel mesoscopic phenomena like
superconducting "stripes" and "flux-lattice vortices". While there are far too many to list
in totality, some of the more interesting Type 2 superconductors are listed below by
similarity and with descending Tc's. Where available, the lattice structure of the system is
also noted.

Tl5Ba4Ca2Cu9Oy ~233 K
(As a 9212/2212C intergrowth.)

(Sn5In)Ba4Ca2Cu11Oy ~218 K
(As a B212/2212C intergrowth.)

(Sn5In)Ba4Ca2Cu10Oy ~212 K
(As a B212/1212C intergrowth.)

Sn6Ba4Ca2Cu10Oy ~200 K
(As a B212/1212C intergrowth.)

(Sn1.0Pb0.5In0.5)Ba4Tm6Cu8O22+ ~195 K
(As a 1256/1212 intergrowth.)

(Sn1.0Pb0.5In0.5)Ba4Tm5Cu7O20+ ~185 K
(As a 1245/1212 intergrowth.)

(Sn1.0Pb0.5In0.5)Ba4Tm4Cu6O18+ ~163 K
(As a 1234/1212 intergrowth)

Sn3Ba4Ca2Cu7Oy ~160 K
(As a 5212/1212C intergrowth.)

(Hg0.8Tl0.2)Ba2Ca2Cu3O8.33 138 K*
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 133-135 K
HgBa2Ca3Cu4O10+ 125-126 K
HgBa2(Ca1-xSrx)Cu2O6+ 123-125 K
HgBa2CuO4+ 94-98 K

Lattice: TET

* Note: As a result of a topological "defect", Hg will also go into the Cu atomic sites. Thus,
the volume fraction of the intended structure type is considerably less than 100%.

Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 127-128 K
(Tl1.6Hg0.4)Ba2Ca2Cu3O10+ 126 K
TlBa2Ca2Cu3O9+ 123 K
(TlSn)Ba4TmCaCu4Ox ~121 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
(Tl0.5Pb0.5)Sr2Ca2Cu3O9 118-120 K
Tl2Ba2CaCu2O6 118 K
TlBa2Ca3Cu4O11 112 K
TlBa2CaCu2O7+ 103 K
Tl2Ba2CuO6 95 K
TlSnBa4Y2Cu4Ox 86 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2007)

Lattice: TET

Sn4Ba4(Tm2Ca)Cu7Ox ~127 K (TmTm-Ca structure only)

Sn2Ba2(Tm0.5Ca0.5)Cu3O8+ ~115 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
SnInBa4Tm3Cu5Ox ~113 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
Sn3Ba4Tm3Cu6Ox 109 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2007)
Sn3Ba8Ca4Cu11Ox 109 K (One-of-a-Kind Resonant - 2006)
SnBa4Y2Cu5Ox 107 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2007)
Sn4Ba4Tm2YCu7Ox ~104 K (First Hi-Tc Reentrant - 2007)
Sn4Ba4TmCaCu4Ox ~100 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2007)
Sn4Ba4Tm3Cu7Ox ~98 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2006)
Sn2Ba2(Y0.5Tm0.5)Cu3O8+ ~96 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2007)
Sn3Ba4Y2Cu5Ox ~91 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2006)
SnInBa4Tm4Cu6Ox 87 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
Sn2Ba2(Sr0.5Y0.5)Cu3O8 86 K (Aleksandrov, et al - 1989)
Sn4Ba4Y3Cu7Ox ~80 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)

Bi1.6Pb0.6Sr2Ca2Sb0.1Cu3Oy 115 K (thick film on MgO substrate)

Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10*** 110 K
Bi2Sr2CaCu2O9*** 110 K
Bi2Sr2(Ca0.8Y0.2)Cu2O8 95-96K
Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 91-92K

Lattice: ORTH
*** Though not always listed as a component, a small amount of Lead (x=.2-.26) is often used
with Bismuth compounds to help facilitate a higher-Tc crystalline phase.

(Ca1-xSrx)CuO2 110 K (Highest Tc quaternary compound)

YSrCa2Cu4O8+ 101 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2007)
(Ba,Sr)CuO2 90 K
BaSr2CaCu4O8+ 90 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2007)
(La,Sr)CuO2 42 K
*** The above 5 compounds are all "infinite layer".
Pb3Sr4Ca3Cu6Ox 106 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2007)
Pb3Sr4Ca2Cu5O15+ 101 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
(Pb1.5Sn1.5)Sr4Ca2Cu5O15+ ~95 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2006)
Pb2Sr2(Ca, Y)Cu3O8 70 K (Cava, et al - 1989)

AuBa2Ca3Cu4O11 99 K (Kopnin, et al - 2001)

AuBa2(Y, Ca)Cu2O7 82 K
AuBa2Ca2Cu3O9 30 K

Lattice: ORTH

YBa3Cu4Ox (9223C structure) 177 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2009)

107 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
(Y0.5Lu0.5)Ba2Cu3O7 105 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
(Y0.5Tm0.5)Ba2Cu3O7 105 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2008)
Y3Ba5Cu8Ox 97 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
(Y0.5Gd0.5)Ba2Cu3O7 97 K (YY-Ca phase) (Superconductors.ORG - 2006)
Y2CaBa4Cu7O16 96 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2005)
Y3Ba4Cu7O16 96 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2008)
Y2Ba5Cu7Ox 96 K
NdBa2Cu3O7 95 K
Y2Ba4Cu7O15 94 K
GdBa2Cu3O7 92 K (See above graphic)
YBa2Cu3O7 90 K
TmBa2Cu3O7 89 K
YbBa2Cu3O7 62 K
YSr2Cu3O7

Lattice: TET
Comment: "1-2-3" superconductors actually have the 1212C structure. Thus, the formula for
YBCO could be written CuBa2YCu2O7.

GaSr2(Ca0.5Tm0.5)Cu2O7 99 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2006)

Ga2Sr4Y2CaCu5Ox 85 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2006)
Ga2Sr4Tm2CaCu5Ox 81 K (Superconductors.ORG - 2006)
La2Ba2CaCu5O9+ 79 K (Saurashtra Univ., Rajkot, India - 2002)
(Sr,Ca)5Cu4O10 70 K
GaSr2(Ca, Y)Cu2O7 70 K
(In0.3Pb0.7)Sr2(Ca0.8Y0.2)Cu2Ox 60 K
(La,Sr,Ca)3Cu2O6 58 K
La2CaCu2O6+ 45 K
(Eu,Ce)2(Ba,Eu)2Cu3O10+ 43 K
(La1.85Sr0.15)CuO4 40 K
SrNdCuO**** 40 K
(La,Ba)2CuO4 35-38 K
(Nd,Sr,Ce)2CuO4 35 K
Pb2(Sr,La)2Cu2O6 32 K
(La1.85Ba.15)CuO4 30 K (First HTS ceramic SC discovered - 1986)
**** First ceramic superconductor discovered without a non-superconducting oxide layer.
Comment: All of the above are copper perovskites, even though their metal-to-oxygen ratios
are not exactly 2-to-3. The best performers are those compounds that contain one or more of
the electron-emitters BaO, SrO or CaO, along with a Period 6 heavy metal like Mercury,
Thallium, Lead, Bismuth, or Gold.

GdFeAsO1-x 53.5 K (Highest Tc iron-based compound)

(Ca,Sr,Ba)Fe2As2 38 K
LiFeAs 18 K
Comment: The above are members of the newly discovered iron pnictide family.

MgB2 39 K (Highest Tc Non-Fullerene Alloy)

Ba0.6K0.4BiO3 30 K (First 4th order phase compound)

Nb3Ge 23.2 K
Nb3Si 19 K
Nb3Sn 18.1 K
Nb3Al 18 K
V3Si 17.1 K
Ta3Pb 17 K
V3Ga 16.8 K
Nb3Ga 14.5 K
V3In 13.9 K

Lattice: A15
Comment: Among the binary alloys, these are some of the best performers; combining Group
5B metals in a ratio of 3-to-1 with 4A or 3A elements.

PuCoGa5 18.5 K (First SC transuranic compound)

NbN 16.1 K

Comment: After NbTi (below) NbN is the most widely used low-temperature superconductor.

Nb0.6Ti0.4 9.8 K (First superconductive wire)

MgCNi3 7-8 K (First all-metal perovskite superconductor)

C 15 K (as highly-aligned, single-walled nanotubes)

Nb 9.25 K
Tc 7.80 K
V 5.40 K

Lattice: C=Fullerene, Nb=BCC, Tc=HEX, V=BCC

Comment: These four are the only elemental Type 2 superconductors.

RuSr2(Gd,Eu,Sm)Cu2O8 Tc ~58 K (Ruthenium-oxocuprate)

ErNi2B2C Tc 10.5 K (Nickel-Borocarbide)
YbPd2Sn Tc ~2.5 K (Heusler compound)
UGe2 Tc ~1K (Heavy fermion)
URhGe2 Tc ~1K (")
AuIn3 Tc 50 uK
Comment: The above 6 compounds are all rare ferromagnetic superconductors.
Sr.08WO3 2-4 K (Tungsten-bronze)
Tl.30WO3 2.0-2.14 K (")
Rb.27-.29WO3 1.98 K (")

Lattice: TET

(1.) "History of Physics Research in Ukraine", by Oleksandr Bakai and Yurij Raniuk,
Kharkov Institute of Science and Technology, 1993.
Author's Comment: The Tc's noted on this page were obtained from a variety of sources
including, but not limited to, the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, the N.I.S.T.
database, Physica C, industry news sources, and various private researchers. In cases where
there was a discrepancy between sources, the higher Tc or a range of Tc's has been listed. If
you desire the Tc of a compound or alloy not listed on this page, feel free to write.

Atypical Superconductors
and the Future
As if ceramic superconductors were not strange enough, even more mysterious
superconducting systems have been discovered. One is based on compounds centered
around the "Fullerene". The fullerene name comes from the late designer-author
Buckminster Fuller. Fuller was the inventor of the geodesic dome, a structure with a soccer
ball shape. The fullerene - also called a buckminsterfullerene or "buckyball" - exists on a
molecular level when 60 carbon atoms join in a closed sphere. When doped with one or
more alkali metals the fullerene becomes a "fulleride" and has produced Tc's ranging from
8 K for Na2Rb0.5Cs0.5C60 up to 40 K for Cs3C60. In 1993 researchers at the State University of
New York at Buffalo reported Tc's between 60 K and 70 K for C-60 doped with the
interhalogen compound ICl.
Fullerenes, like ceramic superconductors, are a fairly recent discovery. In 1985,
professors Robert F. Curl, Jr. and Richard E. Smalley of Rice University in Houston and
Professor Sir Harold W. Kroto of the University of Sussex in Brighton, England,
accidentally stumbled upon them. The discovery of superconducting alkali metal fullerides
came in 1991 when Robert Haddon and Bell Labs announced that K3C60 had been found to
superconduct at 18 K.
Larger, non-spherical pure carbon fullerenes that will superconduct have only recently
been discovered. In April of 2001, Chinese researchers at Hong Kong University found 1-
dimensional superconductivity in single-walled carbon nanotubes at around 15 Kelvin. And
in February 2006, Physicists in Japan showed non-aligned, multi-walled carbon nanotubes
were superconductive at temperatures as high as 12 K. Silicon-based fullerides like
Na2Ba6Si46 will also superconduct. However, they are structured as infinite networks,
rather than discrete molecules. Fullerenes are technically part of a larger family of organic
conductors which are described below.

(TMTSF)2PF6
The first organic superconductor discovered.
Courtesy Laboratoire de Physique des Solides

"Organic" superconductors are part of the organic conductor family which includes:
molecular salts, polymers and pure carbon systems (including carbon nanotubes and C60
compounds). The molecular salts within this family are large organic molecules that exhibit
superconductive properties at very low temperatures. For this reason they are often
referred to as "molecular" superconductors. Their existence was theorized in 1964 by Bill
Little of Stanford University. But the first organic superconductor (TMTSF)2PF6 was not
actually synthesized until 1980 by Danish researcher Klaus Bechgaard of the University of
Copenhagen and French team members D. Jerome, A. Mazaud, and M. Ribault. About 50
organic superconductors have since been found with Tc's extending from 0.4 K to near 12
K (at ambient pressure). Since these Tc's are in the range of Type 1 superconductors,
engineers have yet to find a practical application for them. However, their rather unusual
properties have made them the focus of intense research. These properties include giant
magnetoresistance, rapid oscillations, quantum hall effect, and more (similar to the
behavior of InAs and InSb). In early 1997, it was, in fact (TMTSF)2PF6 that a research
team at SUNY discovered could resist "quenching" up to a magnetic field strength of 6
tesla. Ordinarily, magnetic fields a fraction as strong will completely kill superconductivity
in a material.
Organic superconductors are composed of an electron donor (the planar organic
molecule) and an electron acceptor (a non-organic anion). Below are a few more examples
of organic superconductors.

(TMTSF)2ClO4
[tetramethyltetraselenafulvalene + acceptor]

(BETS)2GaCl4
[bis(ethylenedithio)tetraselenafulvalene + acceptor]

(BEDO-TTF)2ReO4H2O
[bis(ethylenedioxy)tetrathiafulvalene + acceptor]

Courtesy: Jeremy Qualls

quallsj@sonoma.edu, Science Program - CM/T
and Klause Bechgaard, Risoe
klause.bechgaard@risoe.dk
NOTE: For more on organics, click here.

Discovered in 1993 by Bob Cava (currently at Princeton University) and Bell Labs,
"Borocarbides" are one of the least-understood superconductor systems of all. It has always
been assumed that superconductors cannot be formed from ferromagnetic transition
metals - like iron, cobalt or nickel. It's the equivalent of trying to mix oil and water.
However, in some borocarbides there is a "soap" that acts to bring these adversaries
together. The crystallographic sites for the magnetic ions are thought to be isolated from
the conduction path. This allows the cooper pairs to detour around the magnetic ions.
Further, when combined with an element that has unusual magnetic properties - like
holmium - "reentrant" behavior can also be in evidence in some borocarbides. Below Tc,
where it should remain superconductive, there is a discordant temperature at which the
material retreats to a "normal", non-superconductive state (see above graphic).
 To date only one superconductor has been found that has zero resistance at a single
temperature - the opposite of reentrant superconductivity. Click HERE to read more about
this "resonant" superconductor.
Not only the borocarbides recede from a superconductive state at extreme low
temperatures. In the compounds HoMo6S8 (Chevrel) and ErRh4B4 superconductivity
suddenly disappears at around 1K. Click here to read more about this phenomenon. As can
be seen from some of the below examples, the first metal site in the molecule is always
occupied by a rare earth atom.

YPd2B2C 23 K
LuNi2B2C 16.6 K
YNi2B2C 15.5 K
TmNi2B2C 11 K (resistance increases below Tc)
ErNi2B2C 10.5 K (ferromagnetic)
HoNi2B2C 7.5 K (see above graphic)
Source: Dr. Harald Schmidt
University of Bayreuth, Germany
and Sandie Dann
Loughborough University, Leics, England
NOTE: Other elements that exhibit ferromagnetism have been - by one means or another -
integrated into superconducting compounds. See the below section on Heavy Fermions.

Flux lattices in UPt3

Courtesy Bell Labs

The "Heavy Fermions" sound like a family of overweight circus performers. But, they
are yet another example of atypical superconductors. Heavy fermions are compounds
containing rare-earth elements such as Ce or Yb, or actinide elements such as U. Their
(inner shell) conduction electrons often have effective masses (known as quasiparticle
masses) several hundred times as great as that of "normal" electrons, resulting in what's
known as low "Fermi energy" (Ef). This makes them reluctant superconductors. Yet, at
cryogenic temperatures, many of these materials are magnetically ordered, others show
strong paramagnetic behavior, and some display superconductivity through a mechanism
that quickly runs afoul of BCS theory. Research suggests cooper-pairing in the heavy
fermion systems arises from the magnetic interactions of the electron spins (D-wave, P-
wave, S-wave), rather than by lattice vibrations.
The first observation of superconductivity in a heavy fermion system was made by E.
Bucher, et al, in 1973 in the compound UBe13; but, at the time was attributed to
precipitated uranium filaments. Superconductivity was not actually recognized, per se, in a
heavy fermion compound until 1979 when Dr. Frank Steglich of the Max Planck Institute
for Chemical Physics in Solids (Dresden, Germany) realized it was a bulk property in
CeCu2Si2. Heavy fermion superconductivity has since been observed in over 20 Ce
compounds.
In April 2003 a heavy-fermion compound unambiguously exhibited the so-called
"FFLO" state, where magnetism and superconductivity have a beneficial coexistence. The
compound CeCoIn5 confirmed a theoretical model first put forth in 1964 by Fulde, Ferrell,
Larkin, and Ovchinnikov (FFLO). Below are some heavy fermion compounds that will
superconduct, along with their Tc's. As can be seen, their transition temperatures are in
the range of Type 1 superconductors, which severely limits their use in practical
applications.
CeCoIn5 2.3 K (first confirmed FFLO compound)
UPd2Al3 2K
Pd2SnYb 1.79 K
URu2Si2 1.2 K
UNi2Al3 1K
Al3Yb 0.94 K
UBe13 0.87 K
CeCo2 0.84 K
CePt3Si 0.75 K (first heavy fermion superconductor without a center of
symmetry)
UPt3 0.48 K (see above graphic)
CeCu2Si2 .1-.7 K
Note: UGe2 and URhGe2 exhibit simultaneous ferromagnetism and superconductivity.
Read more about this phenomenon in the below section on Ruthenates.

Courtesy: Zbigniew Koziol, Amsterdam

Dr. A. de Visser, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
and Dr. Henri A. Radovan, National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, USA

Magnetic topography of Sr2RuO4

In the mid 1990's, it was discovered that copper-oxygen planes are not the only
superconducting facilitators within the layered perovskites. In 1994 physicists at IBM
Zurich and at Hiroshima University collaborated to study the atomic planes of ruthenium-
oxygen due to their similarity to copper-oxygen planes. Yoshiteru Maeno and colleagues
found that the compound Sr2RuO4 exhibited superconductivity at 1.5 K. While this is an
extremely cold Tc for a superconducting perovskite, it revealed a new area of potential
among what are known as "Ruthenates". Shortly after that SrRuO and SrYRuO6 were also
found to superconduct at similarly low temperatures.
 When the crystalline structure of some of these materials is broken apart, its surface
becomes increasingly ferromagnetic at low temperatures. This phenomenon flies in the face
of condensed matter theory. So much so, that researchers have characterized them as an
analog to superfluid Helium-3. And, when copper is added to the mix, even stranger things
happen. In June 1999 New Zealand researcher Dr. Jefferey Tallon and his German
colleague Dr. Christian Bernard discovered a ruthenium-cuprate** whose bulk is both a
superconductor and a magnet. Although it was not the first compound discovered that
exhibits coexisting ferromagnetism and superconductivity, it's remarkably high Tc of 58 K
makes it truly distinct in the world of superconductors. Unlike "normal" superconductors,
this compound becomes diamagnetic at about one-half Tc.
[**RuSr2(Gd,Eu,Sm)Cu2O8 or any parenthetical element partially substituted by Y.]
NOTE: To learn more about this material, click here.

Ba0.6K0.4BiO3
Courtesy University of Texas

There are many phase transitions that matter goes through on its way to another state
(e.g. ice changing to water requires a sudden increase in heat energy). Among the
superconductors this is also the case at Tc, Hc and Jc. However, a superconductor has been
discovered that exhibits no measurable change in its specific heat (the amount of energy
required to increase its temperature by one degree) while going through up to 3 different
"critical" magnetic fields. Ba0.6K0.4BiO3 seems to be the first material discovered that enters
a "fourth order" phase transition (according to Ehrenfest's phase transition classification
scheme) - something that has never before been observed in nature. Roy Goodrich of
Louisiana State University and Donovan Hall of the National High Magnetic Field
Laboratory announced this discovery in May, 1999. Not only is this an amazing anomaly in
the field of superconductivity. It suggests that even higher order phases may exist in
nature.

While no one can predict what future discoveries will be made in the field of
superconductivity, some recent developments in the tungsten-bronze system suggest a new
vista may be emerging. In July of 1999 researchers Y. Tsabba and S. Reich of the
Weizmann Institute in Israel reported possible superconductivity near 91 K in the sodium-
doped tungsten-bronze Na0.05WO3. This would be the first known HTS that is not a cuprate.
Most tungsten-bronze compounds that are known to superconduct have Tc's below 4K -
making this a truly tantalizing find. To learn more, click here.
Other categories of materials that theory suggests may produce superconductors are the
higher silver fluorides and complex fluorides -- known as fluoroargentates.
Fluoroargentates bear a strong similarity to oxocuprates, compounds that currently have
the highest transition temperatures of all known superconductors. In October 2003
researchers Wojciech Grochala, Adrian Porch and Peter P. Edwards reported sudden
drops in magnetic susceptibility within a large number of samples of Be-Ag-F. They
attribute this to possible spherical regions of superconductivity - with a Tc up to 64 K -
couched inside a ferromagnetic host. For more on this, click HERE.
With few exceptions (e.g. polysulphur-nitrides), most polymers resist being coaxed into a
superconductive state. However, some organic polymers exhibit electrical resistance many
orders of magnitude lower than the best metallic conductors. And, they do this at room
temperature! These ultraconductors™, materials such as oxidized atactic polypropylene
(OAPP), do not have zero resistance. But, their enhanced conductivity at ambient
temperatures and pressures may actually allow them to compete with superconductors in
certain fields. Polypropylene, for example, is normally an insulator. In 1985, however,
researchers at the Russian Academy of Sciences discovered that as an oxidized thin-film,
polypropylene can have a conductivity 105 to 106 higher than the best refined metals. The
Meissner effect - the classic criterion for superconductivity - cannot be observed, as the
critical transition temperature appears to be above the point at which the polymer breaks
down (>700K). However, strong (giant) diamagnetism has been confirmed. A primer on
ultraconductors™ is available by clicking here.

Superconductor Terminology
and the Naming Scheme
Anneal: To heat and then slowly cool a material to reduce brittleness. Annealing of ceramic
superconductors usually follows sintering and is done in an oxygen-rich atmosphere to
restore oxygen lost during calcination. The oxygen content of a ceramic superconductor is
critical. For example, YBCO with 6.4 atoms of oxygen will not superconduct. But YBCO
with 6.5 atoms will. Click here to see a graphical representation of this.
Anti-ferromagnetism: A state of matter where adjacent ions in a material are aligned in
opposite or "anti-parallel" arrays. Such materials display almost no response to an
external magnetic field at low temperatures and only a weak attaction at higher
temperatures. There is evidence that anti-ferromagnetism in the copper oxides plays a role
in the formation of Cooper pairs and, thus, in facilitating a superconductive state in some
compounds.
BCS Theory: The first widely-accepted theory to explain superconductivity put forth in
1957 by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schreiffer. The theory asserts that, as
electrons pass through a crystal lattice, the lattice deforms inward towards the electrons
generating sound packets known as "phonons". These phonons produce a trough of
positive charge in the area of deformation that assists subsequent electrons in passing
through the same region in a process known as phonon-mediated coupling. This is
analogous to rolling a bowling ball up the middle of a bed. 2 people, one lying on each side
of the bed, will tend to roll toward the center of the bed, once the ball has created a
depression in the mattress. And, a 2nd bowling ball, placed at the foot of the bed, will now,
quite easily, roll toward the middle. For a more technical explanation click here.
Borocarbides: Superconducting borocarbides are compounds containing both boron and
carbon in combination with rare-earth and transition elements; some of which exhibit the
unusual ability to return to a normal, non-superconductive state at temperatures below Tc.
For more on this, click here.
BSCCO: An acronym for a ceramic superconductor system containing the elements
Bismuth, Strontium, Calcium, Copper and Oxygen. Typically, a small amount of lead is
also included in these compounds to promote the highest possible Tc. BSCCO has probably
found the widest acceptance among high-Tc superconductor applications due to its unique
properties. BSCCO compounds exhibit both an intrinsic Josephson effect and anisotropic
(directional) behavior. You can view a list of BSCCO compounds on the "Type 2" page.
Ceramics: Ceramic superconductors are inorganic compounds formed by reacting a metal
with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon or silicon. The best-known of these are the copper-
perovskites. Ceramics are typically hard, brittle, heat-resistant materials formed by a
process known as solid-state reaction.
Charge Reservoirs: In superconductors, charge reservoirs are the layers that may control
the oxidation state of adjacent superconducting planes (even though they themselves are
not superconducting). In the layered cuprates, these consist of copper-oxide chains.
Chevrel (phases): A class of molybdenum chalcogenides (compounds containing Group VI
elements S, Se or Te along with molybdenum and a positively charged metal ion) - named
for Roger Chevrel of the University of Rennes, whose research brought them to the
attention of the scientific community in the early 1970's. Recently, the Superconductivity
Group at the University of Durham (UK) reported a novel fabrication technique that
increases Bc2 (upper critical field) in the chevrel PbMo6S8 from 50 T in bulk materials up
to > 100 T. Click HERE to read a [technical] writeup on this (as a PDF file). Or click
HERE to see a short list of some of these compounds alongside their Tc's.
Coherence Length: The size of a cooper pair - representing the shortest distance over
which superconductivity can be established in a material. This is typically on the order of
1000Å; although it can be as small as 30Å in the copper oxides.
Cooper Pair: Two electrons that appear to "team up" in accordance with theory - BCS or
other - despite the fact that they both have a negative charge and normally repel each
other. (Named for Leon Cooper.) Below the superconducting transition temperature,
paired electrons form a condensate - a macroscopically occupied single quantum state -
which flows without resistance. However, since only a small fraction of the electrons are
paired, the bulk does not qualify as being a "bose-einstein condensate". Click here to see an
animation of a cooper pair.
DAC: An acronym for "diamond anvil cell". Often the Tc of a superconductor can be
coaxed upward with the application of high pressure. The DAC is used to accomplish this
in the laboratory. A DAC is composed of 2 specially-cut diamonds and a stainless steel
gasket. The gasket goes between the diamonds and seals a small chamber in which a fluid is
placed. Since neither the diamonds nor the liquid will compress, hydrostatic forces in
excess of a million atmospheres can be brought to bear on a sample suspended within the
fluid. Click here to see a graphic of a DAC.
Diamagnetism: The ability of a material to repel a magnetic field. Many naturally-
occurring substances (like water, wood and paraffin, and many of the elements) exhibit
weak diamagnetism. Superconductors exhibit strong diamagnetism below Tc. In a few rare
compounds, a material may become superconductive at a higher temperature than the point
at which diamagnetism appears. But, as a rule, the onset of strong diamagnetism is one of
the most reliable ways to ascertain when a material has become superconductive. To see a
short movie of a magnet being levitated by a superconductor, click here.
D-Wave: A form of electron pairing in which the electrons travel together in orbits
resembling a four-leaf clover. Wave functions help theoreticians describe (and predict)
electron behavior. The d-wave models have gained substantial support recently over s-wave
pairing as the mechanism by which high-temperature superconductivity might be
explained. Click here to see a graphic.
Energy Gap: This is the energy required to break up a pair of electrons. According to BCS
theory, the formula for determining the energy gap (in meV) is Eg=7/2 KTc. Where K =
Boltzmann's constant (8.62e-5 eV/K). And where Tc is the critical transition temperature in
Kelvin. Since electron-pairing is universally agreed to be the method by which
superconductivity occurs, this is the amount of energy required to disrupt the
superconducting state.
ESR: An acronym for "Electron Spin Resonance" (also EPR: Electron Paramagnetic
Resonance). This is another mechanism by which superconductivity might be explained in
some materials. Simply put, ESR is the response of electrons to electromagnetic radiation
or magnetic fields at discrete frequencies. Electrons, as they move, create tiny magnetic
moments. Nearby electrons are influenced either beneficially or adversely. When the
moments are complementary, the electrons become paired and can help each other move
through a crystal lattice.
Ferrite: Ferrites are ceramics with magnetic properties. They are included on this page
because many of the same elements used in ferrites (e.g. Ba, Sr, Tm, O) are also key
constituents in ceramic superconductors. This may be an important clue in understanding
high-temperature superconductivity.
Ferromagnetism: A state wherein a material exhibits magnetization through the alignment
of internal ions (neighboring magnetic moments). This contrasts with paramagnetism,
which is temporary, much weaker and results from unpaired electrons.
Flux-Lattice: A configuration created when flux lines from a strong magnetic field try to
penetrate the surface of a Type 2 superconductor. The tiny magnetic moments within each
resulting vortex repel each other and a periodic lattice results as they array themselves in
an orderly fashion.
Fluxon: The smallest magnetic flux (flux quantum) that exists in nature. Just as electrons
are quantized charge, fluxons are a quantized flux. The term is used in association with
vortices, which result from magnetic fields penetrating Type 2 superconductors in single
fluxon quanta. Click here to view a hollographic depiction of waves of fluxons on the
surface of superconducting Niobium.
Flux-Pinning: The phenomenon where a magnet's lines of force (called flux) become
trapped or "pinned" inside a superconducting material. This pinning binds the
superconductor to the magnet at a fixed distance. Flux-pinning is only possible when there
are defects in the crystalline structure of the superconductor (usually resulting from grain
boundaries or impurities). Flux-pinning is desirable in high-temperature ceramic
superconductors in order to prevent "flux-creep", which can create a pseudo-resistance
and depress Jc and Hc. Click here to see a superconductor suspended in air by flux-
pinning.
Four-point Probe: The most common method of determining the Tc of a superconductor.
Wires are attached to a material at four points with a conductive adhesive. Through two of
these points a voltage is applied and, if the material is conductive, a current will flow. Then,
if any resistance exists in the material, a voltage will appear across the other two points in
accordance with Ohm's law (voltage equals current times resistance). When the material
enters a superconductive state, its resistance drops to zero and no voltage appears across
the second set of points. By using the four-point method, instead of just two points,
resistance in the adhesive and wires can be ignored; as the second set of points do not
themselves conduct any current and can, therefore, only reflect what voltage exists across
the body of the material.
Hall Effect: When a magnetic field is applied perpendicularly to a thin metal film or
semiconductor film that is conducting an electric current, a small voltage will appear
perpendicular to the axis of both the film and the magnetic field. This voltage is
proportional to the strength of the applied field. However, the output is typically not linear.
The Hall resistance (the ratio of the Hall voltage to the current) changes in steps, pursuant
to the laws of quantum mechanics. This is known as the Integral Quantum Hall Effect or
just Quantum Hall Effect. Discovered in 1879, the Hall effect was named for its discoverer
Edwin H. Hall, a graduate student at Johns Hopkins University.
Hc: The scientific notation representing the "critical field" or maximum magnetic field
that a superconductor can endure before it is "quenched" and returns to a non-
superconducting state. Usually a higher Tc also brings a higher Hc.
Heavy Fermions: Compounds containing the elements cerium, ytterbium or uranium;
whose (inner shell) conduction electrons often have effective masses (called quasiparticle
masses) several hundred times as great as that of a "free" (normal) electron mass. This
gives them what's known as a low "Fermi energy" and makes them unlikely - and unusual
- superconductors. Research suggests cooper-pairing in heavy fermion systems arises from
the magnetic interactions of the electron spins.
Hole: A positively-charged vacancy within a crystal lattice resulting from the shortage of
an electron in that region. Holes are typically induced by doping a material with an
impurity. However, they can also be synthesized electronically with devices like the field-
effect transistor (FET). Modern electronic devices rely heavily on holes (as p-type
semiconductors) to function. There is evidence that the holes of hypocharged oxygen in
charge-reservoirs are, in fact, what makes possible high-temperature superconductivity in
the layered cuprates.
HTS: An acronym for "High-Temperature Superconductor" (or Superconductivity).
There is no widely-accepted temperature that separates HTS from LTS (Low-Temperature
Superconductors). However, all the superconductors known before the 1986 discovery of
the superconducting oxocuprates would be classified LTS. The barium-lanthanum-cuprate
fabricated by Müller and Bednorz, with a Tc of 30K, is generally considered to be the first
HTS material. Certainly any compound that will superconduct above the boiling point of
liquid nitrogen (77K) would be HTS.
Hysteresis (loop): Hysteresis, as it applies to a superconductor, relates to the dynamic
response of a superconductor to a strong magnetic field impinged upon it. As the strength
of a nearby magnetic field (H) increases, the critical transition temperature (Tc) of a
superconductor will decrease. And, at some point superconductivity will completely
disappear, as it becomes "quenched". However, as the magnetic field is gradually
withdrawn, the superconductor may NOT immediately return to a superconductive state.
Herein lies the hysteresis. The graph of H-vs-Tc is different retreating than it is advancing
(creating a "loop" shape). This fact must be weighed carefully in high-current applications
where the superconductor Hc may, even briefly, be exceeded; as significant power losses
can result.
Infinite layer: Infinite layer compounds have no clear separation between molecules.
Rather than electrostatic bonding between discrete molecules to form a bulk crystalline
aggregate, all the atoms are bound together by covalent or co-ionic bonding to form the
equivalent of one huge molecule. (Ba,Sr)CuO2 and Na2Ba6Si46 are examples of "infinite
layer" or "infinite network" superconductor compounds.
Isotope Effect: The influence atomic mass contributes to the critical transition temperature
of a superconductor. For example, 203.4Hg has a Tc of 4.126K. While 198Hg has a Tc of
4.177K. Since both forms of mercury have the same lattice structure, this difference in Tc
can be attributed solely to the difference in mass. To learn more, click here.
Jc: The scientific notation representing the "critical current density" or maximum current
that a superconductor can carry. Also note that, as the current flowing through a
superconductor increases, the Tc will usually decrease.
Josephson Effect (also DC Josephson Effect): A phenomenon named for Cambridge
graduate student Brian Josephson, who predicted that electrons would "tunnel" through a
narrow (<10 angstroms) non-superconducting region, even in the absence of an external
voltage. In a normal conductor, electrical current only flows when there's a voltage
differential and contiguous electrical connection. It has been theorized that the Josephson
Effect arises from the incoherent phase relationships between superconducting electrons in
the two (separated) superconductors. The AC Josephson Effect is where the current flow
oscillates as an external magnetic field impinged upon it increases beyond a critical value.
[at a frequency of 2eV/h, where e is the electron charge, V is the voltage that appears, and h
is Planck's constant] Sidebar: This oscillation frequency has, in fact, resulted in an upward
revision of Planck's constant from 6.62559e-34 to 6.626196e-34.
Josephson Junction: A thin layer of insulating material sandwiched between 2
superconducting layers. Electrons "tunnel" through this non-superconducting region in
what is known as the "Josephson effect" (see above). Sidebar: The standard volt is now
defined as the voltage required to produce a frequency of 483,597.9 GHz in a Josephson
Junction.
Kelvin: A scale of temperature measurement that starts at "absolute zero", the coldest
theoretical temperature attainable. (Named for Lord William Thomson Kelvin.)
Meissner Effect: Exhibiting diamagnetic properties to the total exclusion of all magnetic
fields. (Named for Walter Meissner.) This is a classic hallmark of superconductivity and
can actually be used to levitate a strong rare-earth magnet. To see a movie of a magnet
being levitated by a superconductor, click here.
Mott Transition: The Mott transition is the shift from an insulating to a metallic state in a
material. The high- temperature copper oxides are composed of CuO2 planes that are
separated from each other by ionic "blocking layers". Although it has one conduction
electron (or hole) per Cu site, each CuO2 plane is originally insulating because of the large
electron correlation. That behavior is typical of the Mott insulator state, in which all the
conduction electrons are tied to the atomic sites. The superconducting state emerges when
holes from the blocking layers dope the CuO2 layers in a way that alters the number of
conduction electrons and triggers the Mott transition. Researchers believe that the strong
antiferromagnetic correlation, which originates in the Mott-insulating CuO2 sheets and
persists into the metallic state, could be a possible mechanism of high-temperature
superconductivity. (courtesy Science Week)
Organics: Organic superconductors are a sub-class of organic conductors that include
molecular salts, polymers and pure carbon systems (including carbon nanotubes and C60
compounds). They may also be referred to as "molecular" superconductors. They are
typically large, carbon-based molecules of 20 or more atoms, consisting of a planar organic
molecule and a non-organic anion. For a non-technical write-up on organics, click here. Or,
for a more technical paper on this subject, click here.
Penetration Depth (also London Penetration Depth): This term relates to how deeply a
magnetic field will penetrate the surface of a superconductor. An external magnetic field
impinged upon a Type 2 superconductor will decay exponentially into the surface based on
the paired electron density within the superconductor (only a small fraction of the electrons
are in a superconductive state). The "London" name comes from brothers F. London and
H. London, who in 1935 created a theoretical model of superconductivity. For a more
technical explanation and the actual formula to calculate penetration depth, click here.
Perovskites: A large family of crystalline ceramics that derive their name from a mineral
known as a perovskite. They are the most abundant minerals on earth and have a metal-to-
oxygen ratio of approximately 2-to-3. Copper-oxide superconductors are layered
perovskites. The perovskite name comes from Russian mineralogist Count Lev Aleksevich
von Perovski.
Phase-Slip (also Quantum Phase-Slip): A point where a material in a superconductive state
spontaneously changes from one state to another, generating a topological "defect". This
defect causes paired electrons to become "out of step" with each other, producing a voltage
and, ergo, non-zero electrical resistance. This phenomenon has been observed in ultra-thin
wires less than a few tens-of-nanometers in diameter. Though bulk superconductivity may
persist (T<Tc), one consequence of phase slip is a lower current-carrying state. A similar
phenomenon occurs in Josephson Junctions.
Planar Weight Disparity (PWD): A term referring to the method by which Tc can often be
increased by adjusting the relative weights of alternating layers in copper-oxide
superconductors. The greatest improvements usually occur when making the insulating
layers heavy/light OR the Cu-O2 planes heavy/light - but not both. Click HERE to read
more about this discovery.
Proximity Effect: The phenomenon where a thin film of non-superconductive material in
close proximity with a superconductor takes on superconductive properties. The Josephson
junction is a device that takes advantage of this phenomenon. The Inverse Proximity Effect
is where just the opposite occurs. A non-superconductive metal can enhance the Tc of an
adjacent superconductor. This inverse effect has been observed with silver and lead.
P-Wave: A rare form of electron pairing in which two electrons travel together in spherical
orbits; with both having the same direction of rotation. (See "D-Wave" explanation above.)
Quasiparticle: A bare particle that is "dressed" or "clothed" by a cloud of other
surrounding particles. Quasiparticles behave similarly to bare (normal) particles, but
usually have a larger effective mass due to this cloud moderating interactions with other
particles.
Quench: The phenomenon where superconductivity in a material is suppressed; usually by
exceeding the maximum current the material can conduct (Jc) or the maximum magnetic
field it can withstand (Hc).
Re-entrant (behavior): A condition where a material retreats from its superconductive
state and then re-enters it. This can be caused by a strong external magnetic field that
dynamically exceeds the Hc of the material and/or is mis-aligned (in the case of some
organic superconductors), a discordant temperature below Tc (in the case of some
borocarbides), or by Jc hysteresis (momentarily exceeding the critical current density,
causing the Tc to shift downward).
Resistance: The opposition of a material to the flow of electrical current through it. Energy
lost due to resistance is a result of vibrations at the molecular level and manifests itself as
heat in proportion to the square of the current flow. In a superconductor all resistance
disappears below a certain temperature. However, this applies only to direct current (DC)
electricity. Other types of losses result when transporting alternating current (AC).
Examples of this include hysteresis, reactive-coupling and radiational losses. In the new
high-temperature ceramic superconductors, the power loss in applications like
transmission lines is inversely proportional to the critical current density for low magnetic
field applications. This limitation can be compensated for to some degree by increasing the
ratio of voltage to current. In Type 2 superconductors carrying high-frequency alternating
current, "skin effect" losses also result as the energy tends to migrate to the surface where
the conductive medium is incontiguous, producing a pseudo-resistance. In some materials
the amount of resistance may also depend on the direction of current flow (anisotropic
resistivity) and/or presence of an external magnetic field (hall effect).
Room-temperature Superconductor: There are NO confirmed room-temperature
superconductors (as was once reported for lithium-beryllium-hydride and for lead-silver-
carbonate). However, it has been theorized that a metallic form of hydrogen might be a
room-temperature superconductor. In 1996 physicists at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
were able to briefly create metallic hydrogen. But, its existence was fleeting and no
measurement of the Meissner effect was possible. Zero resistance has been observed at
room temperatures in ballistic quantum wire. However, having one-dimensional geometry,
this wire does not exhibit the Meissner effect, except when configured as a closed loop.
Sinter: The process of heating a material to just below its melting point. An extended
period of sintering is the method by which the constituent components of a ceramic
superconductor are combined in a solid-state reaction. Since ceramic superconductors are
inherently brittle, sintering helps promote intergranular bonding and hardness.
SQUID: A superconducting loop interrupted in 2 places by Josephson junctions. When
sufficient electrical current is conducted across the squid body, a voltage is generated
proportional to the strength of any nearby magnetic field. The SQUID, an acronym for
Superconducting QUantum Interference Device, is the most sensitive detector known to
science. Click here to see a graphic.
Stripes: Stripes are microscopic rivers of charge that flow across the surface of a Type 2
superconductor. It is theorized that stripes encourage "holes" to pair up and, as such, may
play a role in facilitating charge transfer. Recently, at the Stripes 2000 conference in Rome,
Italy, it was shown that there exists a critical value of micro-strain that must be exerted
upon the CuO2 planes for stripes to form. Click here to learn more.
Superconductor: An element, inter-metallic alloy, or compound that will conduct electricity
without resistance below a certain temperature. However, this applies only to direct
current (DC) electricity and to finite amounts of current. All known superconductors are
solids. None are gases or liquids. And all require extreme cold to enter a superconductive
state. Once set in motion, current will flow forever in a closed loop of superconducting
material - making it the closest thing to perpetual motion in nature. Scientists refer to
superconductivity as a "macroscopic quantum phenomenon". In addition to being
classified Type 1 and Type 2, superconductors can be categorized further by their
dimensionality. Most are 3-D. But some compounds, like surface-doped NaWO3 and some
organic superconductors are 2-D. Li2CuO2 and single-walled carbon nano-tubes have
shown rare 1-D superconductivity. In addition to repelling magnetic fields, enhanced
thermal conductivity, higher optical reflectivity and reduced surface friction are also
properties of superconductors. The term "superconductor" is also used in some instances
to refer to materials that have near infinite thermal conductivity - such as carbon
nanotubes. However, on this website it is used in the context of electrical conductivity only.
Susceptibility: A measure of the relative amount of induced magnetism in a material.
Magnetic susceptibility is often used in lieu of resistance measurements to determine the
transition temperature of a superconductor. Although, on occasion, the two techniques
produce very different Tc's. In a typical superconductor, the (arbitrary) value of
susceptibility will change from zero to a negative number as the temperature drops
through Tc. However, in some materials it changes from positive to negative, as
paramagnetism yields to diamagnetism.
S-Wave: A form of electron pairing in which the electrons travel together in spherical
orbits, but in opposite directions. (See "D-Wave" explanation above.)
Tc: The scientific notation representing the critical transition temperature below which a
material begins to superconduct. The sudden loss of resistance in a superconductive
medium may occur across a range as small as 20 millionths of a degree or, in the case of
some stoichiometrically imperfect compounds, tens of degrees. Click here to see a graphic
example. ("Tc" is not to be confused with the atomic symbol for Technetium.)
Thin Film (Deposition): A method of fabricating ceramic superconductors to more
precisely control the growth of the crystalline structure to eliminate grain boundaries and
achieve a desired Tc. This can involve Pulsed-Laser Deposition (PLD) or Pulsed-Electron
Deposition (PED) of the material. A variation of this technique can be used to increase the
Tc of a superconductor by growing it on a supporting material with a smaller interatomic
spacing. The supporting material acts as a molecular "girdle" to compress the atomic
lattice of the superconductor, thereby raising its transition temperature. Superconductive
tape is made using thin film deposition technology.
Translational Symmetry: As it applies to superconductivity, translational symmetry is
where the process of charge transfer is repeated exactly as the charge carriers (paired
electrons) traverse the solid. In a normal conductor, latent heat continuously vibrates the
atomic lattice, deflecting mobile free electrons and preventing "perfect" translational
symmetry. In a superconductor this scattering tendency is overcome.
Tungsten-bronze: A nebulous term used to describe alkali metal tungstenates, vanadates,
molybdates, titanates and niobates. The term was originally coined to describe NaxWO3
compounds; the crystals of which look much like the copper-tin alloy known as bronze.
There have been reports of superconductivity as high as 91K for a surface-doped sodium
tungsten-bronze. This material was the first high-temperature superconductor discovered
that does not contain any copper.
Ultraconductor: Materials known as ultraconductors™ display room-temperature
resistance many orders of magnitude lower than the best metallic conductors. Examples of
these materials include oxidized atactic polypropylene (OAPP) and other polymers. Since
ultraconductor™ is a colloquial term, these materials might better be described as
"hyperconductors". The Meissner effect cannot be confirmed in them, but strong (giant)
diamagnetism is in evidence. Some of them may actually find acceptance in high-current
applications ahead of superconductors as a result of their low losses at ambient
temperatures and pressures. (A primer on ultraconductors is available by clicking HERE.)
Undressing: The process by which a quasiparticle becomes more like a bare (normal)
particle. It is theorized this may be a driving force behind superconductivity, as undressed
electrons are significantly lighter and can, thus, conduct current more readily. To learn
more, click here.
Unit Cell: A unit cell is the smallest assemblage of atoms, ions, or molecules in a solid,
beyond which the structure repeats to form the 3-dimensional crystal lattice.
Vortices (plural of vortex): Swirling tubes of electrical current induced by an external
magnetic field into the surface of a superconducting material that represent a topological
singularity in the wavefunction. These are particularly evident in Type 2 superconductors
during "mixed-state" behavior when the surface is just partially superconducting.
Superconductivity is completely suppressed within these volcano-shaped structures. Recent
research suggests that flux vortices may NOT possess quantum values (equal to multiples
of Planck's constant divided by 2 times electron charge). But may instead have but a tiny
fraction of the basic unit of magnetism. The movement of vortices can produce a pseudo-
resistance and, as such, is undesirable. While superconductivity is a "macroscopic"
phenomenon, vortices are a "mesoscopic" phenomenon. (See the graphic at the top of this
page.)
YBCO: An acronym for a well-known ceramic superconductor composed of Yttrium,
Barium, Copper and Oxygen. This was the first truly "high temperature" ceramic
superconductor discovered; having a transition temperature well above the boiling point of
liquid nitrogen - a commonly available coolant. Its actual molecular formula is YBa2Cu3O7,
making it a "1-2-3" superconductor. YBCO compounds exhibit d-wave electron pairing.
The patent for YBCO is held by Lucent Technologies. (You can view a list of the best-
performing 1-2-3 compounds on the "Type 2" page.)

With the discovery of the ceramic superconductors, came a need for

a classification system to describe structure types. The cuprate
superconductors all have blocks of conducting CuO2 planes, alternating
with insulating, spacing and separating layers. This makes possible a
systematic Naming Scheme that allows for identification and
comparison. The scheme chosen uses four numbers. The first denotes
the number of insulating layers between adjacent conducting blocks. The
second represents the number of spacing layers between identical CuO2
blocks. The third gives the number of layers that separate adjacent CuO2
planes within the conducting block. And, the fourth is the number of
CuO2planes within a conducting block.

Using the TlBa2Ca2Cu3O9 molecule depicted at left as an example,

there is 1 insulating TlO layer, 2 spacing BaO layers, 2 separating Ca
layers, and 3 conducting CuO2 planes - making it a "1223" type.

There are also occasionally letters of the alphabet in the 5th and 6th positions. Suffixes
like "T*", "C", and "F" describe to researchers structure detail in the oxygen positions.
To further complicate matters, several of the more popular structures have names that
do NOT follow the 4-number scheme. For example, the compound Y1Ba2Cu3O7 is often
referred to by the 3-number name "123". This delineates the number of metal atoms (the
stoichiometry) - without regard to atom location - within the structure. Using the 4-number
scheme, it would be classified a "1212".
15 October 2008
Superconductors.ORG
 Superconductors.ORG herein reports synthesis of the first 200K
superconductor in conjunction with the discovery of a new superconductor
system.

The 200K material is believed to have a B212/1212C intergrowth

structure, where B=11 and C=copper chain. This structure is shown below
left and has the chemical formula Sn6Ba4Ca2Cu10Oy. The general formula for
this new family of superconductors is SnxBa4Ca2Cu(x+4)Oy. Within this new
family, unit cells with 3 to 6 atoms of tin (x) have been found to
superconduct, with 6 atoms of tin producing a new record high Tc near
201K.

This intergrowth is highly lopsided, as was

the Sn-In-Pb-Tm cuprate that produced a 195K
superconductor in July 2008. However, it
achieves its very high transition temperature
through application of planar weight disparity
(PWD) in the insulating layers, instead of the
CuO2 planes.

Above is a composite magnetization test,

showing the Meissner transition occuring just
above 202K. A flashing line has been added to
illustrate the diamagnetic shift in slope below
Tc. The quiescent noise is a result of zooming in
 on a small volume fraction.

Four resistance tests were averaged and

four magnetization tests were averaged,
producing a mean resistive Tc of 200.8 Kelvin
and a magnetic Tc of 202.4 Kelvin.

The first hint that a new superconductor system might exist came in 2006 when three
unrelated proto-compounds showed a small resistive "blip" around 160 K. The only
elements that were common to these three materials were Sn, Ba, Ca, Cu and O. Through
trial-and-error, that 160 K material was finally identified on October 4, 2008, as being
Sn3Ba4Ca2Cu7Oy (see below left) with structure 5212/1212C (see below right). This was
the first member of the new family of superconductors.
 Analysis of the 160 K compound, dubbed Sn-3427, indicated that it could be an analog
to the Sn-In-Pb-Tm copper-oxide family that produced Tc's up to 195 K. This became the
impetus to add more Sn/Cu layers to increase the unit cell size and attempt to reach 200 K.
However, instead of stacking 5 thulium atoms (heavy) opposite a single thulium atom
(light), 6 tin atoms (heavy) would be stacked opposite a single copper chain (light). This
attempt proved successful as a 200 K minority phase resulted.
It may be possible to increase Tc further by doping the molecule with indium (In) or by
adding another Sn/Cu layer. However, the increase would only be slight. This is because
the inclination of the curve representing Tc-v-PWD becomes nearly flat with 22 layers in
the unit cell. This was seen in the Sn-In-Pb-Tm copper-oxide family and can be seen in the
below results as well.

Since the 200K material contains only inexpensive and non-toxic elements, a method of
refinement to increase its volume fraction is now all that is required for it to become the
first commercial superconductor capable of operating at dry ice temperatures.
Synthesis of these materials was by the solid state reaction method. Stoichiometric
amounts of the below precursors were mixed, pelletized and sintered for 11 hours at 890C.
The pellet was then annealed for 10 hours at 500C in flowing O2.
SnO 99.9% (Alfa Aesar) 5.57 moles
BaCuOx 99.9% (Alfa Aesar) 5.98 moles
CaCO3 99.95% (Alfa Aesar) 1.38 moles
CuO 99.995% (Alfa Aesar) 3.29 moles
 The magnetometer employed twin Honeywell SS94A1F Hall-effect sensors with a
tandem sensitivity of 50 mv/gauss. The 4-point probe was bonded to the pellet with
CW2400 silver epoxy and used 7 volts on the primary.
RESEARCH NOTE: The copper-oxides are strongly hygroscopic. All tests should be
performed immediately after annealing.

E. Joe Eck
© 2008 Superconductors.ORG
Patent Pending #61/196,032
All rights reserved.
High-temperature interface superconductivity
between metallic and insulating copper oxides.

Journal: Nature

Authors: Gozar A, Logvenov G, Kourkoutis LF, Bollinger AT, Giannuzzi LA, Muller DA, Bozovic I

Published: 2008 Oct 9;455(7214):782-5

Pubmed ID: 18843365

The realization of high-transition-temperature (high-T(c)) superconductivity confined to nanometre-sized interfaces

has been a long-standing goal because of potential applications and the opportunity to study quantum phenomena in
reduced dimensions. This has been, however, a challenging target: in conventional metals, the high electron density
restricts interface effects (such as carrier depletion or accumulation) to a region much narrower than the coherence
length, which is the scale necessary for superconductivity to occur. By contrast, in copper oxides the carrier density is
low whereas T(c) is high and the coherence length very short, which provides an opportunity-but at a price: the
interface must be atomically perfect. Here we report superconductivity in bilayers consisting of an insulator
(La(2)CuO(4)) and a metal (La(1.55)Sr(0.45)CuO(4)), neither of which is superconducting in isolation. In these
bilayers, T(c) is either approximately 15 K or approximately 30 K, depending on the layering sequence. This highly
robust phenomenon is confined within 2-3 nm of the interface. If such a bilayer is exposed to ozone, T(c) exceeds 50
K, and this enhanced superconductivity is also shown to originate from an interface layer about 1-2 unit cells thick.
Enhancement of T(c) in bilayer systems was observed previously but the essential role of the interface was not
recognized at the time.
 Superconductor World Record Jumps to
233K
A 15 Degree Increase through Thallium Substitution

24 March 2009
Superconductors.ORG

40 degrees below zero is cold by any measure. But, in the world of superconductors it's
a record hot day. Superconductors.ORG herein reports an increase in high-Tc to 233K (-
40C, -40F) through the substitution of thallium into the tin/indium atomic sites of the
X212/2212C structure that produced a 218 Kelvin superconductor in January of 2009.
The host material producing the 233K signal has the chemical formula
Tl5Ba4Ca2Cu9Oy. One of several resistance-v-temperature plots used to confirm this new
record is shown above. And a composite magnetization test, showing the Meissner
transition, is shown below right. A flashing line has been added to illustrate the
diamagnetic shift in slope below Tc. The quiescent noise is a result of zooming in on a small
volume fraction.
 This very high Tc material, like previous
record discoveries, was designed to exploit
planar weight disparity (PWD) along "c" axis of
the 9212/2212C structure (shown at left). In
this case a very heavy insulating layer in the
upper part of the structure (Tl5Cu4) opposes a
single copper chain in the lower part. Even
though the copper chain branches, the planar
weight ratio remains high - around 20:1. The
structure that produced the previous 218K
record material had a PWR just over 16:1.

Weaker resistive transitions also appeared near 227K, 223K and 218K. The 227K step
(shown above) most likely results from a 9212/1212C structure forming as a minority
phase; the 223K results from a 7212/2212C structure; and the 218K step from a
7212/1212C structure. Below 218K the other minority phases disappeared into the noise. As
a result, a 1212C pellet with less thallium and copper was synthesized to discover the Tc of
the 5212/1212C and 3212/1212C phases. In that pellet transitions appeared near 204K and
184K. All of these transitions were then plotted, producing the below Tc-v-PWR graph.
The rate of slope declination suggests that 240K may be attainable.

Since we are now just a "stone's throw" from room temperature, this discovery is
being released into the public domain without patent protection. Other researchers are
encouraged to examine this material and its structure.
Synthesis of these materials was by the solid state reaction method. Stoichiometric
amounts of the below precursors were mixed, pelletized and sintered for 34 hours at 865C.
The pellet was then annealed for 10 hours at 500C in flowing O2.
Tl2O3 99.99% (Alfa Aesar) 7.136 moles (gr.)
BaCuOx 99.9% (Alfa Aesar) 5.42 moles
CaCO3 99.95% (Alfa Aesar) 1.25 moles
CuO 99.995% (Alfa Aesar) 2.98 moles

The magnetometer employed twin Honeywell SS94A1F Hall-effect sensors with a

tandem sensitivity of 50 mv/gauss. The 4-point probe was bonded to the pellet with
CW2400 silver epoxy and used 7 volts on the primary.
RESEARCH NOTE: The copper-oxides are strongly hygroscopic. All tests should be
performed immediately after annealing.
E. Joe Eck
© 2009 Superconductors.ORG
All rights reserved.
 Coaxing YBCO Above 175K
"Hyper YBCO" HY-134

3 March 2009
Superconductors.ORG

Since its discovery in 1987 YBCO has established itself as the

preeminent industrial superconductor. However, it has consistently
resisted efforts to increase its critical transition temperature (Tc) much
beyond about 105K.

Superconductors.ORG announces the discovery of a structure type

that facilitates an improvement in the Tc of YBCO beyond 175K (see above
R-T plot). And, while the volume fraction derived from the method of
synthesis is low, the profound Tc improvement again validates planar
weight disparity (PWD) as a robust Tc-enhancement mechanism.
 92K YBCO (Y-123) has only 6 metal layers in
the unit cell and very little PWD. In this new
discovery - based on a 9223C theoretical
structure type shown at left - there are 16 metal
layers and a large amount of PWD. The closest
analog to this structure type is the 9212/1212C
intergrowth of the Sn-Ba-Ca-Cu-O family, with Tc
~195K.

The chemical formula of this new discovery -

dubbed "Hyper YBCO" - is YBa3Cu4Ox. However,
HY-134 does not form stoichiometrically. In order
to synthesize a sufficent volume fraction to
detect, the "layer cake" method must be used.

The layer cake used to produce the prototype

pellet had 17 layers, 9 of (BaCuO) and 8 of (Y2O3
+ CuO). This resulted in 16 interference regions
in which the desired structure was encouraged to
form. The layer cake method is depicted in the
simplified graphic below.

Below is a composite plot of three magnetization tests that were digitally summed to
improve the signal-to-noise ratio. Weak diamagnetic transitions also appeared near 175K
and 185K. These are believed to have resulted from minority phases: one less Ba-Cu layer
for the 175K signal (7223C structure) and one more Ba-Cu layer for the 185K signal
(B223C structure). These are the highest transition temperatures ever observed in a
quaternary (four element) compound.
 Synthesis of HY-134 was by the solid state reaction method. Stoichiometric amounts of
the below precursors were mixed, layered, pelletized at 70,000 psi and then sintered for 11
hours at 890C. The pellet was then annealed for 10 hours at 500C in flowing O2.
Y2O3 99.99% (Alfa Aesar) 2.15 moles (gr.)
BaCuOx 99.9% (Alfa Aesar) 12.39 moles
CuO 99.995% (Alfa Aesar) 1.515 moles

The magnetometer employed twin Honeywell SS94A1F Hall-effect sensors with a

tandem sensitivity of 50 mv/gauss. The 4-point probe was bonded to the pellet with
CW2400 silver epoxy and used 7 volts on the primary.
RESEARCH NOTE: The copper-oxides are strongly hygroscopic. All tests should be
performed immediately after annealing.
E. Joe Eck
© 2009 Superconductors.ORG
All rights reserved.
 218K Superconductor Signature Resolved
World Record Rises 80 Degrees Since May 2006

29 January 2009
Superconductors.ORG
 Signs of superconductivity near 218 Kelvin, reported by
Superconductors.ORG as a minority phase on November 30, 2008, have
now been confirmed. Resistive and diamagnetic transitions have been
resolved using an established digital summing technique. Those results -
typically 10db over noise - were then used to contrast samples of differing
stoichiometries to identify the probable structure type.

The material producing the 218K signal appears to have the chemical
formula (Sn5In)Ba4Ca2Cu11Oy. This conclusion was reached after comparing
samples with 10 atoms of copper per unit cell to those with 11 atoms of
copper per unit cell. In brief, those with 10 copper atoms produced a
strong 212K signal, and a weak 218K. Those samples with 11 copper
atoms produced a strong 218K signal, and a weak 212K, as seen in the
below right plot.

An additional copper atom positioned into

the 1212C chain of the B212/1212C structure
(where B=11 and C=copper chain) causes a
branching of the copper chain, creating a
B212/2212C structure (shown at left). This extra
copper atom increases the hole content of that
insulating layer and further stiffens the lattice,
raising Tc.

Even though the copper chain branches, the

 planar weight ratio remains high along the C
axis. As with the 212K, 200K, 195K, and prior
discoveries, planar weight disparity is the
driving force behind these extraordinarily high
Tc materials.

An analog to this increase in Tc exists in the difference between Y-123

(Tc~92K, shown below left) and Y-247 (Tc~95K, below right). Y-123 has a
colinear C axis, while Y-247 branches to accommodate an extra copper
atom.

The graph below shows the relationship between Tc and planar weight
ratio. In the highest range of Tc's the curve rolls over and begins to
flatten.
 Synthesis of these materials was by the solid state reaction method. Stoichiometric
amounts of the below precursors were mixed, pelletized and sintered for 36-60 hours at
830C. The pellet was then annealed for 10 hours at 500C in flowing O2.
SnO 99.9% (Alfa Aesar) 4.64 moles
In2O3 99.9% (Alfa Aesar) 0.96 moles
CaCO3 99.95% (Alfa Aesar) 1.38 moles
BaCuOx 99.9% (Alfa Aesar) 5.98 moles
CuO 99.995% (Alfa Aesar) 3.84 moles

The magnetometer employed twin Honeywell SS94A1F Hall-effect sensors with a

tandem sensitivity of 50 mv/gauss. The 4-point probe was bonded to the pellet with
CW2400 silver epoxy and used 7 volts on the primary.
RESEARCH NOTE: The copper-oxides are strongly hygroscopic. All tests should be
performed immediately after annealing.
E. Joe Eck
© 2009 Superconductors.ORG
All rights reserved.
BCS theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

BCS theory is a microscopic theory of superconductivity, proposed by Bardeen, Cooper, and

Schrieffer. It describes superconductivity as a microscopic effect caused by a condensation of
pairs of electrons into a boson-like state.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Overview
○ 2.1 More details
• 3 Successes of the BCS
theory
• 4 See also
• 5 References
• 6 External links
• 7 Further reading

[edit] History
The mid 1950s saw rapid progress in the understanding of superconductivity. It began in the
1948 paper On the Problem of the Molecular Theory of Superconductivity where Fritz London
proposed that the phenomonological London equations may be consequences of the coherence of
a quantum state. In 1953 Brian Pippard, motivated by penetration experiments, proposed that this
would modify the London equations via a new scale parameter called the coherence length. John
Bardeen then argued in the 1955 paper Theory of the Meissner Effect in Superconductors that
such a modification naturally occurs in a theory with an energy gap. The key ingredient, which
describes the field whose mass is equal to Bardeen's energy gap, was Leon Neil Cooper's
calculation of the bound states of electrons subject to an attractive force in his 1956 paper Bound
Electron Pairs in a Degenerate Fermi Gas.
In 1957 Bardeen and Cooper assembled these ingredients and constructed such a theory, the BCS
theory, with Robert Schrieffer. The theory was first announced in February 1957 in the letter
Microscopic theory of superconductivity. The demonstration that the phase transition is second
order, that it reproduces the Meissner effect and the calculations of specific heats and penetration
depths appeared in the July 1957 article Theory of superconductivity. They received the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1972 for this theory. The 1950 Landau-Ginzburg theory of superconductivity
is not cited in either of the BCS papers.
In 1986, "high-temperature superconductivity" was discovered (i.e. superconductivity at
temperatures considerably above the previous limit of about 30 K; up to about 130 K). It is
believed that at these temperatures other effects are at play; these effects are not yet fully
understood. (It is possible that these unknown effects also control superconductivity even at low
temperatures for some materials).

[edit] Overview
In the BCS framework, superconductivity is a macroscopic effect which results from Bose
condensation of electron pairs, called Cooper pairs. These behave as bosons which, at
sufficiently low temperature, form a large Bose-Einstein condensate. At sufficiently low
temperatures, electrons near the Fermi surface become unstable against the formation of cooper
pairs. Cooper showed such binding will occur in the presence of an attractive potential, no matter
how weak. In conventional superconductors, such binding is generally attributed to an electron-
lattice interaction. The BCS theory, however, requires only that the potential be attractive,
regardless of its origin. Superconductivity was simultaneously explained by Nikolay Bogoliubov,
by means of the so-called Bogoliubov transformations.
In many superconductors, the attractive interaction between electrons (necessary for pairing) is
brought about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons and the vibrating crystal lattice
(the phonons). Roughly speaking the picture is the following:
An electron moving through a conductor will attract nearby positive charges in the lattice. This
deformation of the lattice causes another electron, with opposite "spin", to move into the region
of higher positive charge density. The two electrons are then held together with a certain binding
energy. If this binding energy is higher than the energy provided by kicks from oscillating atoms
in the conductor (which is true at low temperatures), then the electron pair will stick together and
resist all kicks, thus not experiencing resistance.
[edit] More details
BCS theory starts from the assumption that there is some attraction between electrons, which can
overcome the Coulomb repulsion. In most materials (in low temperature superconductors), this
attraction is brought about indirectly by the coupling of electrons to the crystal lattice (as
explained above). However, the results of BCS theory do not depend on the origin of the
attractive interaction. The original results of BCS (discussed below) described an "s-wave"
superconducting state, which is the rule among low-temperature superconductors but is not
realized in many "unconventional superconductors", such as the "d-wave" high-temperature
superconductors. Extensions of BCS theory exist to describe these other cases, although they are
insufficient to completely describe the observed features of high-temperature superconductivity.
BCS is able to give an approximation for the quantum-mechanical state of the system of
(attractively interacting) electrons inside the metal. This state is now known as the "BCS state".
In the normal state of a metal, electrons move independently, whereas in the BCS state, they are
bound into "Cooper pairs" by the attractive interaction.

[edit] Successes of the BCS theory

BCS derived several important theoretical predictions that are independent of the details of the
interaction, since the quantitative predictions mentioned below hold for any sufficiently weak
attraction between the electrons and this last condition is fulfilled for many low temperature
superconductors - the so-called "weak-coupling case". These have been confirmed in numerous
experiments:
 • Since the electrons are bound into Cooper pairs, a finite amount of energy is
needed to break these apart into two independent electrons. This means
there is an "energy gap" for "single-particle excitation", unlike in the normal
metal (where the state of an electron can be changed by adding an arbitrarily
small amount of energy). This energy gap is highest at low temperatures but
vanishes at the transition temperature when superconductivity ceases to
exist. The BCS theory gives an expression that shows how the gap grows with
the strength of the attractive interaction and the (normal phase) single
particle density of states at the Fermi energy. Furthermore, it describes how
the density of states is changed on entering the superconducting state,
where there are no electronic states any more at the Fermi energy. The
energy gap is most directly observed in tunneling experiments and in
reflection of microwaves from the superconductor.
• BCS theory predicts the dependence of the value of the energy gap E on the
critical temperature Tc for a superconductor at an arbitrary temperature T. At
zero temperature the ratio between the value of the energy gap at zero
temperature and the value of the superconducting transition temperature
(expressed in energy units) takes the universal value of 3.5, independent of
material. Near the critical temperature the relation asymptotes to

which is of the form suggested the previous year by M. J. Buckingham in Very High Frequency
Absorption in Superconductors based on the fact that the superconducting phase transition is
second order, that the superconducting phase has a mass gap and on Blevins, Gordy and
Fairbank's experimental results the previous year on the absorption of millimeter waves by
superconducting tin.
• Due to the energy gap, the specific heat of the superconductor is suppressed
strongly (exponentially) at low temperatures, there being no thermal
excitations left. However, before reaching the transition temperature, the
specific heat of the superconductor becomes even higher than that of the
normal conductor (measured immediately above the transition) and the ratio
of these two values is found to be universally given by 2.5.
• BCS theory correctly predicts the Meissner effect, i.e. the expulsion of a
magnetic field from the superconductor and the variation of the penetration
depth (the extent of the screening currents flowing below the metal's
surface) with temperature. This had been demonstrated experimentally by
Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld in their 1933 article Ein neuer Effekt
bei Eintritt der Supraleitfähigkeit.
• It also describes the variation of the critical magnetic field (above which the
superconductor can no longer expel the field but becomes normal
conducting) with temperature. BCS theory relates the value of the critical
field at zero temperature to the value of the transition temperature and the
density of states at the Fermi energy.
• In its simplest form, BCS gives the superconducting transition temperature in
terms of the electron-phonon coupling potential and the Debye cutoff energy:
 • The BCS theory reproduces the isotope effect, which is the experimental
observation that for a given superconducting material, the critical
temperature is inversely proportional to the mass of the isotope used in the
material. The isotope effect was reported by two groups on the 24th of March
1950, who discovered it independently working with different mercury
isotopes, although a few days before publication they learned of each other's
results at the ONR conference in Atlanta, Georgia. The two groups are
Emanuel Maxwell, who published his results in Isotope Effect in the
Superconductivity of Mercury and C. A. Reynolds, B. Serin, W. H. Wright, and
L. B. Nesbitt who published their results 10 pages later in Superconductivity
of Isotopes of Mercury. The choice of isotope ordinarily has little effect on the
electrical properties of a material, but does affect the frequency of lattice
vibrations, this effect suggested that superconductivity be related to
vibrations of the lattice. This is incorporated into the BCS theory, where
lattice vibrations yield the binding energy of electrons in a Cooper pair.

Type I superconductor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Type-I superconductor)

Jump to: navigation, search

Type I superconductors are superconductors that cannot be penetrated by magnetic flux lines
(Meißner-Ochsenfeld effect). As such, they have only a single critical temperature at which the
material ceases to superconduct, becoming resistive. The origin of their superconductivity is
fully explained by BCS theory. Elementary superconductors, such as aluminium and lead are
typical Type I superconductors.

[edit] Type I Superconductivity

As explained by BCS theory, type I superconductivity is exhibited by materials with a regularly
structured lattice. This allows electrons to be coupled over a relatively large distance (compared
to the size of an atom). These pairings are called Cooper pairs.
Though normally electrons exhibit Coulomb repulsion when displayed to each other, when they
interact within a lattice, via a phonon interaction they display an attractive force. As this is not a
normal state for an electron pair to be in, it is only achieved at very low temperatures. This is
because, modeling it as a bond, it has a low bond energy, thus requiring very little force to break
it. As such, if the temperature of the material is too high, the energy in the vibrations of the
lattice are sufficient to break the bond.
The reason for this force of attraction is an effect known as 'the mattress effect'.[1] This comes
about due to spins of electrons. As an electron passes through a lattice, the attractive forces
between it and the protons in the nuclei of the atoms cause a ripple in the lattice structure. This
means that there are ripples through much of the lattice. These ripples are vibrations called
'phonons'. The ripples induced throughout the lattice will affect other electrons passing through
it. This creates the weak link between two electrons being affected by one phonon. This coupling
means that even if one electron is presented with resistance the effect of the resistance is
minimized as it is 'pulled along' by the other electron.
This type of superconductivity is normally exhibited by pure metals, e.g. aluminium, lead or
mercury. (Alloys are typically of Type II.)

Type-II superconductor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject.

WikiProject Physics or the Physics Portal may be able to help recruit one.
(November 2008)

A Type-II superconductor is a superconductor characterised by its gradual transition from the

superconducting to the normal state within an increasing magnetic field. Typically they
superconduct at higher temperatures and magnetic fields than Type-I superconductors. This
allows them to conduct higher currents.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Materials
• 2 Critical temperatures and critical
fields
• 3 Mixed state
• 4 See also
• 5 References

[edit] Materials
Type-II superconductors are usually made of metal alloys or complex oxide ceramics, whereas
most pure metals are Type-I superconductors. All high temperature superconductors are Type-II
superconductors, and (as of early 2008) are mostly complex copper oxide ceramics. While most
pure metal or pure element superconductors are Type-I, Niobium, Vanadium, Technetium,
Diamond and Silicon are pure element Type-II superconductors. Some metal alloy
superconductors also exhibit Type-II behavior (eg. niobium-titanium, niobium-tin).
Other Type-II examples are the cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials which have achieved the
highest temperatures to reach the superconducting state. These include La1.85Ba0.15CuO4, BSCCO,
and YBCO (Yttrium-Barium-Copper-Oxide), which is famous as the first material to achieve
superconductivity above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, as well as the highest temperature
superconductor to date: mercury thallium barium calcium copper oxide
(Hg12Tl3Ba30Ca30Cu45O125).
[edit] Critical temperatures and critical fields
In comparison to the (theoretically) sharp transition of a Type-I superconductor above the lower
temperature Tc1, magnetic flux from external fields is no longer completely expelled, and the
superconductor exists in a mixed state. Above the higher temperature Tc2, the superconductivity
is completely destroyed, and the material exists in a normal state. Both of these temperatures are
dependent on the strength of the applied field. It is more usual to consider a fixed temperature, in
which case transition (flux penetration) occurs between critical field strengths Hc1 and Hc2 (the
upper critical field).[1]

[edit] Mixed state

Ginzburg–Landau theory defines 2 parameters: The coherence length of a superconductor related
to the mean free path of its charge carriers, and a penetration depth.
The earlier London penetration depth is the penetration distance of a weak magnetic field.
In a Type-II superconductor, the coherence length is smaller than the London penetration depth,
meaning that magnetic flux lines can pierce the material at high enough external fields. This is
known as the vortex state, as the flux lines run through narrow regions of non superconducting
material, surrounded by vortices of supercurrents protecting the rest of the superconductor. The
vortices can arrange themselves in a regular structure known as the vortex lattice, also named the
Abrikosov vortex, after Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov, who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize
in Physics for his pioneering contributions.[2]

List of superconductors
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

A table showing major parameters of major superconductors of simple structure (numerous

metallic alloys are not shown). X:Y means material X doped with element Y, TC is the highest
reported transition temperature in kelvins and HC is a critical magnetic field in teslas. "Non-
metals" here refers to materials which are normally not considered as metals, but become
superconducting upon heavy doping. "BCS" means whether or not the superconductivity is
explained within the BCS theory.

Formula TC HC Type BCS References

(K) (T)

Metals

[1][2][3]
Al 1.20 0.01 I yes

[2][3]
Cd 0.52 0.003 I yes
 [2]
Hf 0.165 I yes

[2][3]
a-Hg 4.15 0.04 I yes

[2][3]
b-Hg 3.95 0.04 I yes

[2][3]
Ga 1.1 0.005 I yes

[2][3]
In 3.4 0.03 I yes

[2]
Ir 0.14 I yes

[2]
a-La 4.9 I yes

[2]
b-La 6.3 I yes

[2]
Mo 0.92 I yes

[2][3]
Nb 9.26 0.82 II yes

[2]
Os 0.65 0.007 I yes

[2][3]
Pb 7.19 0.08 I yes

[2][4][3]
Re 2.4 0.03 I yes

[2][3]
Ru 0.49 0.005 I yes

[2][3]
Sn 3.72 0.03 I yes

[2][3]
Ta 4.48 0.3 I yes

[2][3]
Tc 7.46- 0.04 II yes
 11.2

[2][3]
a-Th 1.37 0.013 I yes

[2][3]
Ti 0.39 0.01 I yes

[2][3]
Tl 2.39 0.02 I yes

[2]
a-U 0.68 I yes

[2][3]
V 5.03 1 II yes

[2][3]
Zn 0.855 0.005 I yes

[2][3]
Zr 0.55 0.014 I yes

Non-
metals

[5]
Ba8Si46 8.07 0.008 II yes

[6]
C6Ca 11.5 0.95 II

[6]
C6Li3Ca2 11.15 II

[6]
C8 K 0.14 II

[6]
C8KHg 1.4 II

[6]
C8Rb 0.025 II

[6]
C6Sr 1.65 II
 [6]
C6Yb 6.5 II

[7]
C60Cs2Rb 33 II yes

[8][9]
C60K3 19.8 0.013 II yes

[10]
C60RbX 28 II yes

Diamond: [11][12][13][14]
11.4 4 II yes
B

[15]
InN 3 II yes

[16]
In2O3 3.3 ~3 II yes

[17]
Si:B 0.4 0.4 II yes

[18]
SiC:B 1.4 0.008 I yes

[18]
SiC:Al 1.5 0.04 II yes

Binary
alloys

[19]
MgB2 39 74 II yes

[2]
Nb3Al 18 II yes

[20]
Nb3Ge 23.2 37 II yes

[21]
NbO 1.38 II yes
 [2]
NbN 16 II yes

[22]
Nb3Sn 18.3 30 II yes

[2]
NbTi 10 15 II yes

Superconducting materials
The sudden drop in electrical resistivity to zero of certain materials when cooled to low
temperature is called superconductivity. Superconducting materials exhibit a phenomenon
known as Meissner effect in which the magnetic flux is excluded from the material. Depending
on the response of the material to the magnetic field the materials can be classified as Type I or
Type II superconductors.
Superconducting Materials Processing and Characterization
(1) YBCO Coated Conductors
In large-scale applications of superconductors, the conductors are required not
only to carry high critical current density at respectable magnetic fields, but also to
possess high ductility, mechanical strength, and stability. To improve the transport
properties of high-temperature superconductors, extensive experimental investigations
have been carried out in developing highly textured thin films on a variety of substrates.
The fabrication of YBa2Cu3Ox (YBCO) films by epitaxial deposition on rolling assisted
biaxially textured substrates (RABiTS) has proved to be successful in the conductor
development for large-scale applications. The RABiTS technique uses well-established,
industrially scaleable, thermomechanical processes to impart a high degree of grain
texture to a base metal. Buffer layers are then deposited to yield chemically and
structurally compatible surfaces. Epitaxial YBCO films are grown on such a surface,
resulting in a critical current density at 77 K on the order of 10 6 A/cm2. This approach
has shown a promise for developing long conductors for industrial applications.
We have developed the so-called non-fluorine sol gel synthesis of YBCO on
single crystal substrates including YSZ and LAO. The YBCO sol-gel solutions were
deposited on both YSZ and LAO substrates via spin coating. The x-ray diffraction
(XRD) analysis of the film on YSZ and LAO showed a well-textured, c-axis oriented
grain structure. A similar XRD pattern indicated similar structures for the YBCO film on
LAO. The oxygenated films on all substrates were characterized by four-probe
measurement. Both films on YSZ and LAO exhibited sharp Tc values near 90K.
Preliminary measurements on the transport critical current density were performed
using the four-probe method using a 10-6 V/cm voltage criterion. The sample dimensions
were 15 x 3 x 0.0004 mm3. The transport Jc has been determined as a function of
temperature in zero-field for YBCO on LAO. At 77 K, the transport J c of YBCO on LAO
has reached a value above 106A/cm2 at 77K and zero magnetic fields. However, this
value is expected to improve as the processing parameters are optimized. For details,
please see our papers from “The Latest.”
(2) Development of Single Domain YBCO RF Cavities for Wireless
Telecommunications
Microwave Cavity Filters are widely used in RF systems for high Q signal
filtering. However, their characteristically bulky size at lower operating frequencies make
them quite inconvenient to be used especially in the frequency range 1-4 GHz, which is
the range of most of the present day commercial wireless applications. This study aims
to enhance the usability of cavity filters in these lower frequency ranges by exploring a
unique re-entrant structure for the cavity filter design. The study further explores the use
of high temperature superconductors in this particular design for improving the
performance of the filters by reducing the associated losses. After verifying the basic
workability of the concept, a coupled re-entrant cavity filter design is designed with an
equivalent high Q.
(3) Suppression of ab-Plane Cracks by a c-axis uniaxial Pressure
A uniaxial c-axis pressure has been applied to YBa2Cu3Ox (YBCO) single domain
during a prolonged oxygenation experiment up to 72 h. It has been found that, due to
this c-axis pressure, the local tensile stress responsible for ab-plane crack formation
can be compensated effectively. The optical microscopy experimental results indicate
that there is a sharp contrast in microstructure between the samples with and without c-
axis pressure. The ab-plane cracks in the sample with c-axis pressure appear to be
suppressed. X-ray diffraction results show that, for a 72h-oxygen anneal, both samples
with and without pressure are well oxygenated with equal orthorhombicity on the
polished surfaces where the microstructures are studied. Also discussed is the
mechanism of ab-plane crack suppression by the c-axis pressure.
　
Friendly link: http://www.superconductors.org
SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS

Superconductivity is the phenomenon wherein the electrical resistance of a metal disappears

when the metal is cooled. Superconductivity occurs in a variety of metals, but only when they are
cooled to extremely low temperatures, near absolute zero.
Ever since the discovery of superconductivity in 1911, researchers have sought to raise the
temperature at which superconductivity occurs, because that would make possible exciting
applications of resistance-free electricity long thought impractical in light of the cooling
requirement - for example, supercomputers with speed and capacity several orders of magnitude
beyond today's capabilities; frictionless superspeed trains levitated by magnetic force;
transmission lines that suffer no power loss through resistance; and supermagnets that could
significantly enhance the medical diagnostic technology of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
In 1986, researchers achieved a breakthrough by identifying a new class of high temperature
superconducting (HTS) materials. The "high temperature" is high only in the relative sense; these
oxide materials remain superconductive above 30 degrees Kelvin, which corresponds to 243
degrees below zero on the more familiar Centigrade scale. However, some HTS materials
superconduct at temperatures more than 50 degrees higher than the initial applications of
superconductivity. That makes them easier to cool and easier to use, opening up a wide range of
applications to take advantage of the superconductor's special properties: zero resistance,
magnetic field exclusion, low noise and extremely low power loss for high frequency electronics.
With the advent of HTS materials, superconductors have begun to emerge from the laboratory
and appear in practical applications.
A pioneer in this explosively advancing technology is Superconducting Technologies, Inc. (STI),
Santa Barbara, California. STI's basic products are high quality thin films, sold to manufacturers
of communications systems and military systems, who use them for in-house fabrication and
component development. STI circuits and components - resonators, filters, oscillators,
microwave mixers, etc. - for manufacturers who prefer to have the superconducting fabrication
and assembly done by specialists. STI uses thallium, the highest temperature material for making
HTS. Thallium remains superconductive at temperatures above 77 degrees Kelvin and can be
cooled to working temperature by a liquid nitrogen system instead of the more difficult and more
expensive helium method.
Above, HTS is being produced by a laser ablation system.

Above, an STI scientist displays the result, a three-inch wafer of HTS material.
Above is a representative application: microwave circuits used in radars to reduce interference;
the dark brown strips are made of HTS material.

Above is a closed cycle stirling cooler used to cool HTS subsystems to 77 degrees Kelvin; it has
a one-quart capacity and the same electricity as an ordinary light bulb.
In addition to producing films, circuits and components, STI provides a wide range of foundry
services, allowing access to HTS technology by company engineers who have not had previous
experience in HTS. A number of government agencies and several large companies are using
STI's foundry facility and personnel expertise to design and develop HTS circuits and
components for specific applications.
STI credits NASA with a technological assist in the company's climb to a leadership position in
the development and commercialization of superconducting products. Founded in 1986, STI has
worked with two NASA centers - Lewis Research Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) -
and advanced its own technology by adapting to NASA requirements. Says Joseph M. Madden,
manager of sales and applications, "In fabricating antenna circuits for Lewis and other devices
for JPL, we refined our standard production recipe for circuits. This now enables us to use the
same standard production recipe for our production work."