EXPLORATION

GUIDE

n:L~i
,,";~)i:,'-~Si:

MEMORANDUM

ConverseWard DavIs Dixon

;'

Date

February 9, 1980

Project No. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

To

All Employees, Grades I thru IX

and T-l thru T-IV Technicians

Subject

From

Schaefer J. Dixon

Explorat jon Gll ide

Herewith is your working draft copy of the CWDD Exploration

Guide.
This document is for your use while you are employed
by CWDD and if employment is terminated, it shoulCl be returned
to your supervisor. The Guide is for use within CWDD and should
not be reproduced
in whole or part for external distribution.
,
The Exploration Guide is intended to help provide a basis for
company-wide consistency in exploration praotices.
It provides
information and data on techniques and tests mOst commonly
used in exploration work performed by CWDD.
It WaS not intended
to include discussion of every exploration tool and technique
available, all of the many in situ tests performed in soil and
rock, construction inspection and testing methods, and laboratory
testing, all of which will be the s1,lbject matter of future
pUblications.
This working draft is for us!" through the remainder of 1980 and
until a final copy is issued. We would like your comments on
/~how the dQcument can be improved.
Instructions for submitting
comments are given on page 1-1. Comments to be considered in
preparation of the final copy must be submitted by December 31,
1980. If you find errors or believe something should be changed
in this working draft, do not hesitate to submit your comments
as soon as possible.
i

.,

{\

Converse Ward Davis Dixon, Inc,

TABLE OF CONTENTS

\.

Page No.
1.

INTRODUCTION .

1-1

2.

EXPLORATION PLANNING

2-1

2.1

2-1

SOURCES OF PROJECT INFORMATION

2.1.1 Prior Projects
2.1.2 Published Sources

2-1
2-2

2.1.2.1 Publications of the U.S.

Geo1goica1 Surve .
2.1.2.2 Geologic Quadrangle Maps
2.1.2.3 State Geological Survey
Maps and Reports . .
2.1.2.4 Soil Conservation Service
(SCS) Reports
2.1.3 Additional Mapping
2.1.4 Aerial Photography
2.2

2-3
2-3
'2-3

2-4

Right of Entry Documentation

Site Access . . .
Si te Mobility . . . .
Support Operations

Geotechnical Conditions

Previous Construction

..

Selection of Exploration Methods.

Selection of Contractor
Permits and Clearances
Materials and Equipment
2.. 3.4.1
2.3.4.2
2.3.4.3
2.3.4.4
2.3.4.5

2-5
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-8
2-9

EXPLORATION PROGRAM
2.3.1
2.. 3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4

3.

2-3

PRELIMINARY SITE Rl]:CONNhISSANCE

2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2 .2.5
2 .2.6

2.3

2-2
2-2

2-9
2-10
2-11
2-12

Fault Investigation Trenches

Diamond Core Logging.
Soils Sampling & Logging.
Soil Ex~loration Test Pit
Permeab~lity Testing.

2-13
2-14
2-14
2-15
2-15

FIELD OPERATIONS

3-1

3.1

CONTACTS

3-1

3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4

3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4

Client Contact
Project Manager Contact
Contractor Contact
General Public Contact

.1

Page No.
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

4.

SAFETY . . . . . . .
CONTRACTOR'S EQUIPMENT
DOCUMENTATION . . . .
SUPPLEMENTAL RECONNAISSANCE

3-5
3-8
3-10
3-11

3.5.1 Studies in Urban Areas

3.5.2 Studies in Undeveloped Areas

3-l3

3-15

EXPLORATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

4-1

4.1

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

4-2

4.1.1 Onshore Geophysical Methods

4.1.2 Offshore Geophysical Methods

4-2
4-2

MECHANICAL PROBING AND SOUNDING

OPEN SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

4-2
4-4

4.3.1 Hand Excavated Test pits and Shafts.

4.3.2 Backhoe Excavated Test pits an!
Trenches .
4.3.3 Drilled Shafts..
....
4.3.4' Dozer Cuts . . .
..
4.3.5 Trenches for Fault Investigation

4-6

DEEP EXPLORATION.

4-14

4.4.1 Auger Borings

4-17

4.2
4.3

4.4

4-18
4-18

4.4.1.1 Hand Augers

4.4.1.2 Power Augers
4.4.2 Wash Borings . .
4.4.3 Percussion and Churn Borings

4.4.3.1 Percussion Drills . .

4.4.3.1.1 Downhole Percussion unit
4.4.3.1.2 Becker Hammer Drill.

4-19
4-20
4-21
4-22
4-23

4.4.3.2 Churn Drill

4-24

4.4.4 Rotary Borings . .

4-25

4.4.4.1 Truck-Mounted Rotary Drills

4.4.4.2 Skid-Mounted Rotary Drills.
5.

4-7
4-9
4-10
4-11

4-25
4-27

SOIL SAMPLING AND FIELD TESTS

5-1

5.1
5.2
5.3

PREPARATION FOR SAMPLING

METHODS OF ADVANCING SAMPLER
UNDISTURBED SAMPLES

5-2
5-4
5-6

5.3.1 Sampling Equipment and Methods

5-8

,
'

~".'

Page NQ.
5.3.1.1
5.3.1.2
5.3.1.3
5.3.1.4
5.3.1.5

5.4

Shelby Tube Sampler .

Stationary Piston Samnler
Hydraulic Piston Sampler
Double Tube Core Barrel
Hand Trimmed Samples

DISTURBED SAMPLES

..

5-15
5-15

5.4.1 Sampling Equipment and Methods.

5.4.1.1
5.4.1.2
5.4.1.3
5.4.1.4
5.5

Split Barrel Sampler .

Converse Sampler .
Retractable Plug Sampler
Bulk Samples

..

SAMPLING OPERATIONS
5.5.1 Undisturbed
5.5.2 Disturbed

5.6

PREVENTING LOSS OF SAMPLES

5.7

SAMPLE SIZES

5-20
5-22
5-23
5-23
5-28

'

5-28,
5-28
5-29
5-30
5..,31

PRESERVATION AND SHIPMENT OF SAMPLES.

.. ..

5-31

5.8.1.1 Marking of Samples.

5.8.1.2 Packing and Shipment

5-33
5-33

5.8.2 Disturbed . . . . . . "

5-34

5.8.1 Undisturbed .

5.8.2.1 Marking of containers.

5.8.2.2 Packing and Shipment
5.9

5.7.1 Identification Tests

5.7.2 Compaction Tests
5.7. 3 Other Tes ts . . .
5.8

5 .. 15
5-16
5-17
5-17
5-18

5.6.1 Undisturbed
5.6.2 Disturbed

5-8
5-9
5-11
5-12
5-14

5-35
5-35

IN SITU TESTS . . . . . . .

5-35

5.9.1
5.9.2
5.9.3
5.9.4

5-36
5-37
5-39
5-41

Standrad Penetration Test (SPT)

Cone Penetrometer Tests
Menard Pressuremeter
Vane Shear Test . . .

Page No.
5.10 SUBMARINE SAMPLERS . .
5.10.1
5.10.2
5.10.3
5.10.4
5.10.5
6.

Petersen Dredge
Open Barrel Gravity Corer
Phleger Corer . .
Piston Gravity Corer.
Vibratory Corer

5-42
5-43
5-44
5-45
5-46

ROCK SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

6-1

6.1

BULK SAMPLING

6-1

6.1.1 Surface Bulk Samples

6.1.2 Subsurface Bulk Samples

6-1
6-2

CORE DRILLING

6-3

6.2.1 Field Coordination

6.2.2 Core Drilling Operations

6-3
6-5

6.2

6.2.2.1
6.2.2.2
6.2.2.3
6.2.2.4

Overburden Drilling
Depth Measurements
cutting of the Core
Grinding of Core

6;2.3 Core Recovery and Extraction

6.2.3.1 Core Boxes and Labelling
6.2.3.2 Transportation and Storage
6.3

6-5
6-6
6-'7
6-8
6-8
6-9
6-9

CORE DRILLING AND SAMPLING EQUIPMENT

6-10

6.3.1 Rock Drilling Bits.

6-10

6.3.1.1 Diamond Core Barrels

7.

5-42

6-11

SOIL BORING LOGS

7-1

7.1

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

7-1

7.1.1 Unified Soil Classification System

7-3

7.1.1.1 Soil Groups and Symbols. .

7-4

7.1.1.1.1 Coarse-grained Soils

7.1.1.1.2 Fine-grained Soils.

7-4
7-5

7. 2
7.3

7.1.2 Burmister Soil Identification System

7.1.3 Additional Classification Systems
7.1.4 Additional Components of Soil
Identification . . . . . . . .
7.1.5 Examples of Field Classification and
Identification

7-6
7-7

LOG HEADING DATA

THE LOG

7-11
7-13

7-7
7-9

Page No.
8.

ROCK BORING LOGS .

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

9.

8-3
8-3
8-5
8-5

8.4.1 Lithologic Classification and

Description . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2 Description of Physical Condition

8-6
8-9

Degree of Weathering
Discontinuities
Rock Hardness
..
Order of Descriptive Terms

WATER PRESSURE T,EST

REMARKS . . . . .
CORE PHOTOGRAPHY

8-9
8-9
8-13
8-13

8-14
8-14
8-14

LOGS FOR OPEN SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS

9-1

9.1' OPEN EXCAVATIONS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES.

9-2

9.2

10.

8-1

BORING DEPTH, ELEVATION, AND SIZE

PERCENT CORE RECOVERY/ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION
GRAPHIC LOG . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CLASSIFICATION AND PHYSICAL CONDITION. . . .

8.4.2.1
8.4.2.2
8.4.2.3
8.4.2.4
8.5
8.6
8.7

. . . . . . . . . .

9.1.1 Basic Required Data

9.1. 2 Graphic Sketch
9.1. 3 Descriptions

9-2
9-3
9-4

FAULT INVESTIGATION TRENCH LOGS

9-4

9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.5

9-4
9-5
9-10
9-11
9-12

Basic Required Data . .

Trench Mapping Methods
Trench Photography
Displacement Evaluation Techniques
Age Evaluation Techniques

FIELD PERMEABILITY TESTS

..

10-1

10.1 EVALUATING THE BEST TYPE OF TEST

10.2 PRE-TEST PROCEDURES . . . .
10.2.1 Drilling and Casing
10.2.2 Boring Cleaning
10.2.3 Test Section Isolation
10.3 PERMEABILITY TEST PROCEDURES
10.3.1 Equipment . . . .
10.3.2 Data to be Recorded
10.3.3 Types of Tests . .

10-2
10-6

10-7
10-9
10-11

10-15
10-15
10-16
10-17

Page No.
10.3.3.1
10.3.3.2
10.3.3.3
10.3.3.4

10-17
10-18
10-20
10-21

Rising Head Tests . . .

Constant Head Tests . .
Falling Head Tests
Pressure (Packer) Tests

10.3.3.4.1 Setup . .
10.3.3.4.2 Pressures To Be Used
In Testing . . . .
10.3.3.4.3 Length of Time for Tests
10.3.3.4.4 Calibration and Detection
of Leaks
10.3.3.4.5 Test Procedure
10.3.3.5 Well-Pumping Tests
10.4 PERCOLATION TEST PROCEDURE
10.5 INSTALLATION OF PIEZOMETERS
10.6 BACKFILLING BORINGS . .
REFERENCES
INDEX . .

..

...

10-21
10-24
10-25
10-26
10-26
10-27
10-33
10-34
10-36
R-l thru R-5
I-I thru I-5

(,

Tables

,I

4-1
4-2
4-3

Onshore Geophysics for Engineering Purposes

Offshore Geophysical Methods
Use, Capabilities, and Limitations of Exploration Methods

5-1
5-2

Common Samplers
Common Submarine Samplers

7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-7
7-8

USCS Grain Size Ranges

USCS Soil Symbols
Burmister System Terms
CWDD Color Abbreviations
CWDD Soil Moisture Terminology
CWDD Guide For Compactness of Coarse-Grained Soils
CWDD Guide for Consistency of Fine-Grained Soils
CWDD Sampling Symbols Used on Logs

8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-5
8-6

Degree of Weathering
Discontinuity Spacing
Separation of Fracture Walls
Fracture Filling
Surface Roughness
Rock Hardness

9-1
9-2

Summary of Quaternary Dating Methods

Soil Profile Description '

Figures

2-1

Site Reconnaissance Report

4-1
4-2

Test pit Sheeting

Shored Trench
Backhoe Trenching Techniques
Augers
Large Auger Types
Continuous Flight Auger
Large Helical Auger
Bucket Auger
Wash Boring
Percussion Drills
Becker Hammer Drill
Rotary Drill Equipment
Skid Mounted Rotary Drill

4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8

4-9
4-10
4-11
4-12
4-13

5-15
5-16
5-17
5-18
5-19
5-20

Typical Flight Auger Setup

Drill Setup for Drive Sampling
Clean-Out Auger
Shelby Tube Sampler
Stationary Piston Sampler
Hydraulic Piston Sampler
Retractable Plug Sampler
Dennison Sampler
pitcher Sampler
Converse Sampler
Split Barrel Sampler
Cone Penetration Test
Cone Penetrometers
Menard Pressuremeter Equipment
Vane Shear Test Arrangement
Petersen Dredge
Gravity Corer
Phleger Corer
Ewing Piston Corer
Vibratory Corer in Sampling position

6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6

Suggested Drill Site Dimensions

Sample Daily Report
Core Size Nomenclature
Nominal Sizes of Standard Coring Bits and Pipe Casing
Typical Diamond Core Barrels
Wire Line Core Barrels

7-1
7-2

Example Field Log of Boring

Unified Soil Classification System

5-1

5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-10
5-11

5-12
5-13
5-14

Figures (Cont'd)

8-1
8-2
8- 3
8-4

Rock Boring Log

Rock Symbols
Grain Size
'l'ypical Core Photograph

9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5

Example Test Pit Log

Example Dozer Trench Log
Example Test Shaft Log
Fault Investigation Trench Log
Trench Photo Log

10-1

Typical Boring Development Devices

Packer Arrangements
Test Zone Isolation Methods
Falling/Rising Head Test Data Sheet
Constant Head Test Data Sheet
Pressure Test Data Sheet
Determining Adequate Dur.<'ltion of Test
Pressure Test Setup
Average Friction Losses in Drill Rods, Pipe, and Hose
Packer Leakage Analysis
Aquifer Test Data Sheet
Estimating Rate of Flow from Pipe Discharge
Open Standpipe PiezCDmeters

10-2

10-3
10-4
10-5

10-6
10-7
10-8

10-9
10-10

10-11
10-12
10-13

(
\

APPENDICES

Appendix A.

ASTM D 653-77a. "Standard Definitions of

Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil and
Rock Mechanics"

Appendi!K B.

"O.S.H.A. Sa;Eety Requirements for Excavations,

Trenches and Shoring"

Appendix c.

ASTM D 1586-67. "Standard Method for

Penetration Test and Split Barrel Sampling
of Soils"

Appendix D.

Unified Soil Classification System

1. ASTM D 2487-69. "StanQard Test Method
for Classifica tiOll!Zfil!Soils for
Engineering. purposes"
2. ASTM D 2488 .. 69. "S'tandard Recommended
Practicefor'Descr'lption of Soill;!
(Visual-Manual proc",Qure)"

EXPLORATION GUIDF:

February 1980

INTRODUCTION

Field explorations are the basis, or foundation, of a

geotechnical study and must be performed with care, with
a thorough knowledge of the techniques and tools available,
as well as with a complete understanding of the intended
purpose of the exploration.

The contract with the client,

which provides a scope of work, should be utilized as a

basis for proceeding with the work.

Well-planned and well-

executed field explorations are needed to provide good basic

data and enhance the opportunity for an excellent end-product.

Converse Ward Davis Dixon

s~rives

for excellence in work

performed for clients and it is with this intent that this

Exploration Guide has been prepared.

Recognizing that it

would be impracticable to prepare a manual encompassing

discussions of teqhniques and equipment for all contingencies
and conditions, this Guide concentrates on providing information
for use in the most common types of explorations.

The loose

leaf notebook form has been chosen so that new information

may be added as necessary and so that the enclosed data may
be updated conveniently.

Your written suggestions regarding

data which needs revision, or data which should be added to

this Guide, should be forwarded

~hrough

your Office Manager

to Chairman, Technical Activities Committee.

1-1

Since soil and rock conditions vary in different geographical

areas, it is expected that explorations for similar types
of projects may be performed by differing methods throughout
the company.

Hence, it is not the intent that rigid standards

by established in this Guide, but that information is provided

to enhance care and diligence in planning and executing
professional services.

This Guide is provided for the use of all CWDD personnel,

but is aimed predominantly at personnel:
1)

who are new to CWDD field work, or to particular

phases of such work;

2)

who have not been to the field recently or not .

handled a particular type of exploration recently;

3)

who have been transferred from one office to another,

temporarily or permanently, and therefore have not
been exposed to the type of exploration tools and
methods used in the new area, and

4)

who are planning an investigation.

1-2

EXPLORATION PLANNING

Office preparation for field exploration falls into various

categories:

the planning by the Project Manager, based on

the size and type of project involved; the planning of the

exploration program in general; and the planning by the
fietdrepresentative fOr the actual work.

Before a

vi~it

to the site, it is necessary that the field

representative have a clear understanding of the requirements

of the project, and as much advance information on the site
conditions as possible.

2,1

SOURCES OF PROJECT INFORMATION

A certain amount of judgement is needed in evaluating how

I'lxtensivea search for information is required.

Some of the

sources listed melow may be inappropriate considering the

size of the project.

The Project Manager should set the

requirements before the search is started.

2.1.1

Prior Projects

The files should be checked for other projects performed by

CWDD on the project site or on nearby sites.

Logs and

rl'lports from previous projects can be a source of information

not only on geologic conditions, but also on local drilling

2-1

and excavating contractors, surveyors, and aerial photographers

who may have coverage of the area.

Many times inquiries to

local, State, or Federal agencies, will disclose valuable

data.

The fact that a prior report by another company is available

may not be mentioned in the early discussion of the project.
At least inquire, as such a source of information may be extremely important.

A call to a contractor active in the area

may elicit considerable information about the particular region.

If you intend to use this contractor on the project, he may wish
to meet at the site to observe accessibility and he may be able
to provide advice on appropriate equipment for the work.

(
2.1.2

Published Sources

2.1.2.1

publications of the U.S. Geological Survey.

Indices

are available of all USGS publications by state and county

listing.

Many of those listed may be out-of-print, but they

may be available or abstracted at university libraries or

the United Engineering Center.

2.1.2.2

Geologic Quadrangle Maps.

Many of these are listed

in the publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, but may

be out-of-print; however, as they are a very valuable source
of information, they should be searched out if the project
warrants the time and expense.

2-2

2.1.2.3

State Geological Survey Maps and Reports.

by state universities and colleges are valuable.

Publications
Some

states are active and have extensive coverage of large

areas.

Other states have done little work and information

is limited.

2.1.2.4

Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Reports.

These

reports are pUblishe1 on a county or township format and

deal with only the shallow surficial soils; however, they
indicate the drainage characteristics of the soil., and
provide an agricultvral soil desoription of the surficial
soils that may be translated into the Unified Soil. Classification
System.

2.1.3

AdditionalMapping

Other :(orm$

of top 0 9raphic mapping may be available for the

site, from the county, the client or from other sources.

'rhese maps may be at 'a more detailed scale than quadrangle
maps and their availability should be ascertained.

2.1.4

Aerial Photography

photography companies or the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture may be

contacted for sources of stereo coverage of the site, if such
photos are not available in-house.

If more than one source of

photographs is available, or more than one series, the Project

Manager may consider acquiring both the most recent and the

oldest available to evaluate changes, such as conditions

existing prior to placement of fill, etc.
1"

A photo scale of

= 1000 ft. or larger is most useful in both field

reconnaissance and in photo interpretation.

Obtain coverage

of the area surrounding the site, overlapping by from 50% to

100% where possible.

2.2

PRELIMINARY SITE RECONNAISSANCE

At the earliest stages of any project, i t is often necessary.

or desirable for a brief preliminary reconnaissance of .the
site to be performed as an aid in planning the field operations
and in developing a budget for the project.

The preliminary

visit provides an overview of surficial conditions that may

affect the progress of the exploration .

The preliminary reconnaissance deals mainly with problems to

be expected in the exploration phase of the project, and, to
a lesser degree, an evaluation of geological and geotechnical
conditions to be found at the site.

A field report of the

reconnaissance should be submitted.

The Site Reconnaissance

Report form, Fig. 2-1, when properly completed, would ordinarily

serve the purpose of a field report.

Each site and project

has its own peculiarities, however, and the field report

should cover the important aspects regardles~ of whether or
not there is a space to be filled in on a form such as Fig.
2-].

The following paragraphs represent a guide as to what

2-4

to look for, and to what should be included, if applicable,

in a complete field report.

2.2.1

Right of Entry Documentation

There must be a clear understanding of who actually owns the

property, and that perrniss!on has been given for access onto
the grounds.

If nothing else, a letter from the Client or

owner to CWDD authorizing entry shC)tt'l.d be obta!ned and carried.

In addition the client or owner ahould be requested to give
advanced notice to tenants.on the property.

2.2.2

Site Access

For a large rural site, travel around the perimeter on

public rQllds allows evaluation of all possible means of
access to the property.

The following questions may help

the C\ccess evaluat.ion.

1)

Is access by paved or unpaved roads?

Of what

width?
2)

Are the drives fenced off, and are the gates

locked?

If so, who hC\s the key?

How wide is the

gate?
3)

Are the drives all-weather roC\ds, or will storms

cause problems in use?

2-5

4)

If there are no drives into the site, is area

isolated by ditches, or fences?
crossed?

Can they be

By what type of equipment?

A sketch of suitable access paths will assist the next

person to visit the site.

2.2.3

Site Mobility

The use of topographic maps or airphotos may assist the

evaluation of:

1)

Areas that are readily accessible by most equipment.

2)

streams or ditches that isolate portions of the

site.

Areas that are too steep, or too heavily

wooded, to permi.t access with truck-mounted equipment.

3)

Areas that are swampy, poorly drained, or subject

to flooding.

4)

Fences, including internal ones, that limit access.

5)

Areas containing livestock.

6)

Areas with crops that may be damaged.

7)

Utilities, overhead or underground, that may

affect mobility and/or progress on the site.

The following questions should be answered during a preliminary

site reconnaissance.

2-6

I}

If underground utilities are present, to whom

do they belong and who should be contacted for
field locations?

2)

If overhead utilities are present, is there

clearance at planned boring locations?

3}

What appear to be the easiest methods of overcoming

access problems?

A diagram of the site, noting abrupt changes in elevation

and areas inaccessible (or with difficult access) to some,
if not all, equipment should be made.

2.2.4

SupportOperatiOriS

,
r

smoother field operations will be possible with the answers

to the following questions.
I}

What are the sources of drilling water?

2)

Will water have to be trucked, or can hoses or pipe

reach a nearby water source?

3}

Can boring locations be established by topographic

features or by detail shown on airphotos?

4}

Can equipment be safely left on the site overnight,

or will vandalism or theft be a risk?

5}

What permits are likely to be needed for borings?

6}

Will normal exploration procedures create a fire

hazard?

I
\

2-7

It should be reported to all concerned if the client has

special requirements on operations and cleanup, or has
restrictions on types of equipment allowed on the site.

2,2.5

Geotechnical Conditions

The level of knowledge about geotechnical condi t.ions at the

site prior to a visit may be solely a function of the extent
of information that could be attained from the published
data and the client.

As part of the preliminary reconnaissance,

SOme cursory mapping of the observed conditions should be

made as time will permit.

A brief written report should be

prepared of the apparent surficial and shallow subsurface

conditions.

General view photographs should be taken, along

with photos of rock outcrops, on-site structures, and soil and

rock exposures in road cuts or erosion channels, either on
the site or nearby.

(Paragraph 3.5 provides information on

areas of concern in later supplemental reconnaissance.)

2.2.6

Previous Construction

Observations should be made as to whether or not there is

any evidence of existing or previous construction at the
site; and/or if there is evidence of fill.
be made to show important features.

2-8

A sketch should

"

2.3

2.3.1

EXPLORATION PROGRAM

Selection of Exploration Methods

In planning the exploration for the project, a great many

factors should be considered in developing an appropriate
program.

The primary considerations are the requirements of the

project, the client's level of commitment to the project,

and the level of knowledge appropriate at the particular
stage of development.

The level of technical ability of the

available subcontractors and the relative ease of access

onto the property may cause the "ideal" program to be modified.

For example, planning an expioration program for a client

who has an option on some property which he is considering
as a shopping center may produce the following considerations:
The client's main concern may be with traffic patterns and
demographic studies being carried out by another consultant,
and the geotechnical investigation may be merely for the
purpose of avoiding gross problems with soil conditions or
of meeting local requirements if he decides to go ahead with
development at some future date.

He may be understandably

upset if faced with an extensive study that promises detailed

answers to unposed questions.

2-9

On the other hand, an exploration program of widely scattered,

shallow borings may be questioned by a client nearing the
final stages of planning for a power plant.

The difficulty

of gaining access with proper equipment to conduct an

extensive program may not be an acceptable reason for a
limited program.

2.3.2

Selection of Contractor

Before finally developing an exploration program, it is

appropriate to hold at least preliminary discussions with
one or more potential contractors.

The scope of the program

may be beyond the capabilities of the local firms, and thus

contractors may have to be brought in from outside the area,
and/or additional specialized equipment may have to be
purchased in order to perform the work.

Local practices

or procedures may cause modifications of the proposed

investigation, or may lead to misunderstandings in the
field, if not discussed initially.

The level of formality of selection is dependent on the

requirements of the client and the relative size of the
project.

The selection process can consist of an informal

negotiation or bidding by one or more contractors, or a

formal submission of bids by those qualified to perform the
work, complete with full project specifications on performance
and/or procedures.

2-10

The contract for contractor services has many forms and

may depend on the type and magnitude of the work to be

performed.

A written agreement or contract should form the

basis for any services to be performed.

Each Managing Officer

has a form outlining general requirements for contractors

and stating the required insurance limits for compliance with
CWDD's insurance carriers recommendations.

In most cases

such forms should be signed and certificates of insurance

should be furnished by the contractor prior to performing
work for CWDD.

2.3.3

Permits and Clearances

The various permits and clearances needed will vary from

project to project and from area to area.

Listed below are

some of those that may be needed, and who is apt to be

responsible.
1)

Permission from owner and/or tenant.

Client

should supply.
2)

Clearance from utilities.

Either CWDD or the

contractor should be assigned the responsibility

for notifying all utilities, even if they are in
the general area but not believed to cross the site.
(In some areas, the local utility companies have a
joint service for checking on underground services.
In New Jersey, for example, someone at the phone

number 800-272-1000 will alert all companies who

are members of the service of the proposed work)

2-11

3)

Local Municipal Licenses.

Contractors should

know if this is needed, and be responsible.

4)

Hydrant Opening.

Contractor's responsibility.

5)

Insurance Requirements.

Many clients have specific

requirements that may be in excess of CWDD

requirements of contractors.

A certificate of

insurance should be requested and obtained in

the amount required by CWDD and the client and,
when necessary, a copy should be provided to the
client prior to start of field work.
6)

Special Permits.

Frequently needed for work in

existing power plants, refineries, or other ongoing

operations.

2.3.4

Materials and Equipment

rhe following checklists contain some of the more common

equipment which may be needed to successfully perform
explorations.

Each project is different and has its own

special requirements.

Depending on the conditions and the

equipment or test being conducted, some or all of the

following materials and equipment may be needed, with
modifications as appropriate for special conditions.

The

field representative should plan the equipment needs with

knowledge of the project requirements using the following
checklists as a guide only.

2-12

2.3.4.1

Fault Investigation Trenches.

Equipment

Materials
(per trench)

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.
8.

9.
10 ..
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

200'-400' heavy nylon string

25-50, 6" long nails or spikes
2-3 rolls flagging
2-3 marking pens
4-5 DayGlo aerosol paint cans
(survey marking paint preferred)
2 or more 2"x12"xlO' wood planks
1 roll 36"-wide fade-out blue
g:dd mylar
2, 2'x3' masonite mapping boards
2-3 wire reinforcing mats with
6" squares, cut to 4' x6' si z:e
pencils, erasers, pens
rags
dilute HCL
masking tape
sample bags
trench photo log forms
graph paper

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.

10.
11.
12.
13 .
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

2-13

hard hat
carpenter's rule, wood
6-foot
plumb bob
200' fiberglass tape
10' steel tape
whisk broom
small trowel
hand level
extending ladder
(aluminum)
mapping vest (optional)
clip boards
hand lens (15x)
transit Brunton, w/case
geologic pick
broad-bladed pick
shovel (folding)
wire cutters
gloves
string bubble level
Philadelphia rod
hydraulic shores with
pump, release tool, and
extra fluid.
scales/protractor

2.3.4.2

Diamond Core Logging.

Equipment

Materials

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9,
10.
11,
~2.

log forms
Daily Reports (drilling and
contract items)
notebooks
pencils, erasers, etc.
keel
rags
paraffin
dilute HCL
core boxes (if not contract item)
sample tubes
sample jars
permeability test data sheets

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

B.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

2.3.4.3

Soils Sampling & Logging.

Equipment

Materials

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

tape, steel, 10-foot

carpenter's rule, wood
6-foot
transit, Brunton, w/
case
flashlight
screwdriver
pliers
geologic pick
hand level
scale/protractor
hand lens (15x)
steel dies, 1 set each
of alphabet and numbers
hard hat
bucket
shovel
stove
handscreens and sieves

site plan
soil boring logs
graph paper
Daily Reports (drilling and
contract items)
pencils and marking pens
(permanent type)
erasers
sa11lple tubes
paraffin
plastic bags and tags
water

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

2-14

samplers w/proper
adaptors to driller's
equipment
extra sampler cutting shoes
CWDD sampler ring ejector
& push handle
rings or liners
ring containers & shipping
boxes
ring bags
gum labels
trim knife
wire brush (clean sampler
threads)
WD-40 or equivalent
2 pipe wrenches (for sampler
breakdown)
bucket and scrub brush
(wash sampler),
pick and shovel
stove
clean-out auger
penetrometer (pocket)
hand level

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
2.3.4.4

Soil Exploration Test pit.

Materials

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Equipment

site plan
test pit logs
graph paper
Daily Report forms
pencils, eraser, permanent
ink marking pen
plastic sample bags,
sample jars
sample tags

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

2.3.4.5

4.

5.

hard hat
hand level
tape, steel, 10-foot
100-ft. tape
scale
pick and shovel
small trowel and/or knife
clip board
penetrometer (pocket)
optional - tape recorder
optional - camera and film
hydraulic shores with pump,
release tool, extra fluid
torvane (pocket)

Permeability Testing.

~quipment

Materials
1.
2.
3.

100-foot measuring chain

or tape
hard hat
scales
clip board
wire saw
optional - camera, film,
site photos
torvane (pocket)
tape, steel, 10-foot

Daily Reports
1.
pencils
graph paper (arithmetic and
semi-log)
2.
boring sealing materials:
cement and bentonite (l,z"diameter commercial compressed
bentonite pellets should be
3.
available in most areas) if
not contract item
pea gravel if not contract
item

2-15

small folding rules or

tapes for taking near
surface measurements
200-foot cloth tape with
float and or weight or
"popper" (l-inch concaveupward metal disk)
watch with a sweep second
hand or digital second
readout

6.
7.
8.

sand
filter cloth or burlap
permeability test data
sheets

4.

5.
6.
7.

8.

2-16

two 350-foot electrical

well-sounders
tamping rod
tremie pipe
small-diameter PVC, reusable
pipes for taking water level
measurements or injecting
water during constant head
tests
bailer or surge block.
If
no bailer, alternate water
removal device (air-lift,
small submersible pump)

CONVERSE WARD DAVIS DIXON

SITE RECONNAISSANCE REPOR1'
PART I - PROJECT DATA
Date:

JQb Name :_~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _l?roject No. _ _ _ __

Recan By: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Project Mgr: ____________
Address or adjoining houses

-----------------------(no)):
-------------

Directions to site (Map attached (yes)

P~anned

Exploratory Program (Site, plan, layout attached

(yes) (no)) : ________________--------------------------___

PART 11- PRELIMINARY RECONNAISSANCE

(To be completed on site)
I.

TO):'OGRAPHY (plains, rolling hills, mountains,

relief} _________________________________________

Site Relief (slopes) ______________________

II.

III.

VEGETATION (weeded - light, med, heavy, forested - density

and size of trees, plowed, planted, brush, open-field)

EXPOSED SOILS (sand, clay, gravel, glacial, fluvial

(stream), marine (beach), residual) _________________

Fig. 2-1

IV.

V.
VI.

ESTIMATED DEPTH TO ROCK & BASIS OF ESTlMATE _____________

TOPSOIL

(thickn~ss)

_____________________________________

ROCK OUTCROPS (number and location)

ROCK ID (shale, sandstone, limestone, granite, trap) ____

ROCK STRUCTURES (bedding, fOlds, faults, joints, massive,

dips, strikes) ______________________________ __________
~

V);I.

VIII.

WATER (streams, ponds, lakes, swamps, seepage, springs)

(drainage, direction", system, size, flooding) _ _ _ _ __

PRESENT LAND USE (farm, light industrial, residential,

dUmps, :enls)

IX.

EXISTING STRUCTURES (buildings, foundations, size, type,

condi tion, cracks) ______________________________

X.

SLOPES & EMBANKMENTS (excavations or cuts, depth, size,

exposed soils or rock, slopes stability) ____________

Xl.

UTILITIES (gas, electric, telephone, sewers, water) _____

Fia. 2-1 (con '

XII.

LOCAL ROADWAYS (type, lanes, U.S., State, County,

concrete, asphalt, dirt, condition) _______________________

XIII.

EXPLORATION EQUIPMENT ACCESS (roads, gates, drilling

unit recommended - truck, skid, ATV, portable equipment)

(utilities - overhead, underground) _______________________

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

WATER SOURCES (available on-site (yes) (no), location,

type) ___________________________________________________

IS SURVEYOR NEEDED (reference points)

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT (bulldozer, floating equipment, flagman,

axes, power saws, water pump (lift), extra hose, transit)

PH.OTOGRAPHS (locations, special features) ________________

OTHER OBSERVATIONS (any information important to the

project that is not listed above) _______________________

USE BACK OF SHEETS FOR SKETCH AND ANY ADDITIONAL NOTES.

Fig. 2-1 (cont'd)

SECTION 3 '

3.1

FIELD OPERATIONS

CONTACTS

Field representatives playa key role in Qreating the image

of CWDD.

In many cases the field representative has more

contact with the client, Qontraqtor, and general public than

anyone else in the firm.
CWDD staff cpnduct

It is, therefore, important that

t~emselves

in an exemplary manner, being

courteous, knowledgeable, and sensitive t9 the client's need

for information and for confidentiality of an investigation.

3.1.1

c~ient

Contact

In dealing with the client there should be open communication

regarding work in progress.

pie1d representatives should be

cautious to avoid making interpretations of partial data

which might mislead the Qlient.

Interpretations often

require knowledge of many pieces of information including

geologic mapping, boring data, laborat'ory data, etc., and,
therefore, questions requiring interpretations should be
directed to the Project Manager, as

3-1

~hould

most other questions.

A description of the client is well-stated by the following:

1)

He is the mos't important person in our business.

2)

He is not dependent on me--I depend on him.

3)

He is not an interruption--He is the purpose

of my work.

4)

He does me a favor when he calls--I am not doing

him a favor when I serve him.

5)

He is a part of my business--He is not an outsider.

6)

He is not a statistic--He is flesh and blood, with

feelings and emotions as I have.

7)

He is an individual--He is not a face with a number.

8)

He is not someone to argue; or match wits, with.

9)

He is a person who brings me his wants--It's my job

to fill those wants.

10)

He is the life-blood of my buSiness.

11)

He is the person who buys my service, pays the

salaries, and goes to the polls and votes.

12)

Therefore:

The CLIENT deserves the most courteous

and attentive treatment I can give him!

3.1.2

project Manager Contact

For most jobs it is important that the Project Manager be

aware of daily field activities.

Each project Manager will

establish a schedule for the field representative to contact

the office.

Daily Reports dealing with the progress, the

3-2

costs, and the contractor's activities should be sent

periodically to the office.

Telephonic reports of progress

may also be required, the frequency of which may be

controlled by the remoteness of the project area and the
available communication facilities.

A telephonic report

does not absolve the field representative of the responsibility

of cpmpl~ting acyur~te DailyRepo~ts nor of transmitting
them to the office as required.

The project Manager will define the limits within which the
field representatives can chose alternatives regarding
sampling, boring locations, added borings, etc.

As the field work proceeds, conditions may be found that

differ from those anticipayed in developing the e~ploration
program.

Changes in the procedures should not be made by

the field representative witho~t discussion with, and approval

by, the project Manager, regardless of the pressures applied
by the Contractor, Client, or others in the field.

3.1.3

Contractor Contact

As a representative of the contractor, the job Of the drill

operator is to advance the boring.

The job of the field

representative is to establish the order of sampling, to

evaluate the adequacy of the samples for the purpose,

3-3

to monitor the drilling and sampling procedures, and to

provide a complete record of each boring.

It is important

that an adversary relationship between the drill operator

and the field representative not be allowed to develop.
There is, however, opportunity for conflict and misunderstanding.

The driller ultimately wants to do the boring as

fast, and with as little effort, as possible while the

field representative has to maintain certain standards of
operations that usually conflict with the driller's progress.
Further, the field representative has to constantly check
the work being performed.

If done officiously or obtrusively,

res~nted

the necessary checking can be

by the driller,

perhaps not even consciously, and can affect the work being
done.

Time should be takent6~expla:l.nyour actions and the

need for your checkingl ,the 'dommunications should go two ways.

3.1.4' General Public Contact

Public curiosity is invariably provoked by the arrival of

drill rigs, excavating equipment, or even just strangers
reconnoitering in a populated area.

Many projects on which

CWDD consults are confidential as to their exact nature and

it is important that the client's confidentiality is not
violated by CWDD personnel.

There are also many sensitive

projects on which premature release of data could have

adverse effects and/or could cost the client immeasurably in
terms of time and money.

In all dealings with the public,

it is of utmost importance that CWDD personnel remain

3-4

courteous, even when a member of the public becomes

(

antagonistic.

The field representatives should avoid

discussing any project with. the public.

In particular,

results of investigations, such as boring data or trench

mapping should not be discussed.

When questions regarding

any part of a project which is not public knowledge are

asked, it is proper to refer the questioner to the Project
Manager.

It is generally proper to refer all questions to

the Project Manager, thus negating the possibility of

inadvertently revealing information which

mi~ht

be taken

out of context and used adversely.

3.2

SAFETY

carelessness of any kind, whether it endangers the person

performing the act or others, should be firmly discouraged.
Field exploration has inherent hazards of which each field
representative should be aware.

When exploration work, such

as drilling or pit excavation, is in progress, the contractor

is responsible for.safety practices.

Unsafe equipment or

practices furnished or performed under contract to CWDD

should be reported to the contractor or his agents.

The

unsafe condition should also be reported to the Project

Manager concurrent with the notification to the contractor.
A notation of the reports to the contractor and the Project
Manager should be included in the Daily Report.

To not

report unsafe Gonditions may incur liability for a contractor's

safety practices.

3-5

The safety practices used ip excavations may be a function

of the local codes, the OSHA regulations, and the contractor's
insurance more than they are a function of the soil or rock
conditions encountered.
fully aware of the

The field representative should be

requirem~nts

for shoring and/or bracing

in a narrow excavation.

Hazards of working around drill rigs are similar to those

encountered when working around most other types of machinery,
including hazards presented by moving parts and falling
objects.

The operators of the equipI1)i;)~'l:; ire aocustomed to

operating and handling the equipme,ntinvolved,apd are

toge#W~;t' as"~',t.~~~.

acoustomed to working

It is CWDD policy

that a field representatiV'~.d.~'prohi.~ited from "assisting"

the crew by handling-rods
.-

,{tJll.:>,,~~iji;~ea~
- - -'--~,

., -- -::,

--'

equipment, or other

-, ,

work tlla,\:may only 1l1?S<;1t thf,'!":normal routine.

C"U$e
.

Assistance may

serious injury not:.~\)nly t.o the field representative,

.

but also to members of the contractor's crew.

Neither CWDD's

nor the contractor's insurance will cover this condition and

thus the field representative may be found personally
r<;1sponsible.

Small tools of various types are used by the

crew and the hazards connected therewith are present.

Hard

hats are mandatory and th<;1 use of gloves and other protective
apparel is encouraged.

3-6

Vlorking on a barge or over water presents special hazards.

Life jackets should be worn at all times.

Equipment being used should have necessary safety devices

(covers over accessible belt or chain drives, safety chains
on high pressure water or air lines, etc.).

Each field

representative should know how to disengage or stop equipment

being used on the job in case of emergency.

Other types of moving equipment such as dozers and backhoes

present different types of hazards to field representatives.
If logging or sampling is being done during

e~cavation,

particular care should be taken to remain clear of the

operating equipment and to tell the operator where other
personnel will be located.
severe hazard.

Deep backhoe trenches present a

No one should enter deep 'trenches for

mapping, sampling, or testing without the trenches being

adequately shored, braced, or sloped.

Explorations not involving equipment also have safety

hazards.

Adequate clothing and boots should be worn for the

climatic conditions at the site of the work.

Safety equipment

such as glasses, snake-bit kits, survival kits, etc. should

be available where such equipment might be needed and the
personnel involved should be knowledgeable about their use.

3-7

Field explorations often extend over periods when the

contractor and the field representative will not be at the
site.

Precautions must' be

ta~en

to protect the general

public against holes left open temporarily, unattended

operating machinery, unmarked projecting pipes, etc., at any
time personnel leave the exploration site.

Furthermore, at

the conclusion of the exploration, the site should be left

in a safe condition, making certain all exploration openings
are properly covered and/or baQkfilled, and no Objects or
debris are left to trip over or otherwisep<:>f&h'tially injure
persons visiting the site at
borings is further discussed inp~.~gr<lilil!i'l 10.5.
_

'-_0

I f the field representativ~ isgilling>ailone

to a job site,
,.-.,-

and particularly i f to/a remotJ;i;;rit~,it is essential that

the itirterarY be knowrl]::Jy s;;'iile responsible l?erson.

specific time should beset fOr a cont&ct, either perlOonal

or telephoniC, following the visit.

(This is for the field

representative's protection and safety in the event of '

injury or other reason necessitating

3.3

help~)

CONTRACTOR'S EQUIPMENT

When working with a contractor performing exploration, the

field representative has the task of providing field
administration of the contract.

3-8

Therefore, the field

representative must be familiar with terms of the contract

and must keep records of pay and other pertinent items.

The

project Manager will furnish forms and instructions for this

record-keeping function.

When the contractor's equipment arrives at the site, a

cursory examination should be made to evaluate the
capabilities of the equipment.
1)

Is it the type required? (truck-mounted or

conventional wheeled, etc.)

2)

Will it be mobile on thiScl!!:ilite? (t.oo heavy, mast

too t.all, etc.)

3)

Can it do the work effioiently? (bits too worn,

bits of the right type)

If there are any deficiencies, discuss how quickly they can

be rectified and how they will affect the work.

Serious

deficiencies should be resolved prior to the start of any

explorat.ion work.

The field representative should discuss in detail with the

operator the planned work, and learn if he is prepared with:
the proper connections for the different samplers to be
used; proper materials to be used, such as drilling additives;
pressure test equipment; . and a proper hammer for the SPT
test, if appropriate.

3-9

The drilling equipment and samplers are discussed in later

sections of this Guide and references are given for even
greater detail.

The field representative should be fully

aware of the equipment to be used, both its proper use and

its limitations.

3.4

DOCUMENTATION

A written daily report Or reports must be

prepar~d.
-<-"~

Each

report should be limited to factual informst:f!';ii&n, and should

,_.{_?

':;_~;:?i)'---~

never contain personal feelings or,Q~';ij;j)fkons .'otl\;i.s record

should report on the day' s

progr~~'~:';~~4,':,in

add1t.ion contain

the following, as applicabl~i"

1)

headings to conta,:i.n <J~b'nu~~r , client, day and

date, weather and?t61lllpebl;ii:ure ranges, report
nUlllbet;

'2)

the, field representative's time of arrival and

departure;

3)

contractor's start and finish time; verify overtime

hours for the drillers in field. (get signature in
field, if possible);

4)

contractor personnel and equipment inventorY (to

document time and material contracts);

5)

interruptions in work, listed by item, time of

shutdown and restart, and detailed information on
cause;

6)

accidents - full details (call office and so

inform) ;

3-10

7)

visitors - name of company, name of person, time

of arrival and departure, purpose of visit;

8)

report salient details of conversations;

9)

report in detail all suggestions or instructions

given to contractor that affect or alter normal or
previously followed procedures.

A written copy of

any such instructions should be given to the

contractor (attach copy to field report);
10)

report program alterations directed by the Project

Manager;

11)

discuss in detail any problems that develop, and

method(s) used to resolve;

12)

report in detail anything out of the ordinary; and

13)

prepare sketches shqwing salient details of

. operations.

Reports should be prepared in dark pencil to facilitate

reproduction.

3.5

SUPPLEMENTAL RECONNAISSANCE

On some projects, the field representative is the only

member of CWDD to visit the site.

Thus the extent and

accuracy of field observations will have an extensive effect

on the quality of the report that is finally prepared and
submitted to the client.

3-11

When a preliminary reconnaissance has been made, it can

provide a starting point for a reconnaissance performed
as part of the exploration.

The field representative

should be familiar with the earlier work and should expand

and/or amend the previous data.

The Project Manager should

brief the field representative on the extent of data needed,

including additional areas of interest not covered in the
Site Reconnaissance Report form (Fig. 2-1) (cost factors,
local design practice, special problems, etc.).

Often the field representative can find till\e;during the

field operations to perform a moreccl!!lpiete fie:;U;1
reconnaissance; as the rigs are
during breakdowns, etc.
__ .

DUring such:J;;ime the representative

-.'---.

.-:-- c_

_-_->',

may conduct a more :"C9ml?leterecoritlais!f~tlce of the site

without the pressure of alsb
-

lllort:it6iing

the field operations.

--.-,

Re. can map 'Surface conditions', take photographs, make

informed guesses as,\to the subsurface conditions existing
between borings or pits, and search for off-site information.
(If therenas not been sufficient time during the field
operations, then .the representative should remain on the
site until the needed data have been recorded.)

The extent of the reconnaissance should be defined by the

Project Manager prior to the start of field operations.

If

project confidentiality has been imposed by the client, no

contact with outside parties may be permissible, thus severely
limiting the sources of data.

3-12

The sources of outside data

discussed below assume no limitations due to project

confidentiality.

3.5.1

Studies in Urban Areas

If the site being studied has been cleared, try to learn the
size, extent, and use of the previous structure(s).

The

client may have provided the data, even if there are good
records available, check further.

If good records are not

available, or if the information is vague, i.e. "a couple

factories got torn down years ago," then the field
representative should obtain additional information.

There

may have been even earlier structures on the site that

predate the reported conditipns.

City tax records and/or

drawings filed with the Tax Assessors office or the City

Engineer, mayor may not be available.

The local library or

historical society may have photographs or old tax maps.

cautious approach to local residents or neighboring businesses

may give some general information, but a contact should not
be made without the approval of the Project Manager.

Each

possible source will probably yield other sources to try.

This approach is useful, whether done during preliminary
reconnaissance, on arrival at the site to start exploration,
during field operations when time allows, or after completion
of the actual exploration.

3-13

If there are structures still on the site, carefully map the

(

locations and relative elevations of lowest slabs, or check

the accuracy of mapping that has been provided.
of walls or slabs that can be found.

Map remains

Contact local utility

companies regarding services leading into the property.

Old

service leading to the property but not presently used may

indicate even older structures than presently shown.

Report

age and condition of pavements, on the site and nearby.

Examine the conditions of all structures on.the property and

<

adjacent to the site and estimate tl),~~~,,;a:g~. '~l::!port on

p:J~~~;:.S;imple

sketches of

Estimateloadirtgon slabs.

Inquire as

cracking of slabs and walls and

any crack pattern.

to the nature of the foundations .fortile structures, and any

problems that have been experienceci';This is especially
importartt;fo:t:' allY struqturethat immediately abuts the
proposed construction. "'6btain elevations of lowest slabs,
and,if possible, foundation drawings.

Contact the water company to learn when water and sewer

service were provided into the site.

If the service post-

dates the indicated age of the structures on site, then

there may be wells and/or cesspools on the property.

Prepare a written description of:

surface conditions on

site, slopes, areas of fill, existing structures, surrounding

boundaries, using the form of a general description.

3-14

,I

3.5.2

Studies in Undeveloped Areas

It may be necessary during the exploration phase of the

project to prepare surface geology maps of the site and
closely surrounding areas.

The map should include areas of

fill, outcrops, and areas that appear to be subject to

flooding.

Spring emergences, intermittent streams, steep

slopes, sinkholes, landslides and apparent unstable slopes,

alluvial fans, and any other geologic conditions that can be
observed or inferred should be reported.

As the exploration proceeds, simple cross-seotions should

be prepared, incorporating surface observations.

It may

become apparent that additional borings may be needed to

clarify apparent discrepancies and anomalies.

Information

from road cuts or erosion channels should be incorporated,

where possible, in the cross-sections.

Prepare a description of topographic and surface conditions,

reporting on areas under cultivation, woods, and swamps.
Characterize the topography:

hilly, flat, rolling?

on the extent and effectiveness of drainage.

Report

Describe and

map prominent features, existing structures and ruins,

roads, rivers and streams, and rock outcrops.

3-15

Photographs are inexpensive and are an effective tool to

assist others in visualizing the site and conditions.
Photograph anything that may be pertinent.

Identify the

photograph and define the purpose of each shot.

Have photos

processed as soon as possible, including partial rolls.

photo still in the camera is useless.

3-16

SECTION 4

EXPLORATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

Methods and equipment commonly used in exploration for

engineering purposes vary with location.

A company operat-

ing in a variety of geographical areas relies on experienced,

flexible personnel that are familiar with equipment capabilities and limitations of all operating areas, as well as
various field methods.

Knowledge of field techniques will

greatly increase the quality of information gathered and

minimize outside contract costs.

Basically, exploration for engineering purposes can be

divided into two categories:

indirect and direct methods.

Indirect methods includegeop,hysical surveys and mechanical

probing or sounding.

The common direct methods include near-

surface exploration by test pits, dozer cuts, and backhoe

trenches, and deeper exploration by drilling.

The reliability

of the subsurfac.e information obtained from these methods

various as do the costs.

Consequently, the method or com-

bination of methods selected is based on which will result

in the most accurate portrayal of the subsurface conditions
with the least cost to the client.

In addition to the two main categories of subsurface exploration, the procedures can be subdivided into onshore and
offshore operations.

4-1

4.1

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

4.1.1

Onshore Geophysical Methods

Onshore geophysical methods commonly used for geologic or

engineering purposes are seismic, electrical, magnetic, and
gravity.

Table 4-1, Onshore Geophysics For Engineering

Purposes, summarizes the four methods and their applications.

4.1.2

Offshore Geophysical Methods

The primary offshore geophysical exploration methods consist

of depth recorders, sub-bottom seismic reflection profilers,
and side scan sonar.

There is a great variety of seismic

reflection equipment, each suited for specific bottom conditions, water depths, and exploration requirements.

Table

4-2, Offshore Geophysical Methods, lists some of the common

equipment used:

their purposes, characteristics, and capabi-

lities.

4.2

HECHANICAL PROBING AND SOUNDING

Table 4-3 summarizes the general use, capabilities and limitations

of mechanical probing and sounding.

Soil sounding or probing

consists of forcing a rod, a rod encased in a sleeve pipe,

or a wire and resistor body into the soil and observing the

4-2

penetration or withdrawal resistance.

Variations in the

resistance indicate dissimilar soil layers, and the numerical

values of the resistance permit an estimate of some of the
physical properties of the stratum.

Soil sounding can,

therefore, be considered as a method of both exploration and

field testing.

Similar estimations may be obtained by

observation of the penetration resistance of a sampler which

is driven (Section 5).

Soundings are generally considerably faster and less expensive

than borings.

In case of erratic soil conditions, it may be

advantageous to replace a number, but not all,of the borings

with a greater number of soundings an.d thereby obtain more
complete data on variations in the soil profile.

Sounding profiles give indications of the in situ consistency

of cohesive soils and of the compactness of cohesionless
soils.

Consistency and/or compactness information is very

valuable when undisturbed samples are difficult and/or

expensive to obtain, as in saturated cohesionless soils.

In general, both small and large areas can be explored

rapidly and economically by soil sounding methods, especially
when the depth of exploration is moderate and the soils
penetrated are soft or loose.

Soundings furnish data which

supplement data obtained from borings.

4-3

However, soundings

alone cannot provide sufficient data for the final design,

especially of important or unusual foundation and earth
structures; nor when consolidation, seepage, earth pressures,
or groundwater pressures must be taken into consideration.

The oldest and simplest form of soil sounding consists of

pushing or driving a rod into the ground by repeated blows
of a drop hammer.

Driving rods, as well as water jet probing,

must be used with prudence.

Erroneous results can be obtained

when probes meet resistance or refusal on cobbles, boulders,

or hard soil layers.

Soundings can be made by jet probing the subsurface soils

with water and a chopping bit.

The advantage of jet probing is

that it is a relatively inexpensive,and quick method of

obtaining limited information on subsurface conditions.

(A

portable gas-powered water pump can usually be rented near the

job site.)

The major disadvantage is a depth limitation of

about 20 feet.
explorations.

Jet probing is ,rarely used in foundation

For more information on probing, refer to

Ref. 1.

4.3

OPEN SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

Near-surface explorations are accessible test pits, test

trenches, shafts, adits, and drifts large enough to permit
entrance of a man for inspection and sampling of subsurface

4-4

materials in situ.

Table 4-3 summarizes the general use,

capabilities and limitations of open subsurface explorations.

The minimum dimensions are usually determined by the space
required for efficient work rather than by accessibility.

Of all methods, open subsurface explorations provide the

most reliable and detailed information on soil and rock
conditions along a specific vertical, inclined, or horizontal
line.

They make it possible to examine, sample, and perform

field tests on the material in situ.

Furthetaltc,re, the ve,ry

act of advancing such an exploratiol).gives valuable information on the difficulties to be encountered in, and the
probable costs of, excavation for'the proposed structure.

In open s,ubsurface explorations Clne can obtain larger and

usually less disturbed samples than in borings of relatively
small diameter, but certain causes of disturbance should be
recognized and proper measures taken to ascertain and
reduce their influence on the condition of the samples
obtained.

stress changes in the soil below the bottom of an

ordinary boring can be reduced by filling the opening with

water or drilling fluid, but open subsurface explorations
must be kept dry.

There is, therefore, greater danger that

a slow plastic flow and consequent disturbance of the soil

may occur in the vicinity of the bottom of a deep test pit,
of the bottom of a drilled shaft, or at the face of an adit.

4-5

4.3.1

Hand-Excavated Test pits and Shafts

Often test pits are excavated using hand methods.

Deeper

shafts may also be excavated by hand, using air hammers when

rock is encountered.

Square or circular pits or shafts with the least dimension

of about 4 feet, or unsheeted, shallow rectangular pits, 3
by 5 feet, are often used; however, a rectangular crosssection of 4 by 6 feet permits easier, and often less expensive"
excavation.

This rectangular section is the minimum required

when vertical sheeting is driven ahead of the excavation and

large undisturbed samples are to be taken.

The dimensions

are net dimensions at the bottom of ,the pit and do not

include the space required for sheeting, wales, nor special
arrangements for drainage.

Starting dimensions at the

ground surface may be much larger for deep test pits, which
require several offsets or lifts.

Shallow (less than five feet deep) test pits in fairly firm
ground can generally be excavated without any support of the
pit walls, but sheeting is required in unstable ground,
for deep pits and shafts, and wherever else codes may
require.

Arch action in the surrounding soil will materially

decrease the earth pressure acting on the sheeting, at least

when dimensions of the pit are small and when material
displacements in the surrounding soil are avoided during the

4-6

excavation and the short period of actual use of the pit.

The size of the sheeting is, in such cases, based on
practical experience or codes rather than on theoretical
earth pressures.

The lumber sizes shown in Fig. 4-1 are

adequate only under favorable conditions, such as firm soils;

they should be modified when the pit is larger, when the soil
is soft, when hydrostatic pressures are to be resisted, and
when there is danger of soil movement (rough methods of
excavation, vibration, etc.).

There are various methods of supporti.llg and excavating test

pits and shafts.

For a detailed discussion see Ref. 1.

Extreme care must be taken in,control of ground water,

especially when a pit is advanced through soils with little
or no cohesion.

Cohesionless soils should be under capillary

tension when undisturbed samples are to be taken; that is,

the groundwater level in the central part of the pit should
be depressed below the bottom elevation of the samples.
Dewatering by means of well points is the safest method of
control; it should be used when pits in cohesionless soils
are extended any appreciable depth below the groundwater
level.

4.3.2

Backhoe Excavated Test pits and Trenches

For many engineering investigations, backhoe equipment is

used for excavation.

The investigations are normally con-

4-7

cerned with material

groundwater
rate.

level,

classification, depth of bedrock,

in situ testing, and/or excavation

The ideal minimum bottom width of backhoe test pits

and trenches is 30 to 36 inches, but a width of 24 inches is

sometimes used.

The narrower trench restricts movement of

personnel and sampling or testing equipment.

Small backhoe

equipment, such as Case 580 C or John DeareHD-4, can reach

maximum depths of about 13 feet in soil, without extenders.
Larger backhoes, such as Hopto 550 or Hein-Werner C-148 are
capable of excavating to a depth of about 22 feet.

Extenders

on the larger backhoes can be used to qi;!epen test;. pits to

about 30 feet in soil.

Specifications for large hydraulic

backhoes can be found in Ref. 3.

Although larger backhoes are generally more expensive, they

are able to move material faster and thus may become more
cost-effective than smaller ones, particularly when excavating weathered rock.
a number of variables:

The rate of trenching depends on

depth and width of the trench;

bucket size and efficiency; cycle time of the backhoe;

digging quality of the soil or rock; obstacles and hazards,
both below and above ground; shoring or fencing requirements;
and the need of separating topsoil.

Field representatives should develop an understanding of the

potential efficiency for various backhoes.

Because backhoe

work is usually contracted on an hourly basis, field

4-8

representatives should be able to evaluate whether apparent

inefficiency results from physical limitations of the equipment,
subsurface conditions, or operator inexperience.

If the

latter occurs, the Project Manager may wish to ask the

Contractor to replace the operator with a more experienced
person.

All equipment requires a two- to four-hour break-in

period for an experienced operator to become familiar with

the controls and hydraulic response of different backhoes.
Excavation rates, cycle time, and production estimates
should be recorded for use in estimating costs of future
work and documenting contractor efficiency.

4.3.3

Drilled Shafts

Drilled shafts with a steel orconcrte shell are occasionally preferred to sheeted test pits, particularly when the
shafts can be used as a part of the proposed foundation
structure.
30

i~ches,

'rhepractical minimum bottom diameter is about

but a diameter of four feet or more is generally

used.

A boring with a diameter of 30 inches is generally accessible, but a larger diameter is preferable.

Borings up to 6

feet in diameter have been drilled for special field tests.

Shafts in soil and very soft rock are drilled with poweroperated augers of various types, usually bucket augers,

4-9

especially designed for pre-excavation for piles and shafts.

Rock or frozen soils must be drilled with calyx type rigs
using steel shot at the cutting edge or steel-toothed,
single tube core barrels.

When appropriate drilling rigs and core barrels are available,

accessible borings can often be made in a fraction of the
time required for sinking test pits in soil and shafts in
rock by hand methods.

A rate of progress of 25 feet per

hour can be attained in soil under favorable conditions,

but acceptable work can be as slow as 5 teet per hour.
Borings to be entered, may require support, thus restricting
visual observation of the boring walls.

Inspection slots or

openings may be provided.

4.3.4

Dozer Cuts

Dozer cuts or scrape-'downs provide valuable subsurface

information at a relatively low cost.

Usually an equivalent

Caterpil1er D-4 size (International Harvester TD-lSB) or

larger is used.

Exploration dozer cuts or scrape-downs

allow evaluation of:

1)

bedrock hardness, fracture spacing, and degree of

weathering;

2)

depth of bedrock/ground water;

3)

equipment performance; and

4)

excavation ease/difficulty (rippability).

4-10

Also dozers can be effectively used to:

1)

remove weathered materials or overburden;

2)

increase depth capabilities. of backhoe trenches;

and

3)

provide level work area for other exploration

equipment.

Sidehill dozer cuts for roads provide valuable exposures for

detailed geologic mapping.

Dozer production varies more than tha,t. of other excavators.

For examples of production rate$.{see Ref. 3.

Trenches for Fault InV'~;stig~tion

4. 3.5

,-

-. -

-~-->

-,

-_-:_.;-'-i.

The purpose of fault investigation trenches is to expose the

I

subsurface materials tda depth sufficient to enable experienced geologists

to make a detailed inspection and evaluation

of the excavation walls to appraise fault features that may

influence the project.

Trenches for fault investigation

differ from test trenches excavated for engineering purposes.

The following factors set fault investigation trenches apart
from other trenches:
1)

they are usually deeper and longer than other test

trenches;

2)

their sidewalls are carefully cleaned by hand

chipping, washing, or air blowing, prior to
inspection and logging;

4-11

3)

they are logged in much greater detail than other

trenches and care is taken to accurately record
the geometry and dimensions of structural features;

4)

they often require extensive shoring even in

bedrock, as the materials in fault zones are weak;

5)

their logging is time-consuming and often several

people familiar with fault trench logging techniques will review the field work requiring the
trenches to be open for long periods; and

6)

these trenches often require fencing or protective

covers during the logging and review process.

The upper weathered zone, whether in soil, alluvium, glacial

deposits or bedrock, obscures the subtle features associated
with active faulting.

In some areas, excavation depths of

30 to 40 feet are required because of deep weathering

profiles, thus requiring large backhoes.

Alternatively,

upper level cuts, to depths of 20 feet, can be made with a

dozer and a backhoe used to complete the deeper excavation.
Normally the dozer cut is logged in detail from the top down
in maximum eight-foot high lifts.

Because bracing is not

used, the sidewall of the dozer cut is often laid back at an

appropriate angle for safety, resulting in an inclined
surface to be logged as opposed to a vertical trench wall.
The trench excavation should extend appreciably beyond the
fault zone and at least one short verification trench should
be excavated across the strike extension of the fault.

4-12

The excavation should be safe.

Compliance with local,

state, and federal safety requirements and permits is

mandatory.

Appendix B includes a copy of OSHA safety

requirements.

The safety requirements in Appendix Bare

considered a minimum standard for trench operations.

Most

hydraulic shoring suppliers offer one-day training courses

on shoring requirements and installations.

Fig. 4-2 shows a

properly shored trench.

The following field procedures have proven satisfactory for

excavation of trenches for fault investig~ti6fi~.

1)

The excavation, or
(usually at least

segmel'lt3'/Qf;~~~'~xcavation
50:\\~\~;o;t),<is comp'4.~ted.

For

(If this is

nO{d~~~";';a daWg~i:~~~"'~\T~~~ang

on the uphill side

trench wall will,;resultas shown on Fig. 4-3.)

In trenchesa'::ross recent ground ruptures, the
o ---:,'

._<__

__

weight of the backhoe may close the ground cracks;

therefore, the excavation should start at the
ground rupture and proceed in a direction away
from it as opposed to crossing over the ruptures
(l'ig. 4-3).
2)

Adequate safety measures are taken, as outlined in

Appendix B.

Generally, if hydraulic, aluminum

shores are used, they are set on four-foot centers.

A ladder should be available for all trenches.

If

livestock, wildlife, or people frequent the area,

4-13

the trenches should be fenced or alternatively,

covered with at least 3/4-inch plywood sheets.
Construction zone signs and appropriate barriers
should be installed.

The walls of the trench are cleaned prior to logging.

Often

during excavation in alluvial materials, the walls are

disturbed and smeared with a layer of clay and silt.
Likewise, in bedrock areas, the walls are coated with dust
and loose soil after excavation.

There are several ways to

clean trench walls as outlined in Section 9.

4.4

DEEP EXPLORATION

Most deep explorations for geotechnical <purposes are made by

borings.

Table 4- 3 sununarizes. the general use, capabilities

and limitations of the various methods of deep exploration

by borings.

The average depth of borings for engineering

purposes is much shallower than drilling for oil, geothermal

sources, or most mineral exploration.

In normal foundation

explorations, the average drilling depth may be 50 feet

whereas in an exploration for dams, power plants, or nuclear
reactors, drilling depths up to several hundred feet may be required.

Rarely does goetechnical exploration for civil engineering

investigations extend more than 500 feet below the ground

surface.

4-14

The commonly used drilling methods for onshore geotechnical

exploration may be classified in the following groups:

1)

auger;

2)

wash;

3)

percussion and churn;

4)

rotary, skid- or truck-mounted.

The efficiency of the various drilling methods varies

greatly with the character of the material ..t(:{'lYe penetrated

thiJaBbf...lW9';
several
.

and with the diameter and depth of

methods are often used in advanpi'rtg a singlepP+,ing.

-_ct_,

In

selecting the drilling IlIe,,"hod to.;);l.E!;llsE;d, consideration

should be given to:
'_:_-i~;;c

I)

the'.material

__

-_

eri<:li:)Ur:~ked and

the relative efficiency

. of the various me;thods,

2)

the facility and accuracy with which changes in

the soi3: and groundwater conditions can be recognized,
and

3)

the possible disturbance of material to be sampled.

The essential equipment consists of:

1)

the actual drilling or sampling tools and cleanout equipment;

2)

the drill rods or cables connecting the tools to

the operating equipment at the ground surface;

4-15

3)

the casing, when required, to stabilize the boring

and a drop hammer for driving the casing;

4)

the motors and winches for lowering, operating,

and withdrawing drilling tools, drill rods, and
casing;

5)

a tripod or mast of wood or pipe sections to

permit handling of reasonably long sections of
drill rods and casing; and

6)

a pump, when required, for circulation of water or

drilling fluid to remove cuttings from

The operating machinery and the

p~mp.lnay

~he

boring.

be used as inde-

pendent units, but they are often aSseIllbled in a single

drilling rig which may be mounted on skids or on a truck, on
which a collapsible mast also maybe erected.

Drilling rigs

are often mounted on trucks to increase their mobility and

to reduce the time required for setting up and dismantling
the equipment; however, skid-mounted drilling rigs or
independent units must be used when locations are inaccessible
by motor vehicles.

Drilling rigs are generally designed for

one particular boring method and examples' of such rigs will

be given in the following paragraphs.

However, some drill

rigs may be used for several boring methods and for the
operation of samplers.

For exploration of water-covered areas, the drilling equipment

may be erected on a platform supported by piles; on a raft
consisting of a platform supported by small boats, pontoons,

4-16

or empty oil drums; or on a barge or drill boat.

The raft

or barge is generally provided with a well in the center

through which boring operations are performed.
used, at least through the open water.

Casing is

The raft or barge

must be securely anchored and in such a manner that it can

rise or fall with changing water levels.

A method of recording

the actual drilling depths must be maintained (tidal gage) as

measuring the drill rods is totally inaccurate during changing
water levels.

For more accurate work, a permanent reference and

surveying techniques may be required.

extremely time-consuming in case of
and drilling operations from a rafj;.

The operations may be

great,,;tfa~f:' fluctuations,

.~~,.i;;;'~g~;inay

. 'F'

become

impossible in the case of swifttltreI1 j;.s and/a:l." considerable

wave action.

4.4.1
-. ~- >--

,-~--:--

Ariauger

-----,-..
/:>~->->-}.

B(jrin~'il3 advahced by rotating a soil auger while

~:-->

----:<p-"

pressing intJ thEi"'soil and later withdrawing and emptying

-f

the soil"'laden auger.

Soil augers are used in subsurface

exploration for three purposes:

1)

general exploration and obtaining of representative

disturbed samples;

2)

advancing and cleaning borings between depths at

which samples are to be taken; and

3)

drilling large accessible borings which permit

direct inspection of the soil in situ.

4-17

Augers are also used for various construction purposes, such

as drilling drainage wells, pre-excavation for piles, and
excavation for piers.

Types of small augers are shown on Fig.

4-4 and types or large augers on Fig. 4-5.

4.4.1.1

Hand Augers.

Hand augers are generally small

helical augers, Fig. 4-4, and posthole or Iwan type augers.

Hand augers are used primarily in dry soils to depths not
exceeding 10 feet.

The rate of progress is slow, but the

method is employed extensively in shallow subsurface exploration

as for highways, railroads, and airfields.
simple, light, and inexpensive.

The equipment is

The limitations of hand

augers are the depth and resistance of materials encountered.

In stiff or dense soils, hand augers cannot be used.

Hand

augers operate best in loose, or moderately cohesive, moist

soils.

4.4.1.2

Power Augers.

portable powered hand augers are

slightly faster than hand

depth capacity.

~ugers,

but have very little added

Machine-powered augers are used at depths

up to 100 feet and are often operated so that a great

rate of progress is obtained.

Large helical or worm type

augers, spoon augers, and hinged augers, in many different

forms, are used.

4-18

Auger borings are kept dry, as far as possible, since water

in the boring increases the danger of losing the soil in the
auger, as well as the soil-laden auger acts as a piston and
tends to force water above it and out of the boring.
Casing is required for auger borings in unstable soil and
when the boring is extended below the groundwater surface.

Machine driven augers are of three types:

continuous

helical flight augers 3 to 16 inches in diameter; disc

augers up to 42 inches in diameter; and
48 inchee in diameter.
illustrates the basic
augers.

hollow

augers up to

Larger augers0-" ai'eavailable.

-_

difference:s;$hll~fween
>yu-:.:::,-.--

Figs. 4-6, 4-7 '0 ,and

augers in operation.

buc~51t,

Fig. 4-5

the three types of

4}'~~\J~p~3'the diff~t;ent types of

d~~l:~~prbe~~t~.amples may be obtained from

st;emoSl~ti\a~qJ;?+e-t~j~i{f~~9ai!~#:Ugers.

Typically, a plug is

maintained i~, the hale wli.iidfg;ct:~tiiing the auger.

The plug is re-

",,'--~

moV'ed,the sa~piE:Jf.is'l9~eted, and the auger acts as the casing.

4.4.2

Wash Borings

A wash boring is advanced partly by a chopping and twisting

action of a light bit and partly by jetting with water which
is pumped through the hollow drill rod and bit (Fig. 4-9).
Cuttings are removed from the boring by the circulating
fluid.

The drill rod and bit are moved up and down, by

pulling and slackening the rope, and concurrently rotated

back and forth by means of the tiller.

4-19

The operation, as

well as the pumping, may be performed entirely by hand, but

a small motor-driven winch and pump are generally used.

The

water may be pumped from a river or pond or taken directly

from local water supply lines, when such sources are near
the boring, but a closed circulating system is generally
preferable.

In the latter case, water is pumped from a

small sump or a tub, and the soil-laden water from the

boring is discharged into the same reservoir, where the
coarse material settles out and from which a wet sample
can be secured.

Wash borings are not often used for foundation

investigations, particularly if the site is accessible to truck

mounted .rotary rigs.

A complete description of the method and

equipment is found in Ref. 1.

4.4.3

Percussion and Churn Borings

Pneumatic percussion drills range in size from hand-held

jackhammers to track-mounted tower drills.

The larger

pneumatic percussion drills are useful for making borings in

geotechnical exploration for the following reasons:
1)

fast, efficient way to penetrate rock to a desired

depth for sampling;

2)

effectively drill through cobb ley alluvium and

glacial deposits to bedrock, sometimes the only
way; and

3)

efficient for drilling holes to

a)

install rock anchors

b)

drill blast holes

c)

drill grout nipple holes.

4-20

,(

Sampling is possible with some of the pneumatic percussion

'f

drills.

However, usually only dust and rock chips 1/8 to

1/4 inch in diameter are recovered.

The greatest limitation

to all pneumatic percussion drills is the presence of ground

water.

Excessive ground moisture causes jamming and slows

drilling considerably (with some rigs, water may stop

drilling entirely).

4.4.3.1

Percussion Drills.

Percussion rock bits chip or

crush rock with hammer blows.

impact with each blow.

Rotation ch&nqe$ the area of

Compressed a;i,r, .or a,;I.'.r and water,

-~-

supplied through the center paSSl.!i\qe in the roct, and through

{-:;:~-,\

one or more holes in the <Ai.t, blS\.t$c''!iliechipped and powdered

-':\-:'.'-.',:.-

-:,-- ----~:---'-

--

rock away from the bit ancto~t.oft~1;l boring.

Bits are usually made of deep-hardened alloy steel.

They

may have inserts;of tun'lfsten carbide at impact areas.

Most

bits can be restored by grinding when worn.

As the bit reduces rock to chips, sand, and dust, the particles must be removed promptly or a layer will form that will
prevent the bit from striking the rock.

The basic method of

removal is by a current of compressed air, entering the

hollow rod at the drill, and emerging from the bit in holes
at the front or bottom (one) and sides (none to four).

In

a properly balanced rig, the air that cleans cuttings from

4-21

the bottom of the boring has sufficient volume and velocity

to carry the cuttings up and out the top of the boring.

At

the top, the chips and coarse sand will pile in a ring
around the boring, fine sand will go a little farther away,
and dust will drift with the wind.

A crawler percussion drill (air-track) has a pair of tracks;

a body and turret mounted between the tracks; a boom that is
based on the turret and can be raised, lowered, and swung in
a part circle; a mast on a universal mounting at the boom
point; and a percussion drifter drill that can be moved
along the mast by a power feed.

fig. 4-10 shows a typical

crawler drill and shows the range in/Oize of track ....mounted

drills.

The larger drills would only be used on large

construction or quarry work.

Percussion drilling is an

inherently dusty and noisy operation.

The dust is a nuisance,

is unhealthy to breathe and, in some environments, its

suppression may be required by law.

4.4.3.1.1

Downhole Percussion Unit:

A downhole percussion

unit is a simple, heavy pneumatic unit in which the piston

blow is delivered against the bit shank, without any steel
or rod between.
inserts.

Drill bits are usually fitted with carbide

The drill is very slender in proportion to its

weight and strength.

itself.

It has no rotation mechanism in

Air is exhausted through the bit and carries chips

to the surface, around the outside of the rods.

4-22

The downhole unit is used for making borings of 5 to

inches in diameter in hard and medium rock.

7~

Since none of

the striking force is absorbed by the drill rod, the working

depth is limited only by the ability of the air stream to
keep cuttings blown out of the boring, and by the capacity
of the rotary bearings to carry the weight of a long string
of rods.

Rigs built primarily for downhole percussion drilling can

usually be changed to use rotary bits.

HoweV'&r, rotation

may not be as rapid nor the down preS'sure

as' great as in
-,
--

machines that are built primarily for rotary 'drilling.

A principal disadvantage ofdqwnhole percussion drilling is

the danger of losing, a whole driLl as a result of a rock
fall, Or of the formation of mud collars.
drilling may not be

pr~dent

Percussion

in badly fractured formations,

or in wet shale, or in other muddy strata.

4.4.3.1.2

Becker Hammer Drill:

This equipment is particularly

useful for rapid penetration of sand, gravel, and boulder

deposits.

with the Becker Hammer Method, a double-wall

drive pipe is driven by a diesel-operated pile hammer, while

air or water, under pressure, is forced down the annulus of
the drive pipe (Fig. 4-11).

The material cut by the drill

bit is rapidly transported to the surface through the inside

pipe by the drilling fluid.

The discharged materials.can be

accumulated in suitable containers as they emerge from a

4-23

cyclone and samples bagged at specified intervals.

As the

center of the drive pipe is always clear and the bit always
remains on the bottom of the boring, standard penetration tests
(paragraph 5.9.1) or undisturbed samples can be taken at any
desired interval.

Upon reaching bedrock, a rotary drill

unit can be moved over the boring, and the drive pipe then
can be used as the overburden casing and conventional drilling
methods may proceed for the coring of bedrock.

4.4.3.2
drill.

Churn Drill.

The churn drill is a type of percussion

until a few years ago the churn drill was in the

4- to 12-inch diameter range; now up to 25-inch.diameter drills

are available.

A churn drill boring is advanced by alternatively

raising and dropping a heavy drillil1<t I::>it, usually attached

to a cable.

The method is also called cable tool drilling.

The chopping action of the bit against soil or rock causes a

slurry to J;>e formed in the boring.

(When drilling above the

water level a small amount of water must be added.)

The

cuttings in the slurry are removed by a bailer or sandpump.

Ordinarily casing is installed as the boring is advanced.

The churn drill has many advantages.

It is rugged and

dependable; the principle of operation is simple; and, with

suitable adaptions in the drill column and winches, it can
drill any material to great depths.

However, progress is

only two to ten feet per hour, including bailing and changing
time.

Competitive machines can make borings at five to ten

times that rate.

As a result, labor costs per foot of depth

4-24

are high, and several times as many machines and shifts may
be needed to do a job with a churn drill as with other
equipment.

Churn drills continue to be used extensively for

water well drilling.

exploration purposes.

They are infrequently used for foundation

It may be expedient to use a churn drill

for a boring through coarse cobbley material to locate suitable

foundation materials or to start a boring for core drilling
of foundation rock.

Sampling is not recommended with a

churn drill as only a crude log of the material encountered

can be made from an examination of the cuttings, and the
material deeper than the actual drill bit is usually too
disturbed to allow undisturbed sampling and even Standard
Penetration Tests will not have much validity.

4.4.4

Rotary Borings

Rotary drill equipment for geotechnical exploration is

highly flexible in mobility, in size of boring obtained,
and in depth of penetration.

Rotary drills may be truck-

or skid-mounted.

4.4.4.1

Truck-Mounted Rotary Drills.

The truck-mounted

rotary drill is used for both soil and rock exploration

where accessibility is not a problem.

The rotary drill may

be operated with a variety of bits, Fig. 4-12.

The types of

bits used are dependent on the character of the material to

be penetrated.

Fish tail. bits, and two-bladed bits are used in

4-25

relatively soft soils and three- or four-bladed bits in

firmer soils and soft rock.

The cutting edges are surfaced

with tungsten carbide alloys or formed by special hard metal

inserts.

The bits usually used in rock and some gravel and

cobble formations all have several rollers with hard-surfaced

teeth.

The two-cone bits are used in soft or broken formations,

whereas the tricone and roller bits provide smoother operation

and are more efficient in harder rocks.

The number of

rollers as well as the number and shape of the teeth are

variable and are used in accordance with thechar~cter of
_c--:-

the rock being drilled.

In soft

_, __

0 __ --

roc~,'rela.tively

large and

few teeth are used and the teeth~reinterfitte2t;so that the

bit will be self-cleaning .'):'):J.e te~e):J.:I:'ri ~ll bits 'are flushed
by drilling fluid flowing ou.to$ vel).t$';in the base of the
bit.

In most soils and rocks the rate of progress is greater than

can be obtained by other methods.

However, rotary drilling

may not be well suited for use in deposits containing very

coarse gravel, numerous stones, boulders, or chert nodules;
or in badly fractured or cavernous rock; or very porous
deposits where water or drilling fluid losses occur.

Accessories for a drill rig are a cathead winch and derrick

for driving casing and for hoisting and lowering the drill
rods; a pump for circulating water or drilling fluid (mud)
to the bit and for flushing and water testing the boring; a
water meter; and the necessary driving weights, bits, drill

4-26

rods, and core barrels.

Support for borings is usually

required except when drilling through solid rock or stiff

cohesive soils.

A short collar pipe is commonly used at

the top of the boring.

The use of drilling fluids, including

stabilizer compounds, often avoids the need of casing in

soil; however, when such fluids are used, permeability tests
in the boring may not give accurate results.

At least two driving weights should be available, a 140pound weight for Standard Penetration Tests and a 250- to
400-pound weight for driving and remQving casing.

The

weights are raised by pulling.t;i:ght on an attached rope

threaded through a

sh",~v:e>at

the 't6pof the derrick and

wound two times on therElVolvingc.a.thead winch.

Sudden loosening of theropepermit:s the weight to drop on
the driving head attached to the casing.

Various types of

chopping bits are used to facilitate the driving of casing

through soils containing. cobbles and boulders.

Large

boulders must be either blasted with explosives or drilled

with a diamond bit or a roller rock bit.

The casing is

raised several feet prior to blasting operations.

4.4.4.2

Skid-Mounted Rotary Drills.

Usually used in steep

terrain or other places where access is limited (physically

or by other constraints - as environmental), these drill
rigs are portable and lightweight.
position by dozer or by helicopter.
of a skid-mounted rig.

4-27

They may be placed in

Fig; 4-13 is a schematic

Skid-mounted rigs are extensively used for exploration work

and most are specifically made for diamond core drilling.
The rigs may have a detachable mast or portable tripods may
be used.

Generally the hoist arrangement is capable of ten-

foot pulls . . The machines are equipped with a hoist drum

which can also be used as a winch in moving the machine.
under its own power.

Catheads are often attached, which

gives more flexibility in driving casing or even in taking

samples in soft zones.

The power unit is typically an

automobile type four- or six-cylinder engin~"~" .. Jk>tation is

achieved through the drill head and

tll!;J/~{lpEi!ed<9!fi

rotation is

controlled by the engine speed.

set in any position, makin,lltiiAt.:
horizontal borings ,or
-,;

tion.

pos~l.~M~)'io drill~~9le

eveh.I~~~ticai'l;i?~;rings
~'-;-<'-_-__

--,-~-:-((--

borings,

in an upward direc-

\ni~l.'

Feed meolrarii sm$iinc rii~e.lilci-~~", ~f'hydra ulic feeds.

For

most exploration work the hydt'aulic feed is desirable since

the operator hasoomplete;~Control of the rate of feed and
.

the pressureo" the''bi t face against the rock.

Screw feeds,

on the6ther hand, generally give the operator a choice of

four rates of feed.

The lighter weight air-operated machines

are generally equipped with screw feed.

Skid-mounted rigs can be moved about in difficult terrain.

The rigs can be moved by towing or they can be moved by
winching on their own power.

Long moves by winching are

usually not economical and should be avoided in planning a

drilling program.

4-28

Skid rigs are more adaptable to core drilling than to soil

sampling.

Some of the larger skid-mounted rigs can do

certain types of soil sampling, however, skid-mounted rigs

are not recommended for extensive soil sampling projects.

4-29

TABLE ~-l
ONSHORE GEOPHYSICS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES
~AHE

OF InHOC

pnemunE on PRIt:CIPLE UTILIZEC

APPLI ct,", I LI TY

SEISMIC METHODS
REFRACTION

HIGH RESOLUTION

BASED ON TIME REQUIRED FOR SEISMIC WAVES

TO TRAVEl FROM SOURCE OF BLAST TO POINTS
ON GROUND SURFACE) AS MEASURED BY GEOPHONES SPACED AT INTERVALS ON A LINE AT
THE SURFACE. REFRACTION OF SEISMIC WAVES
AT THE INTERFACE BETWEEN DIFFERENT STRATA
GIVES A PATTERN OF ARRIVAl TIMES VS.
DISTANCE AT A LINE OF GEOPHONES.

UTILIZED TO DETERMINE DEPTH TO ROCK OR

OTHER LOWER STRATUM SUBSTANTIALLY
DIFFERENT IN WAVE VELOCITY THAN THE
OVERLYING MATERIALJ RIPABILITY AND
FAULTING, GENERALLY LIMITED TO DEPTHS
UP TO IUu FT. OF A SINGlE STRATUM.
USED ONLY WHERE WAVE VELOCITY IN
SUCCESSIVE LAYERS BECOMES GREATER WITH
DEPTH.

REFLECTION

ARRIVAL OF SEISMIC WAVES REFLECTED

FROM THE INTERFACE OF ADJOINING STRATA.

GEOPHONES RECORD TRAVEL TIME FOR THE

SUITABLE FOR DETERMINING DEPTHS TO DEEP

ROCK STRATA. GENERALLY APPLIES TO DEPTHS
OF A FEW THOUSAND FEET. REFLECTED IMPULSES ARE WEAK AND EASILY OBSCURED BY
THE DIRECT SURFACE AND SHALLOW REFRACTlQN IMPULSES.

CONTINUOUS VIBRATION

THE TRAVEL TIME OF TRANSVERSE OR SHEAR

WAVES GENERATED BY A MECHANICAL VIBRATOR
CONSISTING OF A PAIR OF ECCENTRICALLY
WEIGHTED DISKS IS RECORDED BY SEI$MIC
DETECTORS PLACED AT SPECIFIC DISTANCES
FROM THE VIBRATOR.

VELOCITY OF WAVE TRAVEL AND NATURAL

PERIOD OF VIBRATION GIVES SOME INDICATION OF SOIL TYPE. TRAVEL TIME PLOTTED
AS A FUNCTION OF DISTANCE INDICATES
DEPTHS OR THICKNESSES OF SURFACE STRATA.
USEFUl IN DETERMINING DYNAMIC MODULUS OF
SUBGRADE REACTION AND OBTAINING INFORMATION ON THE NATURAL PERIOD OF VIBRATION FOR THE DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS OF
VIBRATING STRUCTURES.

RESISTIVITY

BASED ON THE DIFFERENCE IN ELECTRICM.

CONDUCTIVITY OR RESISTIVITY OF STRATA.
RESISTIVITY OF SUBSOilS AT VARIOUS
DEPTHS IS DETERMINED BY MEASURING THE
POTENTIAl DROP AND CURRENT FLOWING
BETWEEN TWO CURRENT AND TWO POTENTIAL
ELECTRODES FROM A BATTERY SOURCE.
RESISTiViTY IS CORRELATED TO MATERIAL
TYPE.

USED TO DETERMl~E HORIZONTAL EXTENT AND

DEPTHS UP TO IOU FEET OF SUBSURFACE
STRATA. PRINCIPAL APPLICATIONS FOR INVESTIGATING FOUNDATIONS OF DAMS AND
OTHER LARGE STRUCTURES} PARTICULARLY
IN EXPLORING GRANULAR RIVER CHANNEL
DEPOSITS OR BEDROCK SURFACES.

DROP IN POTENTIAl

BASED ON THE DETERMINATION QF THE RATIO

OF POTENTIAl DROPS BETWEEN j POTENTIAL
ELECTRODES ~S A FUNCTION OF THE CURRENT
IMPOSED ON Z CURRENT ELECTRODES.

SIMIlAR TO RESISTIVITY METHODS BUT GIVES

SHARPER INDICATION OF VERTICAL OR
STEEPLY INCLINED BOUNDARIES AND MORE
ACCURATE DEPTH DETERMINATIONS. MORE
SUSCEPTIBLE THAN RESISTIVITY METHOD TO
SURFACE INTERFERENCE AND MINOR IRREGUlARITIES IN SURFACE SOilS.

E-lOGS

BASED ON DIFFERENCES IN RESISTIVITY AND

CONDUCTIVITY MEASURED IN BORINGS AS THE
PROBE IS LOWERED OR RAISED.

USEFUL IN CORRELATING UNITS BETWEEN

BORINGS 1 HAS BEEN USED TO CORRELATE
MATERIALS HAVING SIMILAR SEISMIC
VELOCITIES. GENERAlLY NOT SUITED TO
CIVIL ENGINEERING EXPLORATION BUT
VALUABLE IN GEOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS.

tIAGNETIC MEASURHIENTS

HIGHLY SENSITIVE PROTON MAGNETOMETER IS

USED TO MEASURE THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC
FIELD AT CLOSELY SPACED STATIONS ALONG
A TRAVERSE,

DIFFICULT TO INTERPRET IN QUANTITATIVE

TERMS BUT INDICATES THE OUTliNE OF
FAULTS, BEDROCK} BURIED UTILITIES,

GRAVITY flEASUREI1ENTS

BASED ON DIFFERENCES IN DENSITY OF SUB-

USEFUL IN TRACING BOUNDARIES OF STEEPLY

INCLINED SUBSURFACE IRREGULARITIES SUCH
AS FAULTS} INTRUSIONS} OR DOMES, METHODS
NOT SUITABLE FOR SHALLOW DEPTH DETERMINATION
BUT USEFUL IN REGIONAL STUDIES, SOME
APPLICATION IN LOCATING LIMESTONE CAVERNS,

ELECTRICAL tlETHODS

SURFACE MATERIAlS AS INDICATED BY THE

VERTICAl INTENSITY OR THE CURVATURE
AND GRAVATIONAL FIELD AT VARIOUS POINTS
BEING INVESTIGATED.

MODIFIED FROM NAVFAC DM-7,1971

TABLE 4-2
OFFSHORE GEOPHYS! CAL

,/

1'~ETfIOCS

CAPA3! L1T1ES

PURPOSE

CHARACTERISTICS

PRECISION DEPTH RECORDING

DETERMINING BATHYMETRY.

MOST RECOROIN~ SOUNDERS

OPtRATE AT tOU KHZ, PIPE
MOUNTED TRANSDUCER. LITTLE
SUBBOTTOM PENETRATION.

FOUR DEPTH RANGES COVER 0-205

FEET; RANGE DOUBLING SWITCH
P,RMITS BOTTOM TRACKING 10
410 FEET; ACCURACY OF O,)l
OF INDICATED DEPTH.

STRATASONOE
ACOUSTIC HYPACS

SEISMIC PROFILING (SHALLOW)

- CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE MATERIALS.

LOW-FREQUENCY SotIAR-TYPE
TRANSDUCER PBOEILING SYSTEM;
OPERATES AT 5.0 AND 7 KHZ
FREQUENCY; HIGH RESOLUTION
DUE TO SHORT PULSE LENGTH
AND HIGH REPETITION RATE.

RESOLVE R~FLECTtNG LAYERS

WITHIN 3-4 FEET OF THE BOTTOM
~oNETRATION CAPABILITIES OF
jU FEET OR LESS.

ACOUSTIPULSE BOOMER

SEISMIC PROFILING (INTERMEDIATE) - CHARACTERISTICS

OF SURFACE ANP SUBSURFACE
MATERIALS.

ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSDUCER;
SHORT DURATION, HIGH POWER
ELECTRICAL PULSE DISCHARGES
FROM AN ENERGY SOURCE INTO
AN ELECTROMAGNETIC cOI.GONTROLLED METAL PLATE, B~"ERA
TING A REPEATASLE$OUND PULSE;
MOUNTED I N A IiMAMAllAN SLED
TOWED BYVES.aiLJ BO~BD8~~ND
ACOUSTIC PUJ.SE IN oUU- UU
ttz RE.GION .---

9EEBAIES IN WATER DEPTH FROM

SEISMIC PROFILING (OEP)GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE OF

BEOROCK

LOW-FREQUENCY, HIGH ENERGY

SOUND GENERATED BY RAPID
DISCHARGE OFELECTRICAl
ENERGY.BETWEENEI.ECTRODES
AND A SURROUNDING FRAME; A
PLAS.~A BUBijLE I S FORMED11~
REQUEHCY RANG'E OF UU. ZOANDENERGY DISCHARGES
"0 U JOULES.

OPEBATES IN WATER DEPTHS OF

4U-lUUU FEET, RE~8LUrION
CAPABILITIES OF J -~U FEET
WITH PENETRATION DEPTHS OF
HUNDREDS TO THOUSANDS OF FEET

EQU! PIiENT
DEPTH RECORDERS
FATHOMETER

SElSr1IC REFLECTION
PROFILERS

SPARKER

~8~ ~

S IDE SCAN SONAR

. BOTTOM SURFACE FEATURES

MARK

lB;

SOIiAR IMAGE OF OCEAN

UP TO 50U METERS ON
EACH SID'OOF TOW FISH; OPERATES AT 1 ? KHZ FREQUENCY;
NEW SAFETY RELEASE HARNESS
AllOWS RECOVERY OPTOW FISH
. WHEN OBSTRUCTION IS ENCOUNTERED) ACOUSTIC REFLECTORS,
(ROCKS J METAL OBJECTS) SAND
RIPPLES) ARE SHOWN BY DARK
AREAS) DEPRESSIONS ARE SHOWN
BY LIGHT AREAS.
BO~TOM

,1.U:..60U FEETJ PROVIDES MODERATE

RESOlUT ION WITH MODoRATE

PENETRATION UP TO ,UU FEET OR
MORE FOR GEOLOGIC AND ENGINEERING INVESTIGATION.

DEPENDING UPON ENERGY SELEC-

TION
HIGH RESOLUTION SCANNING CAN
DIFFERENTIATE VARIOUS BOTTOM
MATERIALS} LOCATE HAZARDS OR
OBSTRUCTIONS (SUBMERGED HULKS}
OUTCROPS).

TABLE 4-3
USE, CAPABILITIES AND LHiITATIONS OF EXPLORATION

11ETHO~S

EXPLORATION METHOD

GENEP.Al USE

CAPABI LITIES

LHHTATIONS

MACHINE PROBING AND SOUNDING

SOIL CONSISTENCY AND

COMPACTNESS,

RAPID, RELATIVELY INEXPENSIVE,

WITH BORINGS) NO SAMPLES TAKEN,

HAND-EXCAVATED TEST PITS

AND SHAFTS

BULK SAMPLING, INSITU TESTING, VISUAL

INSPECTION,

PROVIDES DATA IN INACCESSIBLE AREAS, LESS

MECHANICAL DISTURBANCE
OF SURROUNDING GROUND,

LIMITED TO DEPTHS ABOVE'

GROUNDWATER LEVEL,

BACKHOE EXCAVATED TEST

PITS AND TRENCHES

BULK SAMPLING, IN-SITU

TESTING, VISUAL INSPECTION, EXCAVATION RATES,
DEPTH OF BEDROCK AND
GROUNDWATER,

FAST, ECONOMICAL,
GENERALLY LESS THAN 15
EEET DEEP, CAN BE UP TO
50 FEET DEEP,

EQUIPMENT ACCESS, GENERALLY

LIMITEO TO DEPTHS ABOVE
GROUNDWATER LEVEL, LIMITED
UNDISTURBED SAMPLING,

DRILLED SHAFTS

PRE-EXCAVATION FOR PILES FAST, MORE ECONOMICAL

AND SHAFTS I LANDS~JDE
THAN HAND EXCAVATED,
INVESTIGATIONS)
MIN, 3U INCHES DIAJ MAX.
DRAINAGE WELLS,
b FEET DIA,

EQUIPMENT ACCESS J DIFFICULT

TO OBTAIN UNDISTURBED SAMPLES 1
CASING OBSCURES VISUAL INSPEC-

DOZER CUTS

BEDROCK CHARACTERISTICS RELATIVELY LOW COST,

DEPTH OF BEDROCK AND
EXPOSURES FOR GEOLOGIC
GROUNDWATER LEVEL, RIP- MAPPING,
PABILITY, INCREASE DEPTH
CAPABILiTY OF BACKHOES,
LEVEL AREA FOR OTHER
EXPLORATION EQUIPMENT,

EXPLORATION LIMITED TO DEPTH

AMvE GROUNDWATER LEVEL,

TRENCHES FOR FAULT

INVEST IGAT IONS

EVALUATION OF PRESENCE
DEFINitiVE LOCATION OF
AND ACTIVITY OF FAULTING FAUlnN~, SUSSURFA~'
ANO SOMETIMES LANDSLIDE OBSERVATIONUP"TO 50
FEET,' '
PEATURES,

TIME-CONSUMING, REQUIRE SHORING, ONLY USEFUL

WHERl:DATABLE MATERIALS ARE
PRESENT, DEPTH LIMITED TO ZONE
ABOVE GROUNDWATER LEVEL,

OPE~:

NEED TO BE CLOSELY CALIBRATED

SUr-FACE EXPLOnATION
EXPENSIVE 1 TIME CONSUMING 1

TION,

~OSTlY,

DEEP EXPLORATIONS
AUG!;R BORINqs

HAND AUGERS
POWER AUGERS

__ -,_".:.>,-_~-,--

-:,_0 ___ --

:: ,-,.,,:

~ENERAL Ex!>LidRATION;,J.o'R c 'sl~p"~.lIGHT INEXPEN-

,REPRESENTATIVE DISTURutltstVE,
SAMPLES,- - -' ' , --

AD';~NCiN~AIlDCkEANING
BORI~Gs, DRll~JNG

BORINGS,
DRAINM' WELLS, PREEXCAVATION FOR PILES OR
PIERS,
'NOT OFTEN USED FOR FOUNDATION INVESTIGATIONS,
DRILLING COBBLY ALLUVIUM
OR GLACIAL DEPOSITS,
INSTALL ROCK ANCHORS,
DRILL BLAST HOLES, DRILL
GROUT NIPPLE HOLES,
ACC~$SIBLE

WASH BORINGS
PERCUSSION DRILLS

CHURN DRILL

FAST, CAN REACH DEPTHS

UP TO lOU FEET,

SLOW BATE OF PROGRESS J LESS

THAN 10 FEET DEPTH, CANNOT BE

USED IN STIFF OR DENSE SOILS,
CASING IS REQUIRED IN UNSTABLE
SOILS AND BELOW GROUNDWATER
LEVELS, DIFFICULT TO IDENTIFY
LOCATION OF SOIL CHANGES,
DISTURBED SAMPLES,

FAST, PROBING TO BEDROCK

DISTURBES MATERIAL, LIMITED SAMPLING,

EFFICIENT METHOD TO
PENETRATE ROCK, ALLUVIUM
OR GLACIAL MATERIALS,

EXCESSIVE GROUND MOISTURE cAUSES

RUGGED) DEPENDABLE)
WATER WELL DRILLING,
DRILLING COBBLY ALLUVIUM SIMPLE OPERATION CAN
OR GLACIAL MATERIAL,
ORILL TO GREAT VEPTllS,
NOT AFFECTED BY GROUNDWATER LEVEL,

JAMMING AND MAY STOP DRILLING J

OIFFICULT TO LOG AND SAMPLE

MATERIALS,

SLOW PROGRESS 1 SAMPLING NOT

RECOMMENDED BECAUSE OF DIS-

TURBANCE} DIFFICULT TO LOG,

ROTARY DRILLS
TRUCK MOUNTED

SKID-MOUNTED

ALL SOIL AND ROCK EXPLORATION,

ROCK CORING

MOBILE, FAST, EFFICIENT,

ALLOWS CONTINUOUS SAMPLING
EASE OF IDENTIFYING SOIL
AND ROCK CHANGES, WIDE
VARIETY OF SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES,
LIGHT-WEIGHT J

PORTABLE~

CAN BE MOVED ABOUT IN

OIFFICULT TERRAIN,

LIMITED TO ROAD ACCESS, LEVEL

DRILLING AREAJ DIFFICULT TO

DRILL ALLUVIUM OR GLACIAL

DEPOSITS OR WHERE WATER LOSS
OCCURS,
MORE ADAPTABLE TO CORE DRILLING

THAN SOIL SAMPLING,

I r
I
I

t--UEATS

'-r 4 1&"

OR

::J

~"

CLE,o.T

-~-lOCT:;::

11

PRENTIS L WHIT~. ltNOERPI>lN'tlC;, I~~'. p.

A - SPACERS

.tiQTCHED BOX SHEETING

BOX SHEETING WITH CLEATS BOX SHEETING WITH LOUVERS

,.

WALE

i<c~~

.;

,~[ i I"'-WQOD

S~~ET

OR

6.

B - SLOTS

A-INCLINED BOARDS

'--'-

STE~

,.
..........

h
..

'

hi

I'I~'NG.

B-VERTICAL BOARDS

POLING BOARDS

"

'

,.

.. : ,

"""'-

..

'.

0:

..

'li

1; ~
:

/WELI.. POINlS

(,

,"

TEST PIT AT FRANKLIN FALLS DAM

VERTICAL SHEETING - ONE LIFT

VERTICAL SHEETING- TWO LIFTS

VERTICAL SHEETING-THREE LIFTS-WELL POINTS

Modified from Hvorslev, 1965

TEST PIT SHEETING

Figure 4-1

SHORED TRENCH

Figure 4-2

SIDE HILL TRENCHING

Spoil

=l

INCORRECT

CORRECT

NOTE; When the backhoe is tilted on sidehills,

the spoil is dumped on the uphill side
for stability; with a level pad, downhill
dumping is possible.

TO AYOID CLOSING GROUND CRACKS

Ground Cracks !Ruptures
or Projected Fault Zone

Backhoe Arm Reach

.............-Backhoe Weight -

I-- 15' - 25'

_ 0_0_0_0_0_0_0-0_0_0

-Backhoe

Trenching Direction For

Second Segment

I
/

0.........

~\

Weight-~~

Trenching Direction For

First Segment

____ _
Fault Zone

BACKHOE TRENCHING TECHNIQUES

Figure 4-3

SMALL HELICAL AUGER

POSTHOLE OR IWAN AUGER

LARGE HELICAL OR WORM TYPE AUGERS

~..

SPRAGUE &. HENWOOD

SPOON AUGER

VICKSBURG HINGED AUGER

BARR_~L

AUGERS

BUDA CONTINUOUS
HELICAL AUGE RS

ModiFied from Hvorslevr 1965

AUGERS
Figure 4-4

CLEARANCE
CUTT

---. -HELIX

TOOTHEO
CUTTER LIP-

(a) HELICAL

___ SHUTTER
PLATE

CLEARANCE
CUTTER

_-HAND TRIP FOR

UNLOADING

'
,'.

,i

-",;

1 1

ROCK BUCKET

CHOPPING

BIT

HINGED BOTTOM

CUTTER

CUTTER
(c) BARREL
Earth Manual, U5BM, 1974

LARGE AUGER TYPES

Figure 4-5

Acker Drill Company

CONTINOUS FLIGHT AUGER

Figure 4-6

LARGE HELICAL AUGER

Figure 4-7

BUCKET AUGER
Figure 4-8

SI~OU

(101

()QU~.[ CRQW~ ~[.ve H()o~

~UUlPlE ~UX;KS

FOR

I'V,LI~O

FOR

OF CJ.MNO

.,
(:~SIN(jC!lllPUNfi

'J

n
.'
11

DRilL IWO

(:O~PLlNO

:1

::

DRI~E5I1Oo-

I:

FOR SIlPfOllT Of DRILL ROD

OIITSIOE C01lPlIN(l5

WlT~

DIlILL BIT

Wash Boring

o
Fork

Hoisting Plug

11

Ii!

!
I!

..: i, ~

:~

OFfSET CRilL

:: ~

Drill Rod

Wash Boring Bits

Mod1fled from Hvorslev, 1965

WASH BORING
Figure 4-9

1.

.....

S. L1ft. awJ.ng, aDd tUt

2. Roller feed clala

..

Slldlng cOIle

Hydraullc nlnl cyllPder

S. Drilling 'IaUOII
~ullc

feed !notor

TUt ey)J.Q.del

Gra"ler track
10. Lift cylmder
11. Lubricator p.unp

12. IJQom iJWlng cyl1ndor

13. Trammtng control,

l<. DetelJl.t lalllt

(:'Qlut,syof Ch/cagrJ Pntumatlc Tool COmpany

J'

.,:,,.;

',I,
.1'1\,. - ~

" .,j.'

PERCUSSION DRILLS
Figure 4-10

DIESEl.
PILE DRIVER
ANVIL
AIR
COMPRESSOR

AIR IN

'4/~

OUr

~o

_I

HAMMER
IMPACT

Q)

JOINT
DOlJBLE-WALL
DRIVE PIPE

,.

DISCHARGE

NOZZLE
FOR CORE
MATERIAL

Bf;lckor Drilling (Alborta) LTD.

BECKER HAMMER DRILL

Figure 4-11

~ - DRILL RODS

TWO~CONE

TRI-CONE

BIT

FIG.

44 ~

BIT

ROCK

ROL.L.ER

AND

COUPLINGS

BIT

BITS.

FIG.4S - SAFETY

CLAMP

FIG.46 -SpiDER AND SLIPS

MO(flrled from Hvorslev, 1965

,,

ROTARY DRILLING EQUIPMENT

FIgure 4-12

BOLT B. CLEVIS
DOUBLE SHEAVE

4- LEG DERRICK"'..,.

WATER SWIVEL

ROO

ORILL

HOCK

------

DIAMOND Ct,SING .
ORILI. RorJ COllPLING
/ORILL ROD

BED RUCK

CORE BARREL
.

r~EAMEf~

Acker Drill Company

SKID-MOUNTED ROTARY DRILL

Figure 4-13

S,ECTION 5

SOIL SAMPLING & FIELD TESTS

Sampling is usually the prime objective of exploratory

excavation Or drilling, regardless of whether or not the
sample is retained.

For some projects in situ field testing

may be the objective.

Often both operations are included

in the same exploration program.

When

s~mpling,

every pre-

caution should be taken to obtain representative and

uncontaminated samples; to see that the samples are adequately
and correctly identified as to location, ma:terial, and
properties; and to protect the samples from damage from the
time they are removed from,the sampler to the time they are
used for field logging and/or deli",i;i:ped to the laboratory.
wi thout the information' gained frolJl sampling and field
testing, much of the information r~quired to formulat,e
reasonable design criteria is missing.

Furthermore, i f 1)

theinformation is not representative, 2) the sample is

disturbedI;;;Y miE:ibandling or improper preparation, or
3) the sample is contaminated, the erroneous data gained
from such samples may result in costly overdesign or
disastrous underdesign.

Basically, there are two types of samples, undisturbed and

disturbed.

The types may be broken down into subtypes,

based to a large degree on the method of obtaining the

sample.

Ideally, the type of testing to be performed will

5-1

be the chief factor in deciding the methods used for

sampling.

Practically, the equipment available for the job

(Section 4 covers equipment in

may be a governing factor.

some detail.)

5.1

PREPARATION FOR SAMPLING

Section 4 of this Guide discusses the various methods used

in advancing the boring to the desired depth for sampling.
All methods have in common that the boring is opened, and
kept open long enough to permit sampling.

The method chosen

for advancing the boring should not cause a significant

disturbance of the underlying soil to be sampled.

In bucke:t auger work, disturbance of the sample material is

limi ted generally to the depth of the cutting teeth.

Bulk

samples are representative of the stratum cut in that

particular zone.

In wash borings, considerable disturbance below the bottom

of the boring can be caused by careless handling of the
bit and by excess erosion when the flow of the wash water
is not properly, controlled.

Coarse, segregated materials

tend to collect at the bottom of the boring, and sticky

soils may adhere to the casing instead of being removed by
the wash water.

Careful cleaning of the boring is therefore

required before samples are taken.

5-2

The choice of washing bit depends on the nature of the

(

material being penetrated.

It is important in selecting a

bit that the water flow is restricted, and not applied in a

heavy stream against the bottom of the boring.

using an

open-ended rod without a bit should never be allowed, nor

should a sampler be used without the check valve.

The coarse

material that collects in the boring is very difficult to

remove.

Methods that can be tried to clean the boring include

2 or 3 drive samples between desired sampling depths,

and pushing a Shelby tube just for the purpose of removing
the material.

cuttings may also be removed, just prior to

taking an undisturbed sample, with a clean-out auger (Fig.

5-3).

Bulk samples cannot be obtained from wash borings.

The cuttings from the wash can be retained (they are sometimes
called "wet samples"), but they are not representative, as
the fines are in suspension and the coarser sizes are broken
up or remain at the bottom of the boring.

Rotary drilling methods are usually effective in cleaning

the boring right to the top of the sample, as the drilling
fluid, if properly mixed, can transport all but the largest
gravel sizes.

Bits used in rotary drilling disperse the

drilling fluid so that erosion into the soil to be sampled

is limited.

The fluid passageways are also designed to

protect the sample.

If the boring is starting to squeeze

closed, material can be inadvertently scraped off the sides

in lowering the sampler, partially filling it or the boring
with materia], from another stratum.

Careful cleaning of

the boring is required when that condition exists.

5-3

Disturbance of the soil at sampling depth can be quite

extensive with the hollow stem auger.

The rate at which the

auger is rotated and advanced, the choice of teeth on the

auger, the depth below the groundwater level, and the
character of the soil are all factors in the extent and
seriousness of the degree of disturbance.

Sampling from the flight auger is limited to bulk samples.

It is difficult to define the depth from which the soil,
discharged by the auger, was excavated.

Fig. 5-1 schematically

shows atypical flight auger se.tup.

5.2

METHODS OF ADVANCING SAMPLER

Sample tubes or barrels are normally advanced into the soil

by three basic methods:

pushing, hammering, or rotating.

Of the three methods, pushing is usually preferred for undisturbed sampling.

However, in firmer materials, it often

becomes necessary to hammer or rotate.

The means by which

the sampling device is forced into the soil has a pronounced

effect on the quality of the "undisturbed" sample.

It is

obvious that the method used should be such that it will

cause the least disturbance to the soil.
pushing.

pushing is accomplished by exerting a steady

continuous pressure to force the sampler into the soil.

pressure is usually supplied by hydraulic means.

The

pushing

has been found to be the most satisfactory mechanical method

5-4

of taking undisturbed samples.

Experience has indicated

that the soils must be relatively soft to prevent excessive

pushing pressures from occurring.

The gage pressure should

not exceed 250 psi when pushing thin wall brass tubes, or
500 psi when using steel tubes, or deformation of the tubes
may occur.
Hammering.

Hammering is accomplished by repeated blows of a

drop hammer.

This causes the sampler to penetrate the soil

intermittently, or in pulses.

Such motion sometimes results

in objectionable disturbance of the sample.

Vibrations

caused by hammering may also result in serious disturbance.

In general, the hammer method should only be used when the
sampler cannot be advanced by pushing or when the "blow
count" data are especially needed.

A discussion of "blow

count" data is presented under the heading Standard Penetration

Test, paragraph 5.9.1.

Fig. 5-2 shows a rotary drill setup

wherein blow count data can be obtained when driving a split

barrel sampler.
Rotating.

Rotating indicates the sampler is advanced by

rotation, together with the application of hydraulic pressure.

The Denison Sampler and the Pitcher Sampler are examples of
samplers used with this method of obtaining a sample.

5-5

5.3

UNDISTURBED SAMPLES

As a broad definition, undisturbed samples are ones in which

the materials have been subjected to so little disturbance
that they are suitable for all laboratory tests, and will
yield reasonable values for strength, consolidation, and
permeability characteristics of the material as it exists in
situ.

Care should always be taken in obtaining a sample;

however, there will always be some degree of disturbance.

The disturbances that can affect the samples can be
classified as follows.

1)

Changes in stress conditions - There is not a

great deal that can be done to prevent changes
during the sampling process, as it involves the
changes that occur in removing a sample from the
confinement and pressures acting on it in the
ground and exposing it to atmospheric pressures.

2)

Changes in water content and void ratio - Some

uncontrollable changes do occur during sampling.
Properly and promptly sealing the sample, avoiding
prolonged exposure, avoiding shocks and vibrations
in handling, and arranging for prompt testing
will minimize these changes.

3)

Changes in the soil structure - The choice of

sampling method and the degree of care exercised
in handling the sample will influence these changes.

5-6

Protecting all samples from freezing and high

heat, taking proper care in preparation for
sampling, minimizing the damage done in washing or
drilling to the sample depth, and removing the
waste material from the boring just prior to
sampling will minimize these changes.

When possible,

the use of a thin-walled sampler (e.g. a Shelby Tube

sampler) to minimize soil remolding, and pressing
the sampler smoothly will produce a better sample.

4)

Chemical changes - There can be chemical changes

resulting from the drilling fluid heing in contact
wi th the sample, or from the exposure of the
sample to the air.

Once a sample is obtained,

oxidation or corrosion can occur between the

sample and the container.

Brass sample tubes or

rings are used or the inside of steel samplers

are lacquered to minimize the effect.

The condition

of lacquering should be checked before using steel

tubes.

The sample should be sealed to be airtight

and watertight.

The disturbances listed and briefly discussed above should

be reduced to an absolute minimum; certain procedures (discussed in following paragraphs) have been established, based
on experience, to reduce the effects.

It is the responsibility

of the field representative to see that the procedures are

followed.

5-7

If excessive disturbance does occur, it mayor may not be

detected in laboratory testing and examination.

If not

detected, then the data are potentially misleading.

If the

disturbance is detected, it may be necessary to obtain

replacement samples at an unnecessary additional cost and
delay to the project.

5.3.1

5.3.1.1

Sampling Equipment and Methods

Shelby Tube Sampler.

The Shelby tube sampler,

Fig. 5-4, is the simplest undisturbed sampler and, with care,

excellent samples of fine-grained or soft soils can be obtained.
There are, however, many ways in which the sample can be
disturbed or lost.

A small chamber for disturbed soil is provided above the

sample tube.

This is necessary as the lower end of the

sampler is not closed and 1) soil can be scraped off the

walls of the boring as the sampler is lowered or 2) soil
cuttings from the bottom of the boring may partially or
completely fill the sampler prior to its arrival at the
planned sample depth.

Some of the disturbed soil can vent

through the ball check into the rods, but then the vacuum may
be lost when the sampler is withdrawn.

Without vacuum there

is a strong likelihood that the sample will be partially or

completely lost.

5-8

In sampling, the rods are clamped in the drill chuck, and

the sampler pressed for a predetermined distance into the
formation.

After a pause of 2 to 3 minutes to allow the

soil to expand slightly in the sampler, the rods (and

therefore the sampler) are rotated clockwise to shear the
soil sample at the bottom of the sampler.

The sample is

then withdrawn to the surface.

5.3.1.2

St.ationary Piston Sampler.

The stationary piston

sampler, Fig. 5-5, is an improved, but more complicated

sampler which eliminates most of the drawbacks, of the
Shelby tube sampler.

The piston assembly at the end of the

sample prevents entry of disturbed soil during insertion to

the sampling level.

After sampling, the assembly maintains

a vacuum above the sample.

The piston rod (also called actuating rod) extends to the

surface through the center of the drill rods.

Thus, to take

each sample, it is necessary to thread lengths of piston rod

inside the drill rods, and connect the piston rods together
as the sampler is lowered into the boring.

Recovering the

sampler, and sample, is equally complicated and slow.

A piston rod lock is provided preventing the piston rod from

sliding out below the bottom of the sample tube, but allowing
the piston assembly to move freely up.

During insertion to

the sampling level, the piston rod is clamped to the drill

rods at the surface to prevent the upward movement of the
piston assembly.

5-9

Once the sampler is in place, the piston rod is unclamped

and the drill rods are pressed downward for a predetermined
distance.
1)

The operation is as follows:

Before inserting the sampler into the boring,
determine the length of piston rod that will stick
up above the top of the drill rods.

2)

Once the sampler is in place at sampling depth,

and the piston rod is unclamped and free to move,
measure the length sticking up above the drill
rods.

Technically, the length should be the same

as determined prior to insertion.

As a practical

matter, the rod will often be 1 too 3 inches higher

than at the start, indicating that the piston has
been pushed up a like distance, or that the sampler
has moved down that distance.

Thus the space

remaining inside the sampler has also been reduced

by the same length.
3)

The sample should ,be pressed 24 inches less the

distance that the piston rod has risen to prevent
compressing a larger sample into the available
space.

While pressing the sampler in one continuous, steady stroke

(at a rate of about 1 inch/sec.), the piston rod should
not move down along with the drill rods.

If the piston rod

moves downward with the drill rods, the pressing should be

stopped immediately and a check made ,to see that the rod
has been unclamped, i.e. is free to move.

5-10

After completing the press a pause of 2 to 3 minutes should

be made.

Then, 1) the drill rod should be twisted through 1

or 2 complete revolutions (to shear the soil off at the end

of the sampler), 2) the piston rod should be clamped to the
drill rods, and 3) the sampler should be slowly withdrawn.

This sampler is suitable for use in soft to medium clays,

and should not be used in sandy soils.

A heavy rig with a

hydraulic drill head is required to press the sampler.

No

piston sampler should be advanced by hammering.

5.3.1.3

Hydraulic Piston Sampler.

The hydraulic piston

sampler, Fig. 5-6, is an improv(:lment over the stationary

piston sampler in that the activating rods are eliminated,
and the sampling can be done with light, portable drilling
equipment.

Compressed air, water, or other drilling fluids,

under high pressure are pumped through the drill

rods to press the sampler into the formation.

In operation the sampler is lowered to sampling depth after

cleaning the boring of all debris and cuttings.

The bottom

of the sample tube should be flush with the fixed piston at

the start of sampling.

The drill rods are clamped to the

drill chuck or the casing to resist reverse pressure.

Water

or compressed air is pumped through the drill rods to build

up pressure in the chamber between the head and the sample

5-11

tube carrier, forcing the carrier and the sample tube into
the formation.

Once the tube is fully extended, the excess

pressure is vented into the boring.

On extraction, the

fixed piston is in immediate contact with the top of the

sample and a vacuum is developed that helps to prevent loss
of the sample.

This sampler, as with the stationary piston sampler, is suitable

for use in soft to medium clays, and should not be used in sandy
soils.

It can be operated with a light drill rig equipped with

a high pressure pump.

The sampler should not be advanced by

hammering.

5.3.1.4

Double Tube Core Barrel.

The double tube core barrel

may be used successfully to obtain relatively undisturbed

samples of sand and silt above the water level, stiff to
hard clays, soft shale, and soft and friable sandstone.

sampling combines drilling and undisturbed soil sampling

techniques.

The outer tube is provided with cutting teeth

and is rotated to cut away the surrounding soil.

The inner

barrel does not rotate, and is pushed ahead as the outer

barrel rotates.

5-12

A core retainer consisting of very thin and overlapping

springs is placed in the joint between the shoe and the
inner tube.

The inner tube has a liner in which the core is

preserved during shipment and storage.

The inner tube of

the core barrel has a shoe with a sharp cutting edge.

In the Denison Sampler, Fig. 5-8, the extension of the

cutting edge below the outer barrel bit can be varied from
zero to about 3 inches by means of interchangeable coring
bits of various lengths.

The maximum extension is used in

relatively soft or loose soils, and a cutting edge flush

with the coring bit is used in very stiff, in dense, and in
brittle soils.

The operation of the Pitcher Sampler, Fig. 5-9, is quite

similar to the Denison Sampler.

The major difference is

that the extension of the inner barrel beyond the cutting

edge is not pre.set as in the Denison, but can vary, depending
on the downward pressure on the rods and on the spring
tension.

As a result, there is a constant pressure on the

cutting edge.

Thus in soft zones, the inner barrel may move

further ahead of the core teeth; in a harder layer the tube

is forced back even with the teeth.

5-13

5.3.1.5

Hand Trimmed Samples.

Hand trimmed samples may be

obtained in test pits, in test trenches, or in surface

exposures.

Samples so obtained are potentially the least

disturbed of all types of samples.

The basic procedure

consists of trimming out a column of soil the same size or

slightly smaller than the container to be used in transportation, sliding the container over the sample, and
surrounding the sample with wax.

Tight, stiff containers

that can be sealed, and are not readily distorted, should be

used.

The actual method used will depend on the soil.

In very

soft or cohesionless, dry soils, it is probably best to

press a cylinder with a sharp cutt,in g edge over the soil
without much trimming.

If the material exhibits significant

cohesion, or is firm and without gravel sizes, then the

sample may be trimmed to a size just slightly larger than a
container with a sharp cutting edge.

The container can then

be slid over the sample, using the cutting edge to remove

the excess.

If gravel is present, or if the material is

only slightly cohesive, the sample can be disturbed by

forcing the container over it; therefore, the sample should
be trimmed so that there is

inch to

inch of clearance on

all sides inside the container and the void between the
sample and container filled with wax.

5-14

5.4

DISTURBED SAMPLES

A disturbed sample is one in which the strength and structure

of the material are not necessarily preserved in sampling.
The purpose of such samples is to obtain representative
examples of a stratum for examination, identification, and
testing.

Such samples may be obtained from test pits or

test trenches, auger borings, or from conventional borings

in split or solid barrel samplers.

5.4.1

Sampling Equipment and Methods

5.4.1.1

Split Barrel Sampler.

The split barrel sampler,

Fig. 5-11, is simple in design, and can take considerable

punishment without damage.

It is normally driven with a

standard weight hammer as part of the Standard Penetration

Test, discussed in paragraph 5.9.1.

In its standard form, the split barrel sampler is 2.0

inches in outside diameter, and 1 3/8 inches in inside
diameter.

Length varies, but preferably is 24 inches from

the tip of the drive shoe to the upper end of the split
barrel (Appendix C).

Larger size split barrel samplers are

used, some being fitted with inner sampling tubes or rings.

Under certain soil conditions samples obtained in tubes or

5-15

rings are considered undisturbed samples and may be suitable

for laboratory testing to evaluate strength parameters.

When

the sampler is equipped with tubes or rings, it is not used

with the flap valve illustrated in Fig. 5-11 but it may be
equipped with a spring core retainer.

Core retainers often

cause sample disturbance and the field representative should

carefully inspect the samples to observe the extent of
disturbance and decide if the retainer should be removed.

The sampler is lowered to sampling depth and driven for an

18- or 24-inch distance, or until an excess of 100 blows
are required for the sampler to penetrate 6 inches or less
using a l40-pound or heavier hammer.

After sampling, it

is disassembled, the sample removed, and a representative

sample is usually preserved in sealed glass jars.

5.4.1.2

Converse Sampler.

The Converse Sampler, Fig. 5-10,

is a simple and rugged device which can be used to obtain

representative samples of the stratum and under certain
conditions may be used to obtain relatively undisturbed
samples of dense soils that cannot be obtained with a thin
walled sampler.

It may be pressed or hammered into the

ground without damage to the sampler.

The samples are

retained in brass liners which may be extruded in the

field for classification and logging or they may be stored
in plastic cans for laboratory testing.

The sampler is

driven with the kelly bar of a bucket auger or by whatever

5-16

drive hammer is available.

'fhe drive energy may be converted

by formula to ft.-kips/ft.

The sampler has been used for

many years in Southern California and extensive drive energy

data have been accumulated for correlation purposes.

The

field representative should record the kelly bar or hammer

weight and drop distance used, and the number of blows per
6 inches of penetration of the sampler.

5.4.1.3

Retractable Plug Sampler.

The Retractable Plug

pr Porter Sampler, Fig. 5-7, is useful in obtaining samples

of soft soils not accessible to conventional drilling equipment.
It consists of an outer tube and an inner rod made up in
sections depending on desired length.

The sampler plug is

held in the forward position preventing any material from

entering the sampler.

At the desired depth, the plug is

withdrawn, and the sampler is driven forward.

should be avoided.

Hard driving

When the sampler is withdrawn, the tubes

are removed and the sampl.es may be extruded for field

classification or the tubes may be capped and sealed and sent
to the laboratory.

The sampler is recomnended for

recovering silts, clays, and fine loose sands only; the samples
obtained are not suitable for strength testing.

5.4.1.4

Bulk Samples.

Disturbed samples obtained by hand

from the ground surface, road cuts, pits, or trenches are

ordinarily called bulk or grab samples.

5-17

Also included in

this category, however, might be those samples obtained

from equipment operations such as backhoe, dragline, and flight
or bucket augers.

Bulk samples can be taken in a variety of

containers ranging from small plastic bags to barrels.

The

size of sample required depends upon the type of testing to

be done on the material.
in paragraph 5.5.

A discussion of sample size follows

If natural moisture is a factor to be

considered at least a small portion of the sample should be

placed in an airtight container.

It is important that all bulk

samples be taken in an orderly sequence, that accurate

records or logs be made of each sampling location and that
those samples are as representative as possible of the total
soil deposit being explored.

5.5

SAMPLING OPERATIONS

It is important that the field representative keep current

as to exactly what is occurring in the drilling operations.
A close count should be kept on the number of rods in the
drill stem, the length of the sampler, the length of the
drilling

bit, or the length of auger bucket being used.

The field representative should know the length of casing in

place or the depth of boring at any time to the nearest
inch.

Most drill rods and casing used are in even lengths,

drill rods are usually in lengths of 1, 2, 5, or 10 feet

and flush joint casing is in lengths of 2 or 5 feet.

(There

are some metric sizes in use that are near, but not the same
as the convention.al rods.)

Some rods and casing may have

5-18

been cut down and rethreaded.

Drive shoes on casing can add

a length that is readily forgotten.

Sampler and chopping

bits come in all sizes.

One good field rule is to measure and check everything to be

used at the very beginning of field operations.

If the rods

and casing are all the same, then the problem of control is
reduced.

For example, one rod 6 inches shorter than the

rest, or a forgotten drive shoe 6 inches long, can mean that

sample depths being recorded are inaccurate by 6 inches.
If the field representative observes that there has been
driven, for example, five lengths of casing, each 5 feet
long, plus a 6-inch drive shoe, and that the casing is sticking
6 inches above the ground, then the bottom of the casing is
exactly at the 25-foot depth.

However, if the driller then

lowers a 30-inch long- sampler down the boring on a string of

rods made up of two 10-foot lengths and a 5-foot length, the
rod should not stick anything other than 30 inches above the
ground, or 24 inches above the casing.

If the measurements

are not as calculated, the field representative should find

out what is wrong before the sampling operation proceeds.
The check is easy wi-th one quick measurement and a little
mental arithmetic.

Each field representative will evolve the

best method of keeping current as to the exact depth of the

boring and/or sample depth, tailored to the particular
drilling assemblage in use,

5-19

5.5.1

Undisturbed

Unless certain simple precautions are observed, even though

the sampler is properly designed and the boring properly
stabilized and carefully cleaned, non representative samples
may be obtained.

Samples may be disturbed, incomplete, or

even lost when improper methods are used to force the sampler
into the soils.

The following guidance applies to sampling

operations in which difficulties are not normally encountered.

Preparations.--The sampler should be carefully cleaned and

vents, check valves, piston packing, clamps, and other parts
checked for proper function.

Tubing or liners with the

appropriate length for the sampler being used and cutting

edges or shoes with the proper clearances for the soil
conditions should be selected.

The lengths of the drill

rods in operating position should be checked.

(The

cumulative effect of small deviations from the nominal

length may be considerable for deep borings.)

Number of Samples.--The number of samples'required from a

boring depends on the purpose of the boring and the type of
project.

Prior to initiation of the exploration program the

Project Manager should specify the sampling requirements.

common method is to sample every 5 feet and at changes of

lithology; however, that frequency may be more than required
for some projects or less than required for others.

5-20

Initial penetration.--The penetration of an open sampler

under its own weight and that of the drill rod should be
assessed.

A piston sampler should be forced through the zone

of disturbed soil before the piston is released and the actual

sampling is started.

It is desirable to assess the penetration

of the closed sampler below the bottom of the boring.

The actual sampling.--Whenever possible, the sampler should

be forced into the soil by fast, uninterrupted pushing.

single blow of a heavy drop hammer will produce equally good

results provided the sampler has sufficiently large and
streamlined vents and provided the material to be sampled
does not have a sensitive structure;

There should be no

rotation of the sampler during the downward movement.

Interruptions of the movement t.o reset hydraulic cylinders,
blocking, tackle, etc., will often cause a drop in the
recovery ratio and increase the penetration resistance.

Rest period.--After completion of the drive, it is advisable

to wait 2 to 3 minutes before starting the actual separation
and withdrawal operation to allow full development of adhesion
and friction between the sample and the sample tube.

Separation of sample from subsoil.--Before starting the

actual withdrawal, a moderate pull should be exerted on the
drill rod while it is rotated through 2 or 3 full revolutions
to be certain that the rotation is transmitted to the sampler

5-21

and not merely taken up in the joints of the drill rod.

The initial pull should facilitate separation of the sample from
from the subsoil, but it should not be so great as to cause
an upward movement of the drill rod before the sampler has
been rotated.

Withdrawal of the sampler.--After rotation, the sampler should

be withdrawn slowly and at uniform speed; great acceleration,
shocks, and vibrations should be avoided, especially in sampling
of soft or cohesionless soils.

The sample is often lost at the

moment the sampler is raised above the surface of water or

drilling fluid in the boring.

The fluid surface sinks as the

drill rod and sampler are withdrawn, and it is advisable to

keep the boring filled during the,withdrawal, except in a dry
boring.

5.5.2

Disturbed

Disturbed samples obtained with any of the samplers are taken

in much the same manner as previously described.

Bulk samples,

on the other hand, are usually transferred from the sampling

location to the container by shovel.

It is important that representative samples be obtained.

In

sampling open banks such as road cuts or trenches, an excellent

technique is to take a "channel sample" where a channel about
12 inches i.n width is delineated from top to bottom of the bank.
Shovel samples are obtained systematically with depth and at

5-22

changes in lithology of the soil.

A composite sample would

be a representative mixture of material from the top to the

bottom of the channel.

Sampling from a flight auger is done by grabbing samples as

the soil rises to the top of the flights.

The field

representative should be aware of the lag in time from when

the auger bit bores into the soil and when it reaches the
top (Fig. 5-1) and should account for this lag when recording
the depth of sample.

Sampling requirements vary, but,

samples are often taken systematically such as at 5-foot

intervals and at changes of material.

sampling from helical, disc and bucket augers (Fig. 4-5) is

similar in that Samples are obtained directly from the
auger or from the disposal pile after dumping.

Determining

depth of sample from these augers is much easier than with flight
augers.

Sampling is done systematically as previously

described for flight

5.6

5.6.1

auger~.

PREVENTING LOSS OF SAMPLES

Undisturbed

The greatest danger of loss occurs at the start of the withdrawal and until the cutting edge of the sampler is above the
bottom of the boring.

The principal causes of loss of samples

are the following:

5-23

1)

excessive air or water pressure on top of the

sample, caused by fluid in the drill rod; air
between the top of the sample and a check valve;
and leakage around check valves or pistons,
through joints in the liner, or between the tubing
and the sampler head;

2)

improper clearance ratio between cutting tip and

sample tubes;

3)

insufficient development of friction and adhesion

between sample and sampling tube or liner;

4)

insufficient length of sample to transmit the

required total forces from the sample tube or
liner to the sample;

5)

great tensile strength of the soils, or adhesion

between the subsoil and bottom of a sample;

6)

development of a partial vacuum'or a decrease in

hydrostatic pressure below the sample;

7)

progressive internal failure of soil with little

or no cohesion, caused by its dead weight and/or
a downward flow of fluid through the sample, or due
to turbulence in, and erosion by, fluid below the
sampler during rapid withdrawal; and

5-24

exces!?ive aocelerationapd speed, s.hocks, and

/

vibrations during withdrawal of the. sampler.

The total friction

and adhesion
between sample apd sampler
.
.
increases with increasing length of sample, whereas the
differenoe between the forces aoting on the top and bottom
of the sample.ispraotioal)..y

indep~ndent q

the length but

incrE;lat;les with increasing. cross-sE)otionalarea Or with the

square 9f the diameter of the sample.

Likewise, the danger

Of pJ;Cogressive internal failure of the soil,inc;t;eases

rapidly with inc;t;easing diameter of.thflsamPle.

In general,

the difficulties in retaining the Sample dll;t;ing withdrawal

deGrease with increasing length and'.increaaewith increaEling
diameter of the sample.

When precautions. are taken,. saniplE;ls up to

.3 inohes I

;2

inohes, and often

in diameteJ;' , oan usually be r.etained without

difficulty, at least whE;Jn samplers with a piston are use9-'

When diffioulties are enoountered in r.staining samples of
small diameter, it is generally suffioientto malee minor
modifications in the sampling.procedure and equipment.

Suoh

modifications may also suffice to retain large-diameter. samples

of many soils, but special methods and equipnv;mt are often
rE;Jqvired to prevent lOSEl of large-diameter samples of soft
or oohesionless soils.

5-25

Before making any massive changes in sampling procedures,

the sampler should be thoroughly inspected to ascertain that
its various parts are in proper working condition.

Defective

p'arts should be cleaned, repaired, or replaced as may be'

requ'ired.

The ball check valves are easily fouled by dirt, and should
be cleaned p'rior to each sampling.

Leakage through' the

joint between a sample tube and the adapter, between the top
of a liner and the sampler head, and through, tti!fJoints in a
split' barrel may decrease or destroy t~lfet:ivEmess of
check valves and cause loss of sayl~":fg~,especia'11y in
cohesionless' soil .
.-, ,.'" -'-'
-,.
:->~\!:r>
One of the most;, wfdely<used, ine:~Jldds.~dr'preventing loss of

samples of soLE.Consists of :~t~vidi~g core springs, flap

valves, or 61jlter}t.ypesoi"'.core retainers in the sampler
-

shoe

--',

The me'tnbdfgi. simple in operation and generally

successfu.}iIiretaining samples of stiff soils, but it is not

always effective when the sample consists of very soft soil
or loose cohesionless soils.

The core 'retainer may cause

disturbance of such soil samples and may not be effective in

retaining the samples.

A small increase in the length of the rest period between

completion of the drive and start of the withdrawal will, in
many cases, increase the adhesion and friction between the
sample and the sampler.

This may also increase the strength

5-26

of the thin layer of disturbed soil at the surface of the

sample, especially in soils which are very sensitive to
remolding.

(The increase in strength of the disturbed

surface layer is, in part, caused by dissipation of excess

porewater pressures and consequent consoU,.dat:i.on and, in part,
by thixotropic processes.)

On the other hand, an excessively

long rest period may permit appreciable consolidat:i.on or

1iwe),.ling of the whole sample and/or an increase in outside
friction and adhesion such that the sampler cannot be rotated
without breaking or distorting. the joipts in the drill r<;ld,
the joint between the adapter and thin-walled sample tube, Or
the t1.11;>e itself.

Short samples are often lost because the total inside fr:i.ction
and adhesion is insufficient to transmit the forces required
to separate the sample from the. subsoil by a direct pull, or
by combined pull and. rotation.

An increase in length of

sample may, in such cases, be sufficient to prevent loss of

aample.

Actua),. overdriving is one of the oldest and most effective

methods for preventing loss of samples of cohesion less or
partially saturated soils.

Although it may cause compaction

of the samples (an undesirable disturbapce), it increasea the

inside wall friction and the strength of the soil.

Therefore,

overd:r:iving should be used only when a disturbed sample is

acceptable.

5-27

5.6.2

Disturbed

Much of the foregoing discussion concerning undisturbed

samples applies to disturbed samples when using samplers.
/

Even when a sample will not be used for strength testing,

it is 'very important that it be obtained in a form so
that logging of the lithology and structure can be confidently
accomplished.

Loss of samples from auger operations is generally not a

problem.

When it occurs it is usually due to poor condition

of equipment (e.g. worn cutting teeth) or the wrong equipment

for the work.

5.7

SAMPLE SIZES

The size of sample will vary depending on the grada'tion of

the material and on'ttie intended use of the sample.

Only a

few ounces are needed for a visual identification of a finegrained soil, while a pound or more might be necessary for a
proper laboratory identification of a coarse-grained soil.
The following is a guide to the minimum quantities required
for laboratory testing.

5.7.1

Identification Tests

Samples for laboratory identification testing will depend on

the size of the coarse fraction:

5-28

Fine-grained soils (silts, clays, sand/silt combinations

wit~out

gravel

si~es)

- minimum of 350 grams-say

pint.

Coarse-grained soils (sand-silt-gravel mixtures).

Size

dependent on diameter of largest size.

Diameter of largest
gravel

5.7.2

Minimum Weight (Air-Dry)

(pounds)

3/8"

3/4"

2~

1 "

2 "

10

Compaction Tests

If l&rge:;;tpaJ;'ticle size does not pass t):le #4 sieve, then a

minimum of 16 pounds of air-dry soil is needed for each
point on the GUrVe; thus, the sample should be between 80
and 100 pounds, with an absolute minimum of 50 pounds.

If larger size particles are present, then the larger sizes

have to be sieved out in the lab, and replaced with material
between the 3/4" sieve and the #4 sieve.

A larger sample

consequently is needed, on the order of 25 to 30 pounds for

each point on the curve, or at least 100 pounds, and preferably
150 pounds.

5-29

5.7.3

Other Tests

Permeabi l i ty
A.

Disturbed
1.
2.
3.

B.

Minus No. 4 Soil

Minus 3/4" Material
Minus 2" Material

7 to 10 Ibs
20 Ibs
200 Ibs
one 6-inch tube

Undisturbed

Direct Shear
A.

Disturbed

SIbs

B.

Undisturbed

Minimum of 6 inches
of material in a thinwalled sample tube or
liner. Preier full 24inch recovery for full
cycle of tests.

consolidation
A.

Disturbed

5 Ibs

B.

Undisturbed

Minimum of 6 inches
of material in thinwalled sample tube or
liner.

Triaxial Compression
A.

Disturbed

10 Ibs

B.

Undisturbed

Preferably full 24-inch

recovery of undisturbed
material in a thin walled
sample tube. Minimum of 10
inches required for single
test.

5-30

5.8

5.8.1

PRESERVATION AND SHIPMENT OF SAMPLES

Undisturbed

The dismantling of the sampler upon its withdrawal from the

boring should be performed without shocks and blows which
would cause disturbance of the sample.

The gross length of

soil samples should be estimated after eliminating any wash.

If the lower part of a sample is lost, the length of the
lost part should be estimated and the probable cause of the
loss recorded.

Undisturbed soil samples should be preserved

in the sample tube or in liners to minimize disturbances

caused by removal and handling of the unprotected sample
under adverse conditions in,the field.

When the samples are

obtained by block sampling methods, they are usually given a

coating Of, or encased in, wax.

Seriously disturbed parts of the sample should be separated

from the undisturbed parts and discarded.

The possibility

of migration of porewater from the disturbed to the undisturbed

parts of a sample is thus minimized.

When carefully performed, satisfactory protection of the

sample can be obtained by sealing in wax, but difficulties
and defective sealing are often encountered in practical
applications.

The wax used in sealing is subject to con-

siderable shrinkage during congealing and shrinkage, especially

5-31

at joints where melted wax has been poured on top of

congealed and relatively cool wax.

Samples in long, thin-wall sample tubes or in long liners

may be sealed with a plug of paraffin and beeswax at least
3/4-inch thick.

The wax should be applied at a temperature

as close as possible to its congealing temperature. The

physical properties of the wax can be improved to some
extent by mixing several grades of paraffin having different
melting and congealing temperatures and also by admixtures
of ceresine, carnaubawax. or beeswax.

Beeswax does not

shrink as much as paraffin and has stronger adhesion to

metal, but it is not as airtight as paraffin and should not
be used when the samples are to be stored for protracted
periods.

When samples are to be stored for short periods,

reusable expansible plugls are sometimes preferred in lieu

of wax.

Short liner sections are sealed with caps, which should be

of the same metal as the liner or of electrically inactive
materials in order to avoid electrolysis and chemical
changes of the soil.

It is advisable to cover the top and

bottom of samples of relatively impervious soils with a thin

layer of paraffin and to place the cap while the paraffin is
still liquid.

The joint between the cap and the liner

should be sealed with adhesive tape and by dipping in

paraffin or sealing compound.

5-32

The joint may also be sealed

with a rubber band when the samples are to be tested within

24 hours after sampling.

However, planned testing may be

superceded and the samples stored for much longer periods;

thus, the best practical seal should be obtained in the
field.

When the sample consists of swelling soils, the caps

should be secured in such a manner that expansion of the

sample is prevented.

5.8.1.1

Marking of Samples.

All samples and containers

should be clearly marked with the number of the project,

boring and sample number, and top and bottom of the sample.
Other information such as date of sampling, depths between
which the sample is taken, type of material, method of
sampling, gross and net

len~ths,

and recovery ratios may be

included.

5.8.1.2

Packing and Shipment.

Undisturbed samples should

be protected, as far as possible, against vibrations and

shocks.

Where possible, they should be transported in

private vehicles and placed in upright position in padded

crates or on a mattress.

When undisturbed samples are to be

shipped by common carriers, they should be packed in strong

wooden boxes and surrounded with excelsior or sawdust.

The

samples should at all times be protected against freezing.

Undisturbed samples of loose cohesion less soils are particularly sensitive to vibrations, and they cannot be
shipped by common carriers without suffering some compaction

5-33

and disturbance of the soil structure.

When such samples

are intended for accurate laboratory tests, they should be

transported in private and carefully driven vehicles .

. 5.8.2

Disturbed

The sampler should be dismantled and the gross length of

sample estimated after eliminating all waste.

If sample is

missing, the length of lost part should be estimated and

probable cause of loss recorded.

If samples are in tubes

they can be sealed in much the same fashion as undisturbed

samples for detailed logging, classification, and moisture
tests in the laboratory.
logged in the field.

Samples can also be extruded and

The extruded sample can then be

preserved in containers, e.g. glass jars' with screw lids

and gaskets, or if there is a reason to preserve the soil
structure for later examination, the extruded cores can be
wrapped in foil and dipped in wax.

Split barrel samples, if

recovered during 8PT are generally preserved in glass jars with

a screw top and gasket.

Bulk samples are generally preserved in plastic or canvas bags.

If samples are to be stored for any length of time, it is
unlikely that natural moisture can be retained, therefore,
if moisture is important, a small sample should be placed in a
sealed container such as a glass jar with screw cap and gasket.

5-34

5.8.2.1

Marking of Containers.

Containers should be clearly

marked with the number of the project, sample location or

boring, depth interval, and sample number.

Where there is

a chance of an outside identification tag being torn off, or

the information obliterated, a duplicate tag should be placed
inside the container.

5.8.2.2

Packing and Shipment.

Samples should be packed for

shipment in such a manner that the containers are protected

against breakage and also against excessive moisture which
may cause deterioration of labels and tags.

A form of packing

and shipment where samples are not exposed to the elements is

preferred.

5.9

IN SITU TESTS

other paragraphs of this section 'have dealt in some detail

with the equipment and ,techniques that are encountered in
exploration.

The most commonly used in situ test, Standard

Penetration Test (SPT), is explained in some detail herein while

the remaining paragraphs are devoted to providing brief
descriptions of unusual exploration procedures, or of tests
that are not commonly performed by CWDD.

The information

contained herein is insufficient to actually monitor the

performance of such tests, but provides an idea of their use
and usefulness.

5-35

5.9.1

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The purpose of the Standard Penetration Test is to provide

some means of evaluating the strength and relative density
of the soils.

Correlations have been establsihed between

N-value (blows per foot of penetration) and consistency and

unconfined compressive strength in clays, and of compactness
in sands.

These correlations, given in Tables 7-6 and 7-7,

must be used with extreme caution.

The location of the test

relative to the location of the groundwater level can be

important, and requires an adjustment in N-value, especially
in fine sands.

Depth, rod diameter,. and material penetrated

must all be considered in the anlaysis.

Sources 0 further

reading are provided in Refs. 16 and 29.

This test is performed with the standard 2 inch O.D. split

barrel sampler, driven bya 140-pound hammer dropping 30 inches
in free fall.

The test should be performed in accordance with

ASTM Standard D 1586-67 (Appendix C).

The procedure is generalized as follows:

1)

clean the boring of all loose material, and

material disturbed by drilling, before inserting
sampler;

2)

administer a few light taps with the hammer to

seat sampler;

5-36

3)

drive the sampler at least 18 inches, or

until normal maximum resistance (refusal) is
reached, using the standard hammer and drop
(Refusal can be defined as a penetration of
less than 6 inches for 100 hammer blows) ;

4)

count and record the blows required to drive

each 6 inches of penetration; and

5)

obtain a consistent 3D-inch free-fall drop of the

hammer with two wraps of a rope around the cathead on the
drill rig.

(Cables attached to the hoisting

drum should not be used since it is difficult to

obtain a free fAll.)

5.9.2

Cone Penetrometer Tests

The purpose of the cone penetrometer test is to evaluate the

resistance of the soil.

This test, Fig. 5-12, simply involves

forcing a cone into the ground and measuring the rate or

pressure needed for each increment of penetration.

Commonly

used penetrometers are illustrated in Fig. 5-13.

The resistance to penetration is the sum of point resistance

and frictional resistance on the sides of the shaft.

The

more sophisticated systems can differentiate between the

point and frictional components of the resistance, and the
ratio between frictional and point resistance is one aid in
differentiating between various soil types.

5-37

Clean sands

generally exhibit very low ratios (low friction component in

comparison to point resistance), while an increase in clay
content will usually result in a higher ratio, more often
the result of a reduction in point resistance rather than a
change in frictional component.

In most cone penetrometer systems, regardless of the

sophistication, the apparatus is located in position and
soil reaction anchors installed.

The cone is forced into

the ground at a constant rate and a plot of pressure vs.

depth is prepared.
gages.

The system is provided with pressure

Loading pressures of 1750 tons/ft 2 are commonly

available, with up to 1000 tons/ft 2 usable with small

portable equipment.

When frictional resistance is measured, the system consists

of two or sometimes three concentric pipes, with the inner
pipe connected to the point, and the outer (or middle) pipe
to a sleeve located just above the point.
a 3-pipe system functions as a casing.

The outer pipe in

The rods can be

advanced separately or together, depending on the parameters

being measured.

The point used in the most common test, the Dutch

Cone, has a point angle of 60 degrees and a projected end
area of 10cm2 (Fig. 5-13).

The penetration rate used lies

5-38

between 2 and 4 feet per minute. The inner rods are advanced
first, advancing the point.

After a short distance, 1.5

inches, the outer sleeve also starts to move, giving a

reading for the combined resistance.

Finally, the outer rod

is pushed alone, giving a measure of only the frictional

resistance.

The pressures that are measured during penetration can be

converted readily into strength values of the soils.

Some

correlations have also been made with compressibility

parameters.

The static cone test can be used as a partial replacement

for conventional borings.

'rhe speed of operations allows

considerable data to be obtained in a short period of time.

The data requires careful and cautious interpretation.

5.9.3

Menard Pressuremeter

The pressuremeter can be used to estimate the deformation

modulus of any soil or soft rock with a modulus not exceeding
one million pounds per square inch, but is most effective in
soils that can be drilled without erosion or without collapse
of the sidewalls of the boring.

A close fit between the probe

and the sidewalls of the boring is necessary for accurate

results.

5-39.

The basic idea behind the pressuremeter test is the measurement of the expansion of a cylindrical cavity, formed in
situ, to provide a relationship between pressure and
deformation of the soil.

In practice, a boring is made to

the level at which the test is to be performed; a length of

the boring forms the cylindrical cavity.

The pressuremeter

probe is inserted and then inflated to expand the cavity,

while a record is kept of the resulting volume change.

The

probe is designed so the length of the cavity does not

change; the increase in volume is due only to radial
expansion of the cavity.

Fig. 5-14 presents a schematic

drawing showing the arrangement of equipment.

The pressuremeter consists of three parts; the probe, the

control unit, and the concentric tubing.

Water is used to

pressurize the probe and thUS. measure the resulting volume

change.

The probe consists of three flexible, impervious rubber

cells that can be expanded against the sidewall of the
boring.

The upper and lower cells are inflated with gas

to seal the boring and prevent the central measuring cell

from expanding other than laterally.

The function of the control unit is to apply a given pressure to the probe and to measure the volume change in the
central measuring cell.

The tubing connects the probe and

the control unit.

5-40

5.~.4

Vane Shear Test

The .Vane Shear Test is frequently used to measure the

undisturbed and remolded shearing resistance of cohesive
soils (Fig. 5-15).

A standard 4-inch boring is made, and

when the casing has advanced to the desired test depth,

3-inch wide steel vane on a ;,-inch rod is lowered to the

bottom of the casing.

Guides are spaced at 30-foot intervals

in the casing to center the ;,-inch rod.

The vane is then

pushed to a depth 2;' feet below the casing and a torsion

applied at a constant rate.
casing.

The torsion head is set on the

Ball bearings wi,thin the head and the intermediate

guides in the casing provide friction-free movement.

The shearing resistance is measured on a proving ring

located on the torsion head.

When failure occurs, torsion

is stopped and the sample is allowed to "set" momentarily.

The test is then rerun and the remolded shearing resistance
is measured.

A measure of the "sensitivity" of the soil is

obtained by comparing the remolded values with the undisturbed

values.

Correlations with shear strengths computed for actual failure

cases suggest that the vane shear test may be the most
reliable method of evaluating the in situ shear strength of
soft to firm cohesive soils.

5-41

5.10

SUBMARINE SAMPLERS

Many types of samplers are available for offshore exploration.

In selecting the type of sampler to be used, consideration
must be given to numerous factors including:

depth of water

where samples are to be taken; type of sediment or formation

anticipated; type of sample required, grab or tube samples;
etc.

The following paragraphs briefly discuss the most

common samplers used in CWDD offshore work.

A thorough

discussion of offshore samplers and exploration techniques

for shallow sampling are found in Refs. 48, 49, and 50.

5.10.1

Petersen Dredge

The Petersen Dredge is a versatile and reliable grab sampler

(Fig. 5-16).

With the Petersen Dredge, one can obtain grab

samples of submarine surface sediments at numerous locations

within a relatively short period of time.

The dredge weighs

approximately 100 pounds and has a capacity of approximately

0.4 cubic foot. The sampler is effective to water depths of

200 feet or more when additional weight is added.

If the

dredge is in good condition with jaws that precisely mate,

the retrieved sample may be relatively intact and
stratification of the top four inches of the sediment
surface may be visually observed.

5-42

5.10.2

Open Barrel Gravity Corer

This sampler is rather simple in design and is available in

a wide range of weights and sizes (Fig. 5-17).

Corebarrel

lengths range from 6 to 30 feet and have diameters from 2.5

to 6 inches.

Corer weights may correspondingly range from

100 pounds to 2000 pounds.

Most corers contain plastic

liners but are not equipped with a check valve.

open barrel gravity corers are generally operated by letting

the sampler spool freely off the winch drum from the water
surface to the sediment surface.

Ordinarily about 35 feet

of water is required to obtain satisfactory samples,

There

is no maximum water depth at which samples can be taken

although more weight, line, and larger vessels become
necessary with greater depths.

The weight of the sampler,

which can be varied, is relied upon to produce the driving

force for the desired penetration.

Retrieved sediment

samples are usually not suitable for strength testing unless

short, large diameter samples are obtained with minimal core
shortening.

5-43

5.10.3

Phleger Corer

The Phleger Corer, Fig. 5-18a, is a small, relatively lightweight, gravity corer that may be used to obtain samples of
the upper 1 to 3 feet of underwater surface sediments.

With

a weight of less than 60 pounds and easily handled by two

people, it can be used to obtain samples in the 25- to 200foot water depth range.

It is hydrodynamically designed

with stabilizer fins to enhance vertical penetration of the

sediments.

The corer has a built-in check valve which

permits flow of water through the corer during descent but

prevents water from entering and disturbing the sample
during the retrieval process.

Core barrels are approximately

1.5 inches in diameter and are available in 12-, 24- and 36inch lengths.

Clear plastic liners are housed inside the

barrels for retainment of the ~amples.

A core cutter and

optional core catcher are attached to the end of the core

barrel.

Plastic caps are available for sealing the ends of

the core liners.

The clear plastic liners facilitate the

classification and recording of the sediment materials and

stratification.

A release (trigger)

level is available to provide free

fall of the corer (Fig. 5-18b).

Free fall is usually obtained

if the trip arm is activated 10 to 20 feet above the bottom.

Trial and error can be used to ascertain the optimum free
fall height required to obtain the maximum penetration.

5-44

A quantitative measure of the penetration resistance of the

sediments may be obtained by measuring the depth of penetration
following free fall.

The depth of penetration may be

indicated by the mud line observed on the retrieved core

barrel or by the use of vaseline or grease spread along the
side of the core barrel.

The degree of sample disturbance

may be evaluated by comparing the depth of core barrel

penetration with the length of recovered sample.

5.10.4

Piston Gravity Corer

The piston gravity corer is capable of obtaining relativelY

undisturbed samples that are suitable for strength tests if
an experienced sampling crew, uses proper procedures.

The

water depths for sampling are similar to those of the open

barrel gravity corer.

Although piston corers are avail1;tble

in a variety of sizes, the standard Ewing piston corer

weighs approximately 200 pounds and comes with a 2.5-inch
diameter core barrel, 10 feet in length (Fig. 5-19a).
Additional weights and 10-foot sections of core barrel can
be added.

Core catchers may also be used.

The sediment

samples are retained in clear plastic liners.

Plastic end

caps are available for sealing the sample in preparation for

shipment.

The piston corer is used with a release (trigger) lever to

attain free fall conditions and to prevent the piston from

5-45

penetrating the sediment surface (Fig. 5-19b).

The slack in

the winch wire line below the trigger lever is adjusted so

that at the end of the free fall the piston remains stationary
at the sediment surface while the core barrel penetrates the
bottom sediments.

It is imperative that at the moment the

trigger lever is activated, the descent of the winch wire

line is also stopped.

Hence, the necessity for a trained

and experienced crew.

The amount of core shortening should be evaluated so that

the degree of sample disturbance can be judged.

Therefore,

the depth of core barrel penetration should be measured and

compared to the length of the recovered sample.

If the two

are approximately the same, then1;:he sample should be

relatively undisturbed and suitable for conducting strength
tests.

Strength tests should be conducted as soon as possible

after the sediment samples are retrieved.

Pocket penetrometers

or Torvanes may be used before the samples are sealed for

shipment.

If at all possible, all core samples should be

stored in a vertical position so that the sediment stratification is not disturbed during transit.

5.10.5

Vibratory Corer

The vibratory corer is an ocean bottom platform sampler

which is operated from a surface support vessel.

There are

pneumatically and hydraulically driven models available, but,

5-46

most experience in CWDD has been with the corer which consists
of a pneumatic impacting vibratory hammer mounted on top of
a core barrel four inches in diameter.

The core barrel is

normally 20 feet long but may be extended to 40 feet.

The

vibratory hammer and barrel are attached to a guide beam,

which is, in turn, supported by a four-legged base platform
(Fig. 5-20).

A 3.5 inch-diameter plastic liner is housed in

the core barrel to contain the sampled sediments.

A check

valve at the top of the core barrel and a spring leaf core
retainer at the bottom are used to retain the sediment
sample during the withdrawal and recovery of the corer.

The

vibratory corer is normally handled by a crane mounted on a

ship or barge.

The draft of the support vessel limits the

minimum water depth at which: the corer can be operated.

maximum water depth is normally 200 feet.

The

An umbilical

conduit carries compressed air into the vibratory hammer,

provides exhaust to the atmosphere, and allows transmission of
the measured penetration rates to the support vessel.
Coarse gravel or cobble layers may restrict penetration by
the vibratory corer but jetting alternatives may be available
for finer grained, resistant layers.

Although the retrieved

sediment samples are disturbed during the vibratory penetration,

all of the sediment profile may be recovered.

The penetration rates are measured by a potentiometer and

are recorded on a strip chart on the support vessel.

The

strip chart records feet of penetration vs. time in seconds.

5-47

A penetration resistance curve can be obtained if the data

are plotted in the form of time in seconds required to
penetrate one foot vs. the depth in feet penetrated.

The

penetration resistance curves are very useful in determining

location of resistant layers.

Also, there have been attempts

in the published literature to correlate the vibratory

penetration resistance curves with the standard SPT blow
counts (Ref. 48).

5-48

TABLE 5-1
Cm1MON SAMPLERS

~MPLER

DIMENSIONS

FOR UNDISTURBED
SHELBY TUBE

METHOD OF
PENETRATION

POSSIBLE
CAUSES OF
DISTURBANCE

FOR COHESIVE
FINE-GRAINED OR
SOFT SOILS.
GRAVELLY SOILS
WILL CRIMP THE

PRESSING WITH FAST,

SMOOTH STROKE. CAN
BE CAREFULLY HAM-

ERRATIC PRESSURE
APPLIED DURING
SAMPLING.

REMARKS

SA~IPLES

3" OD -2.875 ID

MOST COMMON
~AILABLE fROM
TO 5" Ou.

~LENGTH
0" SAMPLER
IS
STANDARD

STATIONARY
PISTON

BEST RESULTS
IN SOIL TYPES

3"OD-2. 875 ID
MOST COMMON.

AY,A+~A~~Eot~OM

~O"
SAMPLE
LENGTH IS

MERED.

TUBE.

FOR SOFT TO

MED I un CLA I SAND

FINE SILTS. NOT

FOR SANDY SOILS.

PRESSING WITH CON-

T1NUOUS, STEADY

STROKES.

STANDARD

HYDRAULIC
PISTON

HAHHERING J

GRAVEL PARTICLES,
CRIKPING TUBE
EDGE.
IMPROPER SOIL
TYPES FOR SAMPLER.
ERRATIC PRESSURE
DURING SAMPLING.
ALLOWING PISTON
ROD TO KOVE DURING PRESS.
IMPROPER SOIL
TYPES FOR SAMPLER.

FOR SILTS-CLAYS
AND SOME SANDY.
SOILS.
--.-.-,.

DENISON

CAN BE USED

IMPROPERl'POPERAT-

AND SANDS WI'

SOME PLASTIC

PROCEDURES,

HARD CLAY" SI~~'.~";\;i;~I:DI'AUU

ING SAMPLER I

POOR DRILLING

SIMPLEST SAMPLER FOR

UNDISTURBED SAMPLES.
BORING SHOULD BE
CLEAN BEFORE LOWERING SAMPLER.
LITTLE WASTE AREA
IN SAMPLER.

PISTON AT END OF
SAMPLER PREVENTS
ENTRY OF FLUID,
AND CONTAMINATING
MATERIAL. REQUIRES
HEAVY DRILL RIG WITH
HYDRAULIC DRILL HEAD
GENERALLY LESS DISTURBED SAMPLES THAN
SHELBY.
NEEDS ONLY STANDARD ,
DRILL RODS. REQUIRES
ADEQUATE HYDRAULIC OR
AIR CAPACITY TO ACTIVIATE
SAMPLER. GENERALLY LESS
DISTURBED SAMPLES THAN
SHELBY,

INNER TUBE FACE PROJECTS BEYOND OUTER

TUBE WHICH ROTATES.
AMOUNT OF PROJECTION
CAN BE ADJUSTED.

GENERALLY TAKES GOOD

SAMPLES.
PITCHER
SAMPLER

SAME AS DENISON

DIFFERS FROM DENISON

IN THAT INNER TUBE
PROJECTION IS SPRING
CONTROLLED.

VIBRATION

SPT IS KADE USING

FOR DISTURBED SAMPLES

SPLIT
BARREL

:Kfi-

1.

37sYd

I S STANDARD"'!);'!
PENEt~.O. ~..EUR'S IZ~S
UP To--q-:-.--OD - 3.~"
ID AVAILABLE

ALL FINE-GRAINED
SOILS IN WHICH
SAMPLER CAN BE
DRIVEN. GRAVELS
INVALIDATE DRIVE
DATA.

HAMMER DRIVEN

CONVERSE

SAMPLER 3" aD 5"

~~~PLE SIZE 2.
1<' SAMPLE LENGIH
POSS IBLE WITH 1
LINER RINGS

FOR COHESIVE
FINE-GRAINED
SOILS

HAMMER DRIVEN

HARD OR SANDY
SOILS
VIBRATION

RETRACTABLE
PLUG

I" aD

FOR SILTS,
CLAYS AND FINE,
LOOSE SANDS.

HAMMER DRIVEN

IMPROPER SOIL
TYPES FOR SAMPLER.
VIBRATION.

TUBES 6"
MAXIMUM OF
b TUBES CAN BE
FILLED IN SINGLE
~ONG.

PENETRATION.

STANDt~B~PENETROMETER

WITH
o~At-1MER
FALLING

UNDISTURBED SAMPLES .
OFTEN TAKEN WITH
LARGE SIZE SAMPLERS
EQUIPPED WITH LINERS.
SOME SAMPLE DISTURBANCE IS LIKELY.
A RUGGED, SIMPLY
CONSTRUCTED SAMPLER.
SOME SAMPLE DISTURBANCE LIKELY.
LIGHT WEIGHT, HIGHLY
PORTABLE UNIT CAN BE
HAND CARRIED TO JOB.
SAMPLE DISTURBANCE
IS LIKELY.

TABLE 5-2
COMMON SUBllARINE SAIiPLERS

AIPLER

SIZE OF SAMPLE

LENG TH OF SAI1PLE

PETERSEN
DREDGE

GRAB

6/1

OPEN BARREL
GRAVITY
CORER

PHLEGER
CORER

PISTON
GRAVITY
CORER

STANDARD
HAS
2"
BARREL
COB~R

METHOD OF
PENETRATI ON

REMARKS

TO 200' AND MORE

WITH ADDITIONAL
WEIGHT

CLAM SHELL JAW

RELIABLE GRAB
SAMPLER, INTACT
SAMPLES MAY BE
OBTAINED WITH JAWS
THAT PRECISELY MATE,

cORE BARRELS
LENQIH FROM 6'

ABOUT 35' WATER

REQUIRED TO
OPERATE SAMPLER,
NO LIMIT ON DEPTH
BUT REQUIRED WEIGHT,
AMOUNT OF LINE, OR
SIZE OF VESSEL MAY
CONTROL,

SPOOLED FREELY
OFF THE WINCH
DRUM

SIMPLE IN DESIGN
AND AVAILABLE IN
LARGE RANGE OF
WEIGHTS AND SIZES,
SAMPLES NOT USUALLY
SU ITABLE FOR
STRENGTH TESTS,

CORE BARRELS
~ILBB~E IN
,Zq AND

FROM 25' TO 200' ,

fB~E FA~b FROM

1U TO 2 ' ABOVE
BOTTOM

RELATIVELY LIGHTWEIGHT ~ORER FOR

UPPER 1 TO 3' OF
BOTTOM SEDIMENTS,
SAMPLES USUALLY NOT
SU !TABLE FOR
STRENGTH TESTS,

DEPTH

TO JU'

ABOUT 1.5"
DIAMETER

WATER DEPTH
11lllTATlONS

i~

II

LENGTHS

~Wi~'~:iLL

STANDARO BARREL
s 10', ADDITIONAL
0' SECTIONS CAN BE
ADDED,

FROM

'G~"IBRATED HE I GHT
A~Q~~ BOTTOM SUcH

TH,II[0RISTON DOES

CAPABLE OF OBTAINING
SAMPLES SUITABLE FOR
STRENGTH TESTS WITH
EXPERIENCED CREWS,

NO':;I~ENETRATE

sEDlJiteNJs,

VIBRATORY
CORER

SAMPLE IS 3,5"
DIAMETER

J~~~~::'EV PNEUM~:W{~'IMPACT-

H
SI

ING VIBRATORY

HAMMER~

SAMPLES NOT SUITABLE FOR STRENGTH

TESTING,

PENETRATION RESIS-

TANCE cAN BE
MEASURED,

ROTARY HEAD

ADAPTER SUB

..

. ,
o

'"

Cl

0
0

AUGER
,

0
0

?-:,(;<

\)
o

o
o
o

00

AUGER HEAD

"

WEDGE
~",---BIT

00

0
o

o
o

- 0

C\

-";....

.$:\

6~-

o .o'PR.IVEPIN
o
o
o

o
o

..

/}

o
o

Longyeor Company

TYPICAL FLIGHT AUGER SETUP

Figure 5-1

DRIVE
HAMMER
GUIDE

DRIVE HAMMER
SAMPLE JARS

JAR.~~~~~~~
COLLAR
,

..

. ,TOOL BO~
<>

",

. .

'

"

'

'

0."
,

SPLIT BARREL
SAMPLER

o
Longyeor Company

DRILL SETUP FOR DRIVE SAMPLING

Floure 5-2

SPIDER

WATER

JET

OPENING

JET
Acker Drill Company

CLEAN-OUT AUGER
Figura.5-3 .

Sprague & Henwood

SHELBY TUBE SAMPLER

Figure 5-4

Sprague & Henwood

STATIONARY PISTON SAMPLER

Figure 5-5

Diamond Drill Contracllng Co.

I'IYDRAUIif. PISTON SAMPLER

Figure 5-6

I.

Sprague & Henwood

RETRACTABLE PLUG SAMPLER

Figure 5-7

Outer Tube Bit

Inner Tube Shoe
Brass Liner

Basket Type Retainer

Sprague & Henwood

DENNISON~MPl..ER

FiS~W:~-8

CI

....~

....~

;;;

'0'~""

.~
~

Pitcher Drilling Company

PITCHER SAMPLER

Figllre 5-9

co NVERSi/!A';.tWi[ER
Figu~'~JO

SPLIT BARREL SAMPLER

Figure 5-11

..~--...:.--.~.
"--',,::,,~;..

CONE PENETRATION TEST

Figure 5-12

-,

-----,
Casmg

Water Under

Sed/i;if-:

x-x

(a)

(d)

"

(e)

'.'
P~nefrom.t.rs,(a) Original Dutch Cone. (b) and (c) Reflned Dutch Cone wit4
point retracted-;_~while advancing casing and with point extended after measurement of
resiS~~_fl~~' (d..)Wash-point penetrometer. (e) Conical drive point.

Ter;wghl and Peck

CONE PENETROMETERS
Figure 5-13

PRESSURE GAC;E ..... '

RELIEF

GAS LINE

UNIT
PRESSURE
VOLUMETER

COMPRESSED

CONCENTRIC
TUBING-...........

'-

-":.'

.,.----"..;,t~-'" L:.~EXTEflIOR<~u1~D
ZONE OF ~~~~~./
UNDER ST

CELL

ZONE OF BORING
UNDER MEASUREMENT

INTERIOR MEASURING CELL

BORING EXPANSION DEVICE (PROBE)

MENARD PRESSUREMETER EQUIPMENT

Figure 5-14

GUIDES

?;-CUW," BOREHOLE
CASING 6" OIA.

GUIDE

1>;%0- 1/2' OIA.

H.T. STEEL ROD

Hvonlev

VANE SHEAR TEST ARRANGEMENT

Figure 5-15

Kohl Scientific
In$trument Compony

PETERSEN DREDGE
Figure 5-16

ASTM, 1972

GRA VITY CORER

Figure 5-17

Kahl.,~.lentlfl;C
h,.tiuii\t'nf Compony

(0) PHLEGER CORERa~VICI!

.RELEASE

CORING

HAU INQ

TRIGG~R

WEIGHT

US Hyrdographfc
Office, 1955

(b) PRINCIPALS OF OPERATION

PHLEGER CORER
Figure 5-18

CJRER ARM RELEASE--,

WI~[ CLAMP 0
R[CEASE

\/

-----.<.." ",,!LJ""-l

MECIiA~ISM

CORER SUPENOEO-----ON ARM HOOK

SAFETY PIN

FINS

.,- W[IGHT LOCK RIN(;

L8 LEAD WEIGHTS

PARTIAL
PENETRATION

FREE FALL

FULL
PENETRATION

HAULING IN

\
1-TRIGGER WIRE /

LOWERING
CABLE

TUSE AllAPTEA

CORER

PI$TQN STOP

MAI~

WillE

,-;:,

(OiliNG TUSE

TRI GER
WEIGHT

_PISTON
__--PISTCH>j
MAIN WIRE tHVIS

TRIGGER LINE
217WMOO

GRAVITY~

CORER

tI

J.

cI)
SEA BOTTOM

"

CORE CATCHER

CORE CUTTER

Kohl Scientific
Instrument CorporatIon

(0) EWING PISTON CORER DEVICE

US Hydrographic
Office, 1955

(b) PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION

EWING PISTON CORER

Figure 5-19

VIBRATORY CORER IN SAMPLING POSITION

Figure 5-20

SECTION 6

ROCK SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Rock samples are obtained in a number of different ways.

The two major methods for obtaining rock samples are by bulk
sampling and by core drilling.

Although both are discussed

herein, diamond core drilling is the more common method used

to obtain samples for foundation investigations.

6.1

BULK SAMPLING

Bulk samples for physical propertiiils'testing are obt,ainec;t

when diamond core samples areil1<tdequilte or notavai;Lable.
Unless an adi t is avai laJ5tiil, ora"t,est quarry can be
established, bulk samples are restr:i;cted to surface rock.

6.1.1

Surface Bulk Samples

The simplest bulk sample to obtain is from rock lying on the

surface or from talus slopes.

Care should be taken to obtain

rock samples suitable for the intended.plilrpose.

If a rock

s ample is required to evaluate physicial properties, as

for rip rap or aggregate, only fresh rock derived from
mechanical weathering processes will be suitable.

If

weathered properties are to be tested, samples of chemically

weathered rock will be acceptable.

Care should be taken to

learn the source of loose rock; it is not advisable to

6-1

sample rock at a distance from that which it is to represent.

Bulk rock samples can be obtained by wedging and baring
where joint sets or fractures are properly spaced.

Such

sampling techniques can be time-consuming and are recommended

only as a last resort.

Samples must be suitable for the

purpose, especially in terms of the degree of weathering.

sketch and description of the location, methods, and rock

will make an adequate log.

6.1.2

Subsurface Bulk Samples

When a project is locatedvil}ere prqspect adits or other

underground openings exist, these prqvide an opportunity to
obtain subsurface bulk samples of fresh rock for testing.
The adit location should be shown on a map and a field
sketch of the adit and sampling locations should be made.

field description of the rock sampled, as well as a description

of jointing and other rock defects observed, will complete
the field log.

An excellent bulk sample can be obtained from a test quarry.

However, unless the job is large or there is a specific
purpose, it is unlikely that a test quarry will be available.
Test quarries are generally installed to demonstrate the

6-2

suitability of rock for specific purposes.

include:

Factors evaluated

blasting patterns, different types of blasting

agents, and rock fragmentation.

When bulk samples

are obtained, a note on the quarry log as to lift elevation

or other location identification would suffice, along with a
description of the rock.

6.2

6.2.1

CORE DRILLING

Field Coordination

After proper permits and/or landowners permissions, have been

obtained, the field representatiVe sho)lld first locate the
nearest source of water, i f water supply is not part of the
contractor's responsibility.

An adeq,uate water supply

should be located nearby to allow continuous drilling during

each shift.

If a nearby water source is not available, the

drilling contraotor should provide an on-site water storage

faoility to allow oontinuous drilling.

A quiok appraisal of the drilling oontraotor's equipment and

supplies should be made by the field representative.

The

appraisal can be diplomatioally aooomplished by asking the

driller a few simple questions and by a oursory look at the

6-3

equipment.

Some basic items that should be noted, to

prevent work delays, particularly in remote areas, are:

1)

general condition of drilling equipment and

support vehicles;

2)

type, number, and condition of drill bits;

3)

number and size of drill rods, subs, and casing;

4)

types of core barrels;

5)

capacity of water storage facilities;

6)

type of drilling fluid additives;

7)

types of auxilIary water pumps;

8)

core boxes and accessories (wooden dividers,

markers); and

9)

any special equipment needed, as for water

pressure testing (Section 10) .

The field representative should arrange or coordinate the

drill site preparation, if needed, in accordance with the contractural agreement.

Often, having the clearing/grading con-

tractor work directly with the driller is an efficient method

for drill pad or platform preparation.

Some minimal drill site

dimensions for a truck-mounted drill are shown on Fig. 6-1.

Once

the drill sites are prepared, the field representative needs to

advise the driller of the location, angle, and direction of the
boring.
Before work begins, the field representative should remind the
drilling contractor's representative of the contractor's responsibility for submitting the drilling reports at the end of each
shift, for maintaining a safe site, and for control of drill
site litter.

6-4

6.2.2

Core Drilling Operations

During the core drilling operations, the field representative

will complete a Daily Report covering at least the following
items:
1)

drilling progress;

2)

names of site visitors;

3)

drilling supplies - bits and their condition, and

miscellaneous materials used which may affect
field costs;

4)

amount of drilling time, standby time, and downtime;

5)

reasons for standby or downtime; and

6)

a summary of geologic conditions.

Daily Reports serve a dual purpose:

1)

contractor charges and/or claims, and 2)

to document drilling
to keep the Project

Manager informed uf the progress of the work and resulting

costs.
desired.

6.2.2.1

Procedural changes may then be made as needed or as

An example of a Daily Report is shown on Fig. 6-2.

Overburden Drilling.

At most locations it will be

necessary to drill through soil, or overburden, before

coring rock.

Samples from the upper material may be desirable

for general classification.

Depending on the type of drilling

required to penetrate the overburden, it may not be possible to

obtain intact samples. In such cases, the cuttings (wet samples) in

6-5

the return fluid should be examined and, based on any data

obtained, an accurate description should be developed for
the overburden.

6.2.2.2

Depth Measurements.

All depth measurements should

be referred to the ground surface at the location where

drilling is started.

This will be 0.0 depth on a log.

The height of casing above the ground should be subtracted

from all depth measurements, if the collar is used for the
measuring reference.

Also, if the collar is used, frequent

checks should be made to learn if the casing has settled

during drilling, thus affecting depth measurements.

Accurate measurements of depth at which each core run is

started and stopped are essential:

The drill rods should be

checked for lengths as an occasional rod of differing

length invalidates all measurements.

(Checking is easier at one

time, i.e. checking all rods at the site prior to starting the
work.)

The capacity, or length, of the inner core barrel

should be checked.

(A so-called

five~foot

does not hold exactly five feet of core.)

core barrel generally

Discrepancies

should be recorded in the Daily Reports and suitable allowances

made in computing depths.

It may be necessary to measure

the boring itself.

6-6

An accurate record of the length of casing put into the

boring, and the length of casing recovered, should be kept
in order to determine the length of casing left in the
boring.

The distance between the 0.0 depth, or ground

surface elevation, and the top of casing should be measured

after completion of the boring, and this measurement entered
on the Boring Log.

Measurements from the top of the casing to the water level

should be made upon completion of the boring and, if possible,
at regular intervals during drilling operations.

6.2.2.3

Cutting of the Core.

Ml)i:;:hpfthe fmJ:l.tive information

is obtained during cutti'ng'of the dore.

tative should watch. the drilling

The field represen-

car~fullY

and record general

or radical changes made by 'the driller in the operation

of the drill, the reasonsfherefor,

and the results therof

(e.g., change in:drilling speed or rotation, unintended

changes in drill fluid pressure, etc.).

The field represen-

tative should consult with the driller, as necessary, regarding

the reasons for unusual ac:tions of the drill, changes in the
operation, etc., and appropriate entries should be recorded
in the Daily Report.

It is especially important that the

core barrel be withdrawn when it is blocked.

Observations

mentioned above are an important part of the record, even

when 100 percent of the core is recovered, but are especially
important when core losses occur.

6-7

6.2.2.4

Grinding of Core.

be prevented.

Grinding of the core should.

Grinding results from continued drilling

after broken core has blocked entry into the core barrel.
Heavy vibration of the rods may be a clue.

If the field

representative has reason to believe that core is being

ground (indicating that the core barrel is blocked), the
core barrel should be pulled.

There is no absolute criterion

for determining when the core barrel is blocked.

Three

common conditions which may indicate blockage are:

1)

the rate of penetration decreases markedly, and is

often accompanied by an increase in engine speed;

2)

the drill return fluid may become more heavily

loaded with cuttings; and

3)

6.2.3

the circulation fluid pressure rises.

Core Recovery and Extraotion

The field representative should be present when the core

barrel is pulled and should generally perform the core
extraction and subsequent handling of the core at the drill
site.

Once the core barrel is out of the boring, it should

be laid out on a clean area on the drill platform or in a

rack and the diamond bit removed.

It is important to avoid

handling the diamond bit with the wrench.

After removal of

the bit, the core retainer, and the inner barrel, the head
end should be tipped up and the core slowly removed into a
clean core trough or directly into the core box.

6-8

Hammering

or extraction by air or water pressure should be avoided.

damp rag or brush is useful for cleaning drilling mud and

cuttings from the core.

6.2.3.1

Core Boxes and Labelling.

After the core has been

cleaned and initial observations are completed, the core

should be laid in the box in book fashion; that is, with
the top of the core to the left in the uppermost row, deeper
core to the right.

The uppermost core should be placed next

to the hinge if hinged core boxes are used.

placed in successively lower rows.

Core is then

Heavy cardboard or wood

dividers, which are preferable, should be placed between

successive coring runs and in in.tervals believed to represent
missing core.

The divid'ers shou1<f'be marked with a waterproof

marking pen showing

'.--

- -,-.- -

<'-.

thed.ePt~or d~'l?'th

interval represented.

Properly dimensioned wooden dowels may be used to graphically

por1;.raymissingcore intervals.

The project designation,

boring des.ignatioIl, depth interval, and core box number

shoUld be marked on the outside of each core box.

6.2.3.2

Transportation and Storage.

Depending on the rock

type, the core may be extremely fragile and/or subject to

deterioration with changes in moisture content, or simply on
exposure to the atmosphere.

All rock cores should be handled

gently, and packaging material added to particularly fragile

cores.

Rock types susceptible to air slaking or dessication

cracking, such as many clay shales, should be protected by

\,

6-9

or hard soil where diamonds are not necessary.

The Diamond

Core Drill Manufacturers Association (DCDMA) has developed

nomenclature that is used throughout the industry.

Fig. 6-3

shows that nomenclature and Fig. 6-4 presents a graphic

picture of the commonly used bit sizes along with standard
dimensions of bits and casing, but wire line dimensions are
not shown.

The Longyear Q Series is often used for deep

borings since the inner tube containing the core can be

retrieved by wire line cable without removing the core
barrel.

Nominal dimensions of the Longyear Q Series are:

Boring Diameter

C l:-\:lZl"'Jr<7~~
A ~SR-A:(Q.,~

Core Diameter

Inch

~lM

InCh

MM

AQ

2 57/64

48.0

1 1/16

27.0

BQ

2 23/64

60 . 0

1 7/16

36.5

NQ

2 63/64

75.8

1 7/8

47.6

HQ

3 25/32

96.0

2 1/2

63.5

PQ

4 53/64

122~6

3 11/32

85.0

6.3.1.1

Diamond Core Barrels.

Examples of the principal

types of diamond core barrels are shown in Fig. 6-5.

The

simplest is the single tube diamond core barrel, which is

used only in fairly strong, sound, and uniform rock, not
subject to erosion by the circulating fluid.

The inside of

the coring bit may be straight, for use in materials which

can be retained by dry-blocking, or bevelled to accommodate
a split ring core catcher.

It is generally advisable

to use a core catcher since dry-blocking may damage the gage

stones on the inside rim of the coring bit.

6-11

Partial protection against blocking of the waterways and

against erosion of the core is obtained with double tube,
rigid type core barrels, the inner tube of which is rigidly
connected to the core barrel head and rotates with the outer
tube.

A straight-wall or a bevel-wall bit may be used

according to the character of the rock.

The inner tube is

generally provided with outside vents, and a large number of

small holes are drilled through the lower end of the tube.
A small amount of water flows through the holes, up along
the core, and th:t;ough the outside vents.

Accumuliation of

cuttings, inside friction, and transmission of torsional

forces to the core are thereby dec;;re;;tsed; however, in case
of outside blocking or excei3sive
PWtlpprEtssure,
the;re is the
.,.- -----> ,
---<-

danger that too large a part of theh'.i;rculating fluid may

be diverted up through the innertubeali)d cause erosion of
the core.

Better protec1::ionOf.the core is obtained with double tube,

swivel type core barrels, the inner tube of which does not
rotate with the outer tube.

Barrels and bits are made for

discharge of drilling fluid inside, or at the face of, the

bit.

A triple tube, swivel type core barrel is similar to the double

tube with the addition of an inner, split tube liner to
further protect soft rock cOres from damage.

6-12

The best protection of cores of relatively soft and erodible

materials is generally obtained with a double tube, swivel type
core barrel with a bottom discharge bit, Fig. 6-5.

The water-

ways in the core barrels are generally larger than in other

diamond core barrels in order to permit use of a drilling
fluid with additives instead of plain water.

Core barrels are furnished in lengths of 5, 10, 15, and 20

feet.

Some single tube core barrels are divided into 5-foot

long sections so that the length can be changed as required

by the rock conditions encountered.

Starting barrels or

core barrels with a length of Ito2'feet are used in starting

the boring when rock extends tog-round level and the longer
core barrels are too long to pass' through the feed screw or
the drive rod of the drilling Il\achin~.

Most foundation

exploration work is performed with 5- or 10-foot barrels.

One of the' most' advanced drilling developments in recent

years has been the introduction of wire line drill rod and
core barrel assemblies, Fig. 6-6, which are especially
valuable in deep drilling (~100 feet).

The technique

eliminates trips in and out of the boring with the coring

equipment.

with the wire line technique, the core barrel

becomes an integral part of the drill stem.

The drill rod

serves both as a part of the coring device and as casing as

it is usually not removed except while making bit changes.
Core samples are retrieved by removal of the inner barrel
assembly from the core barrel through the drill rod.

This

is accomplished by lowering an overshot or retriever, by

6-13

wire line, through the drill rod to release a locking mechanism

built into the inner barrel head.

The core is removed and

the inner barrel returned through the drill rod and the
coring process continued.

Clear water is generally preferred as a drilling fluid in

operation of diamond core barrels in sound rock.

Water is

cheaper and requires smaller waterways and less pump pressure.

Very high speeds of rotation require dynamically balanced

equipment and carefully aligned drillrolis.

As the equipment

becomes worn, it is generally nec$S!ilary to decrease the bit

.

speed to avoid excessive

the bit with consequent

;;-;>:\~'

-----/<-

v;iiJjl:-~
tion;1,:{wtt'ip,and
----:--',""-.-'-i'-

da~~;'r;tOF

,>-

chattering of

'braaking the core and

damaging the bit.

Drilling operation:;; vary, but in hard rock a high feed

pressure genarally not only increases the rate of advance
but keepethebit sharp and free cutting, whereas a low feed
pressure in the same rock tends to polish the diamonds
to a smooth, non-cutting surface.

In other rocks, the best

results may be obtained with relatively low feed pressures.

6-14

Preferable to have
bench or trench for
water on this side

-_ ...... ---- -\

Min, 5'-~ /
(Preferably 6' to 10') I

Water
' or bench
'
C t Bench \t,,,..---Prefera bl e to rna k
e Pit
or u
I
entire length of one side of
drill site

Min, 8'
Foot of Stabll ixer (Preferably 20')
~

----r---

'-

__________________ t~:!'~~~~C~~~~_________ _

1
15'

.IF""")

Foot of Stabi Iixe::r:----- --

,I
,,I

IR~,) ~J

T"""

A_ ... """

----30~-- ---------.. -:1;-----:--20~----- --~t

f--------.. -------1

(17' Minimum)

T
', . .... ,,,
l ~"------171~
...

Optional~t.a

10':

frods

"

','

. '

..

,.

'.'

:
I

....

...

If can't put areQ for rods at hole area,

hove to provide this minimum area
somewhere on the drill pad,

NOTE: Make turn-around road

(loop), if necessary; also make
vechicle turn-around at end of
or away from dri II site,

EXAMPlE USED: Truck-mounted rig:

International R-160 series truck; 86
UG Type; depth capabil ity 1200',

SUGGESTED DRILL SITE DIMENSIONS

Figure 6-1

DAILY REPORT

ConverseWardDavlsDlxon
Project: _B_E_C_k_-_S_U_L:._:t_A_N_ _ _ _ __

Project No.

Inspector: F. COLE

Day

7 1\ M

Time On Site: From

To

7~-51:t/-51

Date

-ruE'S

I.. I'M ; From

I - 30 - 7"1

To _ _ _ Report No. :l,O

Weather:

LONG'r'MR 34 t 3&'

Equipment In Use:

Work In Progress/Completed:
BORING ~olD

CASING

= 3'

"1' - 1:1..'
17-1"/.5

I>lsrURBf.C> - fI'IosTL'r' Roc../<.

PITc.HER SAMpLfi:.
Plrc.HER

SAMPLE

TOT/IL tlOLE

15. '3' 1'0 ?-'3.,,' =&, .4>'

LOST WATER PRoBLEMs: AT ASOIJT 20 'FT.

PITCHER S,.,/,,\PL/:: ;:1.7' 2.'1"

GRAY

Ytl/WED c.!,flY TOP,

CoBBLE..

"'1..1.. TE'ETH

1''%,.0

FIELD

E)<TRuDED

13'Ro(.l.>N &RAVe:.U.y SILTY SAND

ON '1>ITcHfi:.R BIT WORN OR BRol<E"-I

Special Conditions/Corrective Work Required:

:L t3\:1L 01" rUEt.... To AIR COMPRE.SsoR.

I)SED /,-t.t. FUEL 81' DAYS END At..JD TooK EMI'TI,J
BI3L OUT.
MARVIN 'To 'FLY A GA/IV WED.
MARVIN 'FLEW

J:VERE,JT sNow

'P.e>/..U

MADE oNE. PAsS Ai 'RoAP - BRokE.

<7",TE. AND DID NoT REAl-L'r' /tELP RoAD - Too HI6fj

St-JolO B ...Nl<:,s At.oNG Ii I. GUESS - Lull-I.. cALL ART

:l.ND

TO

'PLOW

OUT

WED.

Reviewed By:_~Ac::LO:::..-_ _ _ _ _ __

SAMPLE DAILY REPORT

Figure 6-2

THREE LETTER NAMES

FIRST LETTER

SECOND LETTER

HOLE SIZE

GROUP

Casing, core barrel, die-

Key diameters standardized

--

THIRD LETTER
OESIGN

The standardization of other

mond bit. reaming shell

and d ri II rods designed

on an integrated group

dimensions, Including thread

basis for progressively

characteristics to permit

to be used together for

reducing hole size with

interchangeability of parts

drilling on approximate

nestmg casings.

mode by different manufacturers.

hole size

Letter Inches Millimeters Letters X ond Wore syn- The DESIGN (third) letter
I
R
2S
onymous when used as the designates the specific
GROUP (second) letter.
40
design of that particular
E
It
A
2
50
Any DCDMA standard tool tool. It does not IndicB
65
with on X or W as the
ate a type of design.
2r
N
75
3
GROUP letter belongs In
31.
K
90
that DCDMA Integrated
2
H
4
100
group of tools designed
P
S
U

5
6
7

125
150
175
200

using nesting casings and

tools of sufficient
strength to reach greater
depth~ with minimum reductions in core diameter.

TWO LETTER NAMES

FIRST LETTER

SECOND LETTER

HOLE SIZE

GROUP AND DESIGN

Approximate hole size,

some as in 3 -letter
names.

GROUP stondardizotion of
key diameters for group
integration and DESIGN
standardization of other
dimenSions affecting
I ntercho ngeabi Iity

Diamond Core Drill

Manufacturers Association

CORE SIZE NOMENCLATURE

Figure 6-3

STANDARD
DIAMOND CORE BARRELS
STANDAIlDS flY
NATIONAL ~UREA\J O' STANDARDS
DIAMOND CORL DRILL MANU/At TURERS

Hvorslev

IDENTIFICATION
SYMBOLS

RX

EX

AX

OX

NX

HX

PX

SX

UX

ZX

"'

EW

"'

AW

"'

OW

"'

NW

"'

HW

"'

PW

"'

SW

"'

UW

"'

ZW

RW

"'

C. BBL. BIT SET

I.D. NORMAL

C. BBL. BIT SET

1.0. THINWAlL

C.' BBL. BIT SET

0.0. N. AND TW.
C. BBL. SHell SET
0.0. N. AND TW.
CASING BIT

SET I.D.
CASING BIT AND
SHOE SET O.D.
CASING SHELL
SET 0.0.
CASING SHOE
SET 1.0.

F.e, CASING
1.0.
CASING CPL'G.
1.0.

F.J. CASING

I.D.
F.C. AND F.J,
CASING 0.0.

Diamond Core Drill

Manvfocturerll Awx:lotlon

NOMINAL SIZES OF STANDARD CORING BITS AND PIPE CASING

Figure 6-4

SULLIVAN MACHINERY COMPANY

CORE BARREL

E. J, LONGYEAR COMPANY

. SINGLE TUBE DIAMOND CORE BARRELS

E. J. LONG YEAR C()MPANY

SlJl.t.lVAN MACHINERY COMPANY

DOUBLE TUBE RIGID TYPE DIAMOND CORE BARRELS

E J. LONGYEAR COMPANY

TUBE EXTENSION
TUBE EXTENSION

SULLIVAN

MACHINERY COMPANY

DOUBLE TUBE SWIVEL TYPE DIAMOND CORE BARRELS

TYPICAL DIAMOND CORE BARRELS

Figure 6-5

Cable bolt

Latch' retainer

t---- Latch
Jar

Thrust beari ng
Jar rod
Outer tube

Inner tube
Spring case
Spring

Reaming shell

Locking cone
Steel balls

Latch spreader
Core Barrel Assembly

Retriever Assembly
SPRAGUE

WIRE LINE CORE BARRELS

Figure 6-6

HENWOOD, INC.

SOIL BORING LOGS

A number of different log forms are used throughout CWDD.

Methods of classification and description of soils may vary
according to the purpose of the boring and/or the clien"t' s
requests.

There are certain data which should be on a

boring log regardless of the form or system used.

The form

used for the example log, Fig. 7-1, should be used whenever
possible.

The guidelines contained herein apply 1:0" field logs.

logs should be:

Field

1) filled out legibly lettered (not written)

-.,:---,:-.---

--

"

""

in soft pencil; 2) suital:l;Lefor r~}'l+ddtiction; and 3) as close

to final form as reasonable,thereby:simplifying office pre_f-

paration of final logs .

Field-logs should be completed and

transmitted to the office as soon as possible after completionof a bOring""

All headings used should be consistent

between log~r:abbfJ\riations of client's name or project title,

for exa.mple, should be consistent on all logs for a project.

7.1

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

In exploration to obtain data to be used in engineering

design and construction, it is essential that the field
representative acquire an intimate knowledge of the materials
encountered.

The design engineer requires accurate and

7-1

complete data.

An adequate description of the soils in

place, in both borrow and foundation areas, is mandatory.

Normally soils are classified and described according to an
approved soil description system.

The Unified Soil Classification

System is the principal system to be used in CWDD work,

although there may be justification for using other systems
in some areas or for some clients.

The quality of the log, to a very large degree, will depend

on what has been judged to be the layer or stratum.

Although

representative samples should be taken, the log should not only

be a log of the samples.

The description should be made in

terms that convey the exact same meaning to everyone who may
use the log.

Accurate field classification of soils requires considerable

experience.

Soil description on the basis of visual in-

spection should be confirmed by laboratory testing:

the

extent and frequency of testing is dependent on the field

representative's experience, the soil complexity, and the project requirements.

(Samples of each soil 'component may be

taken into the field, for comparison with field samples,

until confidence is achieved in visual identification.)
The commonly used systems are described in the following
subparagraphs, with references for more detailed information.

7-2

7.1.1

Unified Soil Classification System

The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is based on

the identification of soils by texture and plasticity and
their grouping on the basis of engineering performance.
Complete discussions of the Unified Soil Classification
System can be found in Refs. 9, 21 and 22.

Appendix D

contains a copy of ASTM D 2487 and D 2488 which are standards

for classification and description of soils according to the
USCS.

The following properties form

1)

the~basis

of classification:

percentages of gravel ,sand, and fines

~(fraction

passing the No. 200 U.S. Standard sieve) ;

2)

shape of the grain-si;~,dfatribution curve; and

,

3)

plasticity and compressibility characteristics.

TheUSCS is based Ion classification of the minus 3-inch

(75mm) fraction, but all fractions should be included in the
description on the boring log according to the grain size
ranges as shown on Table 7-1.

For convenience in developing

a wri tten description on field logs for CWDD projects, the

terms "and", "some", "little", and "trace", as defined by
Burmister System Terms, Table 7-3, have been adopted.

7-3

7.1.1.1

Soil Groups and Symbols.

Soils are divided into

two primary groups, coarse-grained, and fine-grained.

Course-grained soils are those having 50% or more material
larger than the No. 200 sieve and fine-grained soils are
those with more than 50% of the material passing the No.
200 sieve.

The soil groups are identifed by letters and

descriptive modifiers as listed in Table 7-2.

The symbols are combined to describe soil types, the first

symbol indicates the primary constitutent followed by the
modifier.

In the USCS the symbols are all capitalized,

Fig. 7-2.

7.1.1.1.1

Coarse-Grained Soils.

coarse-grained soils are

subdivided into gravels and sands depending on the major

coarse-grained constituent.

For purposes of identification,

coarse-grained soils are classed as gravels (G) if the

greater percentage of the coarse fraction (retained on No.
200 sieve) is larger than the No. 4 sieve and as sands (S)
if the greater portion of the coarse fraction is finer than
the No. 4 sieve.

Both the gravel (G) and sand (S) groups

are further subdivided on the basis of uniformity of grading

and percentage and plasticity of the fine fraction (minus No.
200 sieve).

7-4

GW and SW soil groups include well-graded gravels and sands

with less than 5% non-plastic fines.

GP and SP soil groups

are poorly-graded or skip-graded soils with less than 5%

fines.

Gravels and sands containing more than 12% fines may be

classified either GM, SM, GC, or SC depending on the plasticity
of the minus No. 40 soil fraction.

Silty gravels (GM) and

silty sands (SM) will have liquid limits and plasticity indices
which plot below the A-line of the plasticity chart shown on
Fig. 7-2.

Clayey gravels (GC) and clayey sands (SC) will have

liquid limits and plasticity indices which plot above the Aline.

(Grading is not a factor when the percentage of fines

is greater than 12%.)

A dual classification symbol (e.g. GC-GP) is used when the

minus No. 200 fraction is between 5 and 12% and the soil has
characteristics intermediate between two groups.

7.1.1.1.2

Fine-Grained Soils.

The finer-grained soils are

subdivided into silts and clays, based.on their plasticity,

and highly organic soils.

To distinguish between silts and

clays the plasticity index vs. the ,liquid limit is plotted,

as shown on Fig. 7-2.

Among the inorganic materials, the

clays plot above the A-line and the silts below the A-line.
The organic clays fall below the A-line.

Silts and clays

are further subdivided into low (L) and high (H) plasticity
based or whether the liquid limit is less than 50% (L) or
greater than 50% (H).

7-5

Field techniques for differentiating between silts and clays

include manual tests for dry strength, for dilatancy, and
for toughness

(Appendix D-2).

The tests are also described

extensively in the previously cited references.

Accurate

identification of silts and clays is primarily a matter of

experience and conscientious comparison to laboratory test
results.

Highly organic soils are combined into a single classification with the symbol "Pt.", and are characterized by a
high organic content, commonly cons~stin'g of leaves, grass,
branches, and other fibrous matter;byh;i.gh compressibility;
and by relatively low stren.gth.

Typical samples of highly

organic soils are peat, humus, and 'swamp soils.

7.1.2

Burmister Soil Identification System

The Burmister Soil Identification System is described in

considerable detail in Refs. 23 and 24.
in Appendix E for convenience.

Ref. 24 is included

The Burmister System involves

rather precise soil fraction descriptions utilizing specific

terminology and symbols.

Table 7-3 contains the definitions

and symbols used in the Burmister System.

7-6

The Burmister Soil Identification System uses some capital

letters as symbols for the components, with lower case
letters to indicate proportionality or gradation.

The

proportionality terms, Iland", "some",_ "little", "trace" are

sometimes incorporated into written descriptions in other

classification systems.

The Burmister System requires

considerable laboratory and field practice before accurate

identifications can be made.

7.1.3

Additional Classification Systems

Several additional soil classification and identification

systems are in current use by various agencies and other
disciplines.

The systems generally do not lend themselves

to field classification for foundation engineering projects.

The more widely used are:
The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials System.
(AASHTO) Ref. 24.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Classification System
(USDA) Ref. 25.
Federal Aviation Agency Classification System,
Ref. 28.

7.1.4

(FAA),

Additional Components of Soil Identification

Fundamental to any soil description is color, moisture

condition, and consistency (fine-grained soils) or compactness (coarse-grained soils).

7-7

The color of the soil at natural moisture content should be

recorded.
7-4.

Standard color abbreviations are listed in Table

Standard soil moisture terminology appears in Table 7-5.

Soil compactness and consistency are frequently described in

the field on the basis of the Standard Penetration Test
(SPT) and/or by an estimate of the unconfined compressive
strength.

Factors affecting penetration resistance include

depth, overburden pressure, soil type and condition, weight

of drill rods, drilling fluid, and the presence of disturbed
soil at the bottom of the boring.

Due to the interdependence

and complexity of the factors affecting the SPT, relationships

of penetration resistance to soil condition, such as those
contained in Tables 7-6 and 7-7, are generally only very
approximate.

For example, the pen,etration resistance at

shallow depths in sands is generally too low; and thus,

corresponding field descriptions may underestimate the
compactness of the soil unless corrections are applied to the
field data.

A correction formula for field blow counts is given

with Table 7-6 and a chart of the correction formula can be

found in Ref. 47.

A complete discussion can be found in

Refs. 29 and 47.

A number of additional soil properties should be recorded such as

structure, cementation, grain shape, layering, dry strength,
dilatency, toughness, etc.

Appendix D-2 gives information on

visual-manual procedures.

7-8

7.1.5

Examples of Field Classification and Identification

Example 1
Estimated grain-size distribution (volume basis)
Gravel

15%

Sand

70%

Fines

15%

Field identification
1.

sand fraction consists of range of sizes from fine

to medium, little coarse sand.

2.

Plastic fines.

identification of fines:
dry strength:

medium

dilatancy:

very slow

toughness:

medium

Field classification:

(USCS)

clayey sand (Se)

little f-c gravel,
rounded to sub rounded

Example 2
Estimated grain-size distribution (volume basis):
Gravel

Sand

15%

Fines

85%

7-9

Field identification:
1.

fine sand only.

2.

identification of fines:
dry strength:

very high

dilatancy:

none

toughness:

high

Field classification:

(USCS)

clay (CH)
little fine sand
sparse fine sand
lenses, sparse
calcareous nodules

Example 3
Estimated grain-size distribution (volume basis) :
Gravel

0%

Sand

20%

Fines

80%

Field identification
1.

predominantly fine sand; slight plasticity

2.

identification of fines:
dry strength:

slight

dilatancy:

slow

toughness:

none

7-10

(uses)

Field classification:
clayey silt (ML)
little fine sand,

desiccated, frequent
small root holes

7.2

LOG HEADING DATA

Recording data accurately is very important.

The heading of

each log should be completed with care and in a form that

can be transcribed with a minimum of editing.

Fig. 7-1

illustrates a completed heading.

The following information, as a ,minimum, should be include'd

on the field log heading.
1)

Project number and project name.

written instructions

from the Project Engineer should establish the

exact requirements.
2)

Drilling dates and name(s) of person(s) recording

log.

3)

Elevation from survey reference point or from topographic map.

An actual survey elevation is preferred.

Elevation should be to the nearest 'tenth of a foot and

the datum should be indicated (MSL or MLL are preferred) .
The elevation of borings should also be indicated on the
field skiitch or plan.

If no survey is available, a

permanent object (which will not be removed), such

7-11

as top of curb or manhole cover edge should be used

and, the reference point shown on the field plan.

If

the elevation is approximate, so indicate.

4)

Brief description of location, such as open field,

next to building, etc., with plan dimensions from
property line or building.

If boring or test pit

is not made at a pre-staked location a simple sketch

with dimensions should be prepared to define the location.
5)

Ground water information is one of the most important

parts of the log.

An attempt should be made to access

exactly where the water is coming from, from what

stratum, and at what rate.

Ground water information

is an important part of foundation design.

The water

level and time should be recor.ded before work is

started in the morning and after lunch breaks.

The

water level should be measured daily or twice weekly

for the duration of project, when possible.
6)

Full name of the drilling con'tractor and the driller.

The time the setup was started, when drilling commenced,
and when the boring was completed should be recorded.
Dates should be shown, especially if drilling spans
several days.

7)

Description of drilling equipment and size of boring.

All spaces provided in the heading for casing size,
sampler used, core size and type, and tube sizes for
undisturbed samples should be filled in.

Additional

data should be provided in Remarks column and/or in

Daily Report.
7-12

8)

The weight of hammer or equipment used, such as kelly

bar, inner kelly bar, and stems, should be recorded
when samplers are driven.

9)

Make and model of backhoe should be recorded on

test pit logs.

7.3

THE LOG

Logs are usually prepared for all types of explorations.

Subsurface exploration usually is accomplished with test
pits or borings.

The same soil classifications, descriptions,

symbols, etc. should be used for all logs on the same

project and preferably throughout all field exploration for
the same office.

In general, the same types of data are recorded on all logs.

Two basic types of data are available for recording in a
log.

These are "permanent" and "fugitive" data.

'fhe

permanent data are of such a nature that time of recording

is not critical whereas fugitive data, if not observed and
recorded during the drilling or excavation process, are lost
forever.

The field identification and classification of soils should

be as complete and accurate as possible.

The field representative

should have a substantial understandingof the subsurface

conditions on which to base preliminary evaluations and to

7-13

recommend an effective laboratory testing program.

The

following is a checklist to guide in the preparation of

complete field soil descriptions and the recording of relevant
subsurface conditions.

(Columns on Fig. 7-1 are identified

as though numbered from left to right.)

1)

The color, moisture, and consistency or compactness

of the soil should be described, referring to
Tables 7-5 through 7-7.

Descriptions should also

be included of other pertinent properties such as

structure, plasticity, cementation, grain shape,
lensing, etc.
2)

The blows required to driVe each 6 in6h:es of the

standard split barrel sampler should be recorded.
(Appendix C).

If> there is any deviation from the

specifications for the standard penetration test

(SPT), the deviations should be shown on the log.
On the Field Log of Boring, Fig. 7-1, SPT blows
are recorded for each 6 inches of drive in column 4.
Any other drive test data normally would be
recorded in column 2, such as blows required to
drive the Converse Sampler or to drive casing.
When recording data from a bucket auger boring for
conversion to drive energy, care must be taken to
record weight of kelly and drill stems and to
identify in column 2 which parts are involved in
each 6-inch drive.

7-14

3)

The type and location of samples should be recorded according to symbols in Table 7-8.

Bulk

samples are disturbed and should be identified on

logs as shown in column 3, Fig. 7-1.

When disturbed

samples are to be retained for later inspection or

testing, the type container in which the sample
was placed should be recorded according to symbols
on Table 7- 8.

Disturbed samples may be retained from any sampling

operation, such as an SPT sample or from wash
borings, and the samples recorded as shown in
Column 3.

Waterproof tags or other permanent

identiiicationshould be placed on all sample

containers.

Large bulk samples should have

tags placed both outside and inside the containers.

Numbering and identification of samples

obtained by sampling devices may be accomplished

in a number of different ways.

Sample identifica-

tion should be shown similar to that in column 3,

Fig 7-1.

Extreme care should be taken that the

correct sample number is placed on each sample

container.
4}

The depth of the bottom of the sample (not sampler)

is generally recorded as in colunm 3 of Fig. 7-1.
Measurement should be in feet with sample depth
recorded to nearest tenth.

7-15

5)

The push pressure should be recorded similar to

that in column 2 of Fig. 7-1, if a sample is
obtained by pushing rather than driving or rotating.

6)

The percentages of gravel - sand - fines are sometimes estimated on field logs similar to column 10
of Fig. 7-1.

The assessment is visual and made on

a volume basis.
7)

The Remarks column on all logs is used to record

data which do not naturally fit on other parts of
the log.

Remarks column can'!;$; the most important

column on the log in th.i.t>p~rtinent data, not

otherwi se logged ,d:m
8)

bef~c6rded.

Soil identifications stiouldb'e indicated for each

individual sampleinaJ:lbreviated form as the
boring progresses.

Any additional information

concerning the presence of gravel, boulders,

roots, organic material, wood, or fill materials
such as bricks and concrete, etc. should accompany
the soil classification to provide the Office
Engineer with as much information as possible
concerning the materials encountered.

The log should also indicate layering or stratification of the materials encountered.

The term

"miscellaneous fill" should be used only if a complete

description of all the materials encountered in
the fill is provided.

7-16

Table 7-1

USCS Grain-Size Ranges

Component

Size Range
Millimeters
U.S. Standard
Sieve Size
Above 75
75 to 4.75
75 to 19
19 to 4.75
4.75 to 0.075
4.75 to 2
2 to 0.425
0.425 toU.075
Below, 0;075

Cobbles
Gravel
Coarse Gravel
Fine Gravel
Sand
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Fines (silt or clay)

ll'al:Ue.7~2
"
.-,-

Above 3 in.
3 in. to No.4
3 in. to 3/4 in.
3/4 in. to No.4
No.4 to No. 200
No.4 to No. 10
No. 10 to No. 40
No. 40 to No. 200
Below No. 200

Us.eS Soil Symbols

-

Component or Property

Symbol

Cobble
Gravel
Sand
Clay
silt
Organic
Peat
Well-graded
Poorly-graded
High Plasticity
Low Plasticity

None
G
S
C
M

o
Pt

W
P
H
L

Table 7-3

.~ld t " l I d !

Symbol

lloulLh.!l:"s

Dldr

Burmister System Terms

~ldtlJrial

Cbl

eolJ1J1.us

(,ravel

coarse (el
met! i.um

f1 nu
Sand

(In)

(f)

coarse
1lI(~d.i

um

fino
SUt

iJ<..!l'inllion

sieve Size

Fraction

~"

tileVU.

3" to 9"

Material passing the 9"

~juvu.

l" to 3"
l/B" to 1"
No, 10 to 3/8"

Material passing the )"

and (ut,1ined 011 the No.
sh:vl!.

)0

No.
No.

(e)
(m)
(f)

)0 to No.
60 to No.

ti!UVU

Material pdgsiny the No. 10

Si8VU and retained on the
No. 200 sieve.

10
30

No. 200 to No. 6D

Material passinq the No. 200

Passing No. 200

(0.075 mm)

retaillt.!d on

sieve th<lt i::; non-plastic in

chfiraotel" and exhibitB ,I ittle or
no :;trEll19ttl whun ill ~-_driod.

Organic Silt (OS)

Material passing the No. 200 sieve which exhibi ts P~i~-:--prope:r,~ies

within a certain range of moisture content, and has
gra_n\l~ and
---- -,
organic characteristics.

<t.

clayuy S L I,'L'
:U.'l'

CLAY

,
,

cy$

CLAY

$ f,C

SlL'I'

C,,$

Silty CLAY
l'r,AY

$'tC
C

Plasticity

P las u~i.tY_,

Slight (51)

1 to 5

Clay-SoIl

5 to 10

Material p<lssin~l thB No. 200 olBve

which can bl.! made to exhjl.Ji.t
plasticity ~nd ~lay gualiti~s wJtllin a CUr.t.d in l-,lIh)ll of moisture
conLent, cHid \~!Iir:h exhlbits con:Jld-

19W -(L)

10 to 20

Medium (1-1)

High
Very

20 to 40

(H)

High

Componont

Written

Principal

CAPI'rALS

Minar

Lower Case

rn~dex

(VII)

erulJ1~

stnm';lll, wh~n air-uril.ld.

40 plus

proportions

Symbol

Pl.lrC(~ntd':le Hanqe by WI.! i.~Jht ofC

SO or mare
and
same

little
Ll-dce

,.

a.

l.
t.

J5 to SO
20 co J5
'[1 to 20
I to 10

MinuB 8ign (-) lower limit, plus sign (+) upper limit. no sign middle range. Signs used with
proportion., wordS or symbols to indioate lower or upper end of peroentage range.

Table 7-4 CWDD Color Abbreviations

bk

black

gn

green

wh

white

bl

blue

or

orange

yw

yellow

br

brown

rd

red

dk

dark

gy

gray

tn

tan

It

light

standard soil moisture terminology appears in Table 7-5.

Table 7-5 CWDD Soil MoistMtE!;' Terminology

Moisture

Symbol

Characteristic

DrY

Makes dust

SlightlY Moist

SM

Below plastic limit

Moist

At plastic limit

Very Moist

VM

Above plastic limit

Can pump water from silts

Wet

Free. water or saturated.

Table 7-6 CWDD Guide for Compactness of Coarse-G'-a!.. ned Soils

Compactness

Symbol

Very Loose

VL

Loose
Medium Dense
Dense
Very Dense

Corrected*
SPT
Penetration
(blows/foot)
0-4

4-10

MD

10-30

30-50

VD

+50

*Field penetration resistance should bacorrected to a

normalized overburden pressure of I-ton/sq.f. by the multiplication factor C
N

where p = effective overburdl?n pra~sure (tons/sq.ft.) at the

depth of the s.tandard penetia.tionte~t.
Table.7 ..? CWDD Guide for Consistency of Fine-Grained Soils

Consistency
Very Soft

Symbol
VS

SPT
Penetration
(blows/foot)
2

Range of Unconfined
Compressive Strength
tons/sq. ft.
0.25

Soft

2-4

0.25-0.50

Medium

4-8

0.50-1.00

St

8-15

1. 00-2.00

VSt

15-30

2.00-4.00

Stiff
Very Stiff
Hard

30

4.00

Table 7-8 CWDD Sampling Symbols Used on Logs

First
Letter

Second
Letter

Type of Sample
SPT Split Barrel
Brass Liner,
Shelby Tube
Stationary Piston
Dennison
Bulk (Loose)
Sample Not Recovered

S
L

T
P
D
B
X

Method of Penetr'ation
Driven
Pushed Hydraulically

A
H

Bulk Sample Container

Bag, Cloth
Bag, Plastic
Jar
Can

P
J

Converse Ward Davis Dixon, Inc.

Geotechnical Consvltants
FIELD LOG OF BORING

Bor'ng N o.

loject A a..nd e, TC>WI:.RS

Pro!. No.7';') -1101 01 I Sheet 1 of ~ e
Client
Ace. DEVELO?i"IENT CO
Location WW CORNE.R ?RO.,.,S;ED 131..0G-. SE PRoBoring Contr. ?ITC\\ER ORILI.ING CO.
Datum M.S.l-. 1g:~ !,;g..
Elev. 'I':l..5 '
Time
Date Start {p I:l. 717'1
g:~o AM
Boring Method 1>. OTA "''1' 4 'Ys" if!.
,E'RlO-tIIl.{ ".L 1\ "" I<. t. L.
Driller
Time
11:30
I::!M,
Dati EIDilb ('/2,717'1
2.5.0
FT.
C.
BROlut-J
Field ReD.
Total Borin DeDth
Casing Sample~
Ground Water
Core
Tube
Depth C(J\;"':
Type STD. 'l'11'E. CONVEI\S~
Date
Time
SHE-US"
all
(p"
7.2.'
(P.o' Diameter
ID/')..7 hq I~:'i!,o
;l..S "
"'_J'~r

Weig~t

Fall

I~~

:;:
r'
h

C>

~
~

. ii-l5 ~

1
2

",.
.,0

o~~

~Z

r-

-+-

..

5.'1

7 -

-i*p$

JO 9

err

PERCENT

G.
SII.TY CLAY
wi~\., rock Ifr"'3ma.nts
(FILL)

CL

SII..TY CLAY

CL

REJ.MRKS
GR-SA-rINES

I~'O'

IJ> "

BS

5'

CLu~a.r

o..f\:.e~

t0

dYWe,

.s<uv\~\(l.; ,sa:t
(gi' C<L$in~ to &,'

SM

IY\ M
1-"

I---

r-- ""dkI r-- 'jr

S
e

VM

0"0-100

!)om/Z. v(Z.~a.t,,:\:ion

4'-S'
'\:.ou,\hne~s: hi'3h
df~ stra.n'3\:.I'I; hi~h

\7 W"t~/'
.,.

~'1

~~-

IV

level 7. Z

6/Z Vi'S

shell fr"'~mq."t.s
Sc4tt~reol
throu~"'ovt \....~a.r

r-I---

-5
5
J

I--- lor

SP 0-9\1-:<'

SAN l)

drill c.ho.."''!la. a.t 17.'

flr'l<Z.

I :to

I---

4>

~
12~
/B.O

B.9 --

17

120

br

bk

r-\-t I--

15 -

".

r4 rT

13 14 -

18

- - I---

11 -

16

(5

30"

DESCRIPTION

~
It>

;.:f.
,~:
} l

1.9 p

6 -

12

(')

-+- 1. 13 -.--L

.e;

".~
~

1'10'"

rw
r- 9~Dr
rr--

ei,..,I\ chM'3<Z. a.t

VS

$~NoY

CL

CLlW

low a/1.VV\(l.r'lto.;1; lOr)

to\J~h"/1.SS: me<\iu\1)
d.~ ~~.",\\:'h: medium
dil"-"t<Ll'\c~: "<Z.r~ -slow

r-

I--EXAMPLE FIELD LOG OF BORING

Figure

7-1

0-35-("5

I~'

Converse WardDavlsDixon, In<:.

Geotechnical Consultants
FIELD LOG OF BORING

II 01'In9 N o.

I!mil!it

1\ AND

~Illnt

AcE. OE:v EL.O\>ME.NT co.

~
~

I-

:;:
w
0

"a~

If'~.c
o~~

~;:)~

~
~
~

~.

;).z

1..1 r--

.... ~

-7-

22.'

2..5 r--

2./P r-2..1 I - -

"l.S r-"l.q

r-I-I--

r-r-I--

r-r-r-r-I--

'--

0
u

'l'l-

br

61<.

L
:2.., r--;sr-=- _A_ -

'-4 r--

~ -rOWE.\<-S

0,'1

:,:.

'!;,

f!~

DESCRIPTION

~~

~
1;;

SI\NP'f CLIW
(sa-a. S"a.a, t 1)

CL_

SILTY C.I-AY

Cl-

PERCENT
REMARKS
GR-SA-FINES

to Ii '\\ h t
W

vs

with

IVI
" ...0

S .......oston<2.

SAN I) SToN E.-

IO-

~o-

"10

va. ....

rr"'lrna.n1:s,
1"''1a.rctd wiH-, .$d.nd'1 c.\~

'3':1

Sh.,t ~ 2f ~
Job No. 7q- 4101- 0

w vs

(l.ll:

c.l>o.:t\:a. ....
::1.\ .6 I
I

1040-50

ori 1\ cl\a."'la:

"c."k

Battom of ~f'n~ ;l..S FT.

--

--

r-r--

r-r-r-r-r-EXAMPLE FIELD LOG OF BORING

Figure 7~ 1 (continued)

C<.t ~~,o\

MAJOR DIVISIONS

',tt".',

TYPICAL NAMES

Clean gravel,
with little or
no fin
01<
oJ"

-"

Ol-

Mor. then half

coar fraction

w~>

No 4 ,Ia". siz.

O~

o !o.

Z--!

Poorly-Graded Gr."el" Ora"e' . Sand Mlxtur.,

GRAVELS

I, I.rger than

Gra"els with
over 12% fine.

Gl

-.!!o
<t~o
a:.~

""
JJc.zo.

::~;~,tittle
hnd,
or
no fin

SANDS

01

o:~

<t.
0-

Uo
:Ii

Silty Gra"el., Poorly-Gr.ded Gr ..... ' Sand

Slit Mhctur

GM

"g,~----------------------------~--~

>=
Clayev Gra"ell, PoorlY-Graded Gravel," Sand~~__-I__C_I_'_V_M
__'x_t_U_"_'__________________________________-I

sw

~~~

SP

'J

Well-Gradad Sandi, Gravelly Sand,

Poorly-Graded Sands, Gravelly Sand,

Mor. then half

coarse traction
I, smaller than
No 4 ,Ie"a size

SM

Sand. with
ovar 12% finas

se IJI

Cleyey Sands, Poorlv-Grad.d Sand Clay Mixtur

P t and Other Highly Organic Solll

.

Symbol

COARSE-GRAINED SOilS
Fines
Symbols
~. ss than 5.~
~"'. GC,
GP. ~"'.
More than 12%
GM,
SM. ~p.
SC,
5% to 12%
Borderline cases require
duel "ymbols

C~
1..1"
10
GW

C .130)2
c

0 10

)lt

Gr ter than 4

15 60

GP

Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW

GM

Atterberg limits below

with PI less than 4

GC

Atterberg limits above A-line

with PI' nreater than 7

Above A-line
with PI between 4
and 7 are borderline
cases requiring us. of
dual svmbols

.-U60
Cu

010 Greater than 6

SW

Cc (030)2

SP

Not maeting all gradation requ iremants for SW

SM

Atterberg limits below

with PI less'than 4

Atterberg limits above A -line

with PI greater than 7

~ 30

t;

..

CL.
20

:'i

./

VOL

1/

,,,V

.f/
OH
0'

MH

0'
ML

010 )( 060

SC

CH

w
0 40
Z

CL/ML

Ertwren 1 Wid 3

A- line

50

)(

E1ety,l'en 1 {,nd 3

A-line

FINE GRAINED SOILS

60

.,.

Above

10

20

30 40 50 60 70 80
LlOUID LIMIT (%)

A -ilna with

PI between 4 and 7

borderline cases
requiring use of dual
symbols

PLASTICITY CHART

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Figure 7-2

90

100

SECTION 8

ROCK BORING LOGS

Because of the possibility of damage, deterioration, or

loss, accurate on-site description of rock cores is essential.

In addition, fugitive drilling characteristics and

comments by the driller may yield important clues to rock

qualities, groundwater conditions, and the location of
missing intervals of core.

Thus the observations of the

field representative, properly and timely recorded, often

provides valuable insight into geotechnical problems
that develop in later design, or even construction, phases.

The most critical rock qualities from the engineering viewpoint are those that affect qverall mass 1) strength and 2)
permeability.

The nature and frequency of discontinuities

have a great influence on the engineering properties,

although other factors such as degree of weathering and
lithology are also important and, in some cases, may be more
important.

The terminology and classification parameters evolved by

civil engineers do not necessarily coincide with "classical"
geologic definitions.

The field representative must record

rock characteristics in terms recognizable to the design

engineer, while also recording the sometimes subtle features
useful in purely geologic correlations and interpretations.
The subtle features may indirectly indicate conditions
unforeseen from the boring data alone.

8-1

The following classification systems are designed for broad

applicability; however, conditions on individual job sites
may require deviations.

The Project Geologist is responsible

for establishing classification systems on the basis of

specific project requirements and geologic environments, and
may authorize modifications of the systems shown.

When this

is done, the classification scheme used must be clearly

understood by the field representative and explicitly stated
in the report, as well as the field logs.

A distinction is drawn between a rock b9ring~log>and the

core description.

The rock boring>~6g:includesadescrip

tion of relevant data appliqaqle

td';~~hi'i!;aiilling
of~the
\';:{;;'.;

boring and to the core recdv~tiWffi;

formats are available for

sEht~):al rock boring log

fi~~(L~:e,~ ;~~:~ardless

of format,

the following data are requir~p for appraisal of rock masses

for engineering. purposes and should be recorded on the rock
boring 'log :
1)

bOrfing depth, elevation, and size data;

2)

percent core recovery/rock quality designation;

3)

graphic log; and

4)

classification and physical condition of the core.

An example of a rock boring log which contains the aforementioned data is shown on Fig. 8-1.

The specific columns

of information shown on Fig. 8-1 are described below by

numerical reference from left to right.

8-2

8.1

BORING DEPTH, ELEVATION, AND SIZE

The angle depth of the core, along with boring size and core
box number are shown in column 1.

The scale selected

should be adequate to allow complete and uncrowded descriptions.

This will depend on the variability of geologic

conditions.

If a change in scale becomes necessary after

logging is underway, a note should be made in the left

margin at the appropriate point.

Core box depth intervals

are designated by numbered arrows at the left side of the

column, boring size in the center, and depth markings on the
right.

The core depth may be determined from the length and

number of drill rods.

The field representative should check

lengths of rods actually used.

8.2

PERCENT CORE RECOVERY/ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION

Pieces of core Should be carefully fitted together as they

are removed from the core barrel, and the total length of
core recovered measured to the nearest 0.1 foot.

Percent

core recovery is then computed by dividing total length of

the core by the length of the core run; however, two points
deserve extra attention.

First, is the core barrel empty?

Second, is there a stub remaining?

(Due to the position of

the retainer when the core is broken at the end of a run,

8-3

a stub of varying length may remain.)

Upon re-entering

the boring, the driller will usually have to move the rods
by hand to work the bit over the stub and into the original
cutting groove.

If less than 100 percent recovery has

occurred without indications of core grinding, ask the

driller how much stub remained within the boring before
computing percent recovery of the core retrieved.

The Rock Quality Designation (RDQ) is only for NX size core

and is computed by summing the lengths of all pieces of core
equal to or longer than 4 inches (lOOmm) and dividing by the
total length of the coring run.

It is necessary to distinguish

between natural fractures and those caused by the drilling

or recovery operations.

The fresh, irregular breaks should

be ignored and the pieces counted as intact lengths.

Depending

on the engineering requirements of the project, breaks

induced along highly anisotropic planes, such as foliation
or bedding, may be counted as natural fractures.

The Project

Geologist should designate a standard procedure prior to

commencement of drilling.

Percent core recovery and RQD should be computed for each

coring run and entered in column 2.

Horizontal lines should

be drawn across the column at the appropriate depths to

indicate the top and bottom of each run.

8-4

8.3

GRAPHIC LOG

The graphic log is drawn using standard symbols as shown on

Fig. 8-2, based on the rock's major classification division.

In general, the graphic log should only indicate the major

variations in rock or overburden types.

However, the column

is also useful for indicating locations of s:\.gnificant

fracturing or shear zones as indicated by the recovery or by
assimilation of.fugitive data.

If known, the location of

the groundwater level should .also be

log.

indicate~

on the graphic

Particular attention shoulo,.be paid t;o the nature and

- ;

'.

geometric relationships Qf contaCtS between oiff.eiring

lithologies, shear or falllt:;:ones, 9avi ties, or other major
- -f-.

di$continuities.

8.4

CLASS1FICATION ANP PHYSICAL CONDITION

Column 4 should contain geologic information of two types:

a lithologic (rock-type) classification and a description of
the physical condition (fracturing, weathering, etc.).
Where the rock type is substantially the same over a continuous
zone of the boring, the lithologic description need be given
only once, at the top of the zone.

Local variations in

lithology and physical condition generally should be described

over shorter zones, and should be separated by short horizontal

8-5

lines at the appropriate depths.

Changes in major lithologic

classification should be indicated by horizontal lines that

completely cross columns 3 and 4, although transitional
contracts may be indicated by a dashed line on the graphic
log portion.

The nature of abrupt or transitional contacts

should be fully described.

8.4.1

Lithologic Classification and Description

The lithologic description serves principally" as a tool for

geologic correlation and reference.

Wh'fUe detailed mineralogic

and petrologic features may provid~iittle direct engineering

data, they are indispensable ,in prQji;iBt1ng structtrres and
stratigraphic features that maYhave?;iJnportant geotechnical
implications.

In some types of invi(;;l,stigations, such as

fault studies, lithology may provide the most important

datum of all.

The amount of detailed lithologic description

required should be evaluated for each project.

In general,

the lithologic description should be brief and to the point;

complex, lengthy descriptions tend to "clutter" the log and
often confuse designers trying to use the log for engineering
purposes.

The word "BEDROCK" should be entered where first encountered,

followed by the major rock-type, also in capital letters.
Standard geologic terminology should be used with minor
exceptions.

8-6

1)

Non-layered, indurated, predominantly clay rocks

should be classified as claystones, reserving the

term "shale" for their fissile or laminated
equivalents.

Siltstones also lack the fine

lamination or fissility of shale and have predominantly silt-size particles.

Mudstones are

indurated rocks lacking fissility and containing

either equal or indeterminate amounts of clay and
silt.
2)

Grain-size ranges for clastic sediments and other

granular rocks should be based on . the Unified Soil
Classification Systeni(USCS).

uses

A comparison of the

grain size and the Wentworth grade scale,

used in classical st):"atig:raphy, is shown on Fig.

8-3.

The terminology ttl be used for describing

grain size of igneous rocks is also shown on Fig.

8-3.

For metamorphic rocks, standard metamorphic

textural terms should be used.

In addition, grain

size may be very critical; therefore, the actual

grain size should be given in millimeters.

The lithologic description should include, as appropriate,

color, mineralogy, degree and type of cementation, secondary
mineralization/alterations, and special physical characteristics such as water solubility, high or low density, etc.
Textural terms depend on the major rock type: for sediments,

include grain size and shape, sorting, and bedding (type,

thickness, and inclination to core axis); for igneous or
metamorphic rocks, any anisotropic features such as foliation,
lineation, cleavage, flow structure or cataclastic structure
as well as the character of crystallization should be fully
described.

Color is not usually a critical rock property; however, in

certain cases it can be effectively used to correlate beds,
units, or weathering horizons.

Because colors are seen and

described differently by different

peop~e

or eVen by the

same person at different times, qlil:tandard chart; such as the

Geological Society of Ame:r;:i9i;ln
(Ref. 30) should be used.

(G1~)'<".R6~k

Color Chart"

Allqolorsshould be reported as

seen on moist core.

In rna.ny caselill especial.1.with igneous and metamorphic

rocks, the texture may result in an ill-defined or variable
color.

In such cases, the color of the dominant minerals or

the overall ground mass should be described and the colors

of secondary features should be described separately.

The

secondary coloration usually has a characteristic geometric

pattern which may be described by one of the following
terms:
banded -

approximately parallel bands of

varying color

streaked -

random streaks of color

8-8

blotched -

large irregular patches of color

(greater than 3/4 cm in diameter)

mottled -

irregular patches of color

speckled -

very small patches of color (less than

1 mm in diameter)

stained -

faint coatings along bedding,

joints, fractures

8.4.2

Description of Physical Condition

Physical condition of the rock mass includes degree of

weathering, fracturing, jointing, --,-j,)ell.ding, and hardness .
----

avoid ambiguous terminoiogy

.-.-.

the;f~llOWing

To

--

tables and discussion

outline the terms used indescribiJ")g the physical condition

of the rock core.

8.4.2.1

Further deSCl:'ipti0l]:s can be found in Ref. 40.

Degree of Weathering.

are somewhat subjec,tive.

The definitions of weathering

However, Table 8-1 outlines the

discoloration extent, fracture conditions, surface character-'

istics, original texture and grain boundary conditions for
five degrees of weathering.

This guide should be used in

describing the relative degree of weathering.

8.4.2.2

Discontinuities.

A discontinuity surface is

defined, as any surface across which some property for a

rock mass is discontinuous, Ref. 31.

The term includes

fracture surfaces, weakness planes, and bedding planes.

fracture is the general term for any discontinuity in the

8-9

rock; it is the collective term for joints, faults, cracks,

or mechanical breaks due to drilling.

Therefore, when

breaks (other than mechanical) are present in the core in a

random, irregular fashion, they can properly be referred to
as fractures.

Systematic breaks which clearly belong to a

system or set of joints should be referred to as joints.

Whereas joints can be referred to as fractures, it is
possible that all fractures are not joints.

Furthermore,

joints do not have visible movement parallel to the surface

of discontinuity.

When planar surfaces have significant

development of slickensides and/or deyelapmentof gouge or

breccia, the terms sheared or shear zone Jas appropriate)
can be used.

The word fault should be reserved for major

features along which significant mo;rement can be identified.

An example of the twofold discontinuity spacing description

could be "thinly bedded, widely jointed".

This description

would apply to a sedimentary rock with a bedding plane

spacing of 60 to 200 mm and joint plane spacing of 60 cm to
two meters.

Depending upon the nature of the engineering problem for

which the core logging is being done, a number of other
discontinuity surface features should be described in the
core log.

These may be:

8-10

1)

discontinuity surface type origin,

2)

separation of fracture walls,

3)

filling, its absence or presence;

4)

roughness and degree of weathering, and

5)

orientation, apparent or true dip.

The field representative should be aware of the different

discontinuity surface types and should describe only those
surfaces which have occurred as a result of geological
processes.

Fractures resulting from the drilling process,

or subsequent to core removal from the boring, are not

described.

The terms to be used in descri,bingthe separation of fracture

walls are given in Table 8-3.

Su~gested terminology to be used

to indicate the presence or absence of fracture filling materials

is given in Table 8-4.

All materials occurring between the fracture walls are

referred to as fracture filling.

The term includes in situ

weathered materials, fault zone materials, and foreign

materials either deposited or intruded between the fracture
surfaces.

only the presence or absence of fracture filling should be

noted in the discontinuity surface description.

Where

applicable, a separate description of the fracture filling

should be given after the discontinuity surface description.

8-11

Roughness asperities usually have a base length and amplitude

measured in terms of millimeters and are readily apparent on
a core-sized exposure of a fracture.

The applicable

descriptive terms are defined in Table 8-5.

The two necessary and sufficient conditions for the definition of the orientation of a particular plane are its strike
and dip.

There are a number of specialized methods that can

be used to obtain the strike and dip of discontinuity surfaces

in drill core.

One method is to remove an oriented core

from the rock mass using a special cor.e orienter barrel.

Alternatively the discontinuity surface orientation can be
measured in the wall of theboringusihg an oriented boring
periscope, camera, or devicescctpable:of viewing or taking
an impression of t.heboring sides.

where a feature of known

strike and dip; L e., bedding, intersects the core at an

angle, this may be used to orient the core.

Another method

requires the presence of at least one easily identifiable

marked band and the use of a minimum of three borings.

This

latter method enables three dimensional geometry, usually

aided by stereographic projection.

The above methods are

costly and only used on projects where discontinuity

orientation is critical to the design of the facilities.
However, the apparent dip of discontinuity surfaces should
be routinely logged on all projects.

Apparent dip is the

maximum inclination of the discontinuity surface measured at

right angles to the core axis.

8-12

8.4.2.3

Rock Hardness.

In geotechnical engineering, rock

material strength is very important in design when considering factors such as excavation methods, bearing capacity,
and tunnel support requirements.

Although rock material

strength and rock hardness are indirectly related, they

should not be confused.

Rock strength cannot be evaluated

without laboratory or in situ testing while rock hardness is

a field evaluation, unless a laboratory hardness test is to
be conducted later.

Point load tests or uniaxial compressive

strength tests are required to distinguish between the upper

limi ts of rock hardn'ess, such as very hard or extremely
hard.

Rock hardness is defined<l;sthe resistance to indentat'''n

or scratching.

Table 8-6 illustr<l;tes the relative hardness

scale to be used for field core logging descriptions.

8.4.2.4

Order of DejlcriptiveTerms.

The order of rock

descriptions should be the same throughout a log.

The rock

name should be stressed by capital:_zing the name and puttin':j

it first.

The modifying terms should follow in a logical

sequence.

For example:

"GRAYWACKE - gray-brown, fine-

grained, medium weathered, medium hard, 'closely fractured to

medium fractured below 15'."

Additional description of

lithology and/or physical properties should follow the rock

name and principal modifiers such as "iron stained, medium
rough, closed fractures with average apparent dip of 60.
few thin (lo" wide) calcite veinlets in irregular pattern".

8-13

8.5

WATER PRESSURE TEST

Arrows should be placed in column 5 to indicate the positions

of packers for all water pressure test zones.

If the base

of the test zone was the bottom of the boring, indicate by a

notation.

8.6

Section 10 discusses water pressure test procedures.

REMARKS

This is one of the most important columns of the form.

Data

entered here might include such information as water loss

(or gain), change of color of return water, coring record,
drilling rate, bit changes, unusual or characteristic behavior

of drilling tools, and driller's judgment of subsurface

conditions.

If not covered elsewhere on log, clear notations

should be made regarding casing sizes, casing depths, and

sequences of installing casing.

At end of log a statement

should be made regarding condition of the boring on completion,

especially recording of how much casing has been removed.

8.7

CORE PHOTOGRAPHY

It is recommended that color print photographs of all core

be obtained for a permanent record and for comparison with
the descriptive log.

Core photography should be carried out

systematically; preferably in a controlled environment,

8-14

under even lighting, and with a standard photography setup,

so that variables between photographs are minimized.

For

some work, employment of a commercial photographer is

justified.
1)

The following procedures are recommended.

One or more core boxes may be photographed at a
time.

2)

A label with the name of the site, project number,

and boring number should be included in each
picture.

3)

All lettering should be well-spaced and have a

minimum size of 20 mm.

4)

Color bars should be fWi.ofuded in eachj;licture.

5)

A frame is usefl.ll:to SUPI;lClttthe camera vertically

'~~-~>'

above the core l;,qX8/j.

----

Af~~;!;natively, the core box

can be supporte4 in ..~ . . tl..lted (60 0

position so

that itsSllrface:i,s normal to the direction of

Pho.togl:."aphy .
- ---.

6)

Ma.Chineprinting of photographs is not recommended .

.. .J: is useful to obtain prints on a scale of 1: 10 .

7)

Core should be photographed while moist but not

wet.

A hand spray bottle is useful for keeping

the core moist.

Figure 8-4 shows a typical title block that can be re-used

for photographing individual core boxes with a photograph of
core which has been clearly labelled.

8-15

TABLE 8-1 DEGREE OF

D I A G N o S TIC

f!EATHERI~G

FEATURE

DESCRIPTIVE
TERM

DISCOLORATION
EXTENT

UNWEATHERED

NONE

SLI GHTLY
WEATHERED

LESS THAN 2Q%

FRACTURE SPACING ON
BOTH SIDES OF FRACTURE,

cOtlTAIN THIN
FILLING

MEDiUM
WEATHERED

GREATER THAN 20~ OF

FRACTURE SPACING ON
BOTH SIDES OF FRACTURE,

CONTAIN THICK
FILLING

HIGHLY
WEATHERED

THROUGHOUT

-----------

COMPLETELY
WEATHERED

THROUGHOUT

FRACTURE

0,

CONDITION

ORIGINAL

CLOSED OR DISCOLORED

UNCHANGED

PRESERVED

TIGHT

DISCOLORED, MAY

PARTIAL DISCOLORATION

PRESERVED

TIGHT

DISCOLORED~

MAY

:;ISCONTJN~1TY

TEXTURE

CONDI TlON

PARTIAL TO COMPLETE 015- PRESERVED

COLORATION NOT FRIABLE
EXCEPT POORLY CEMENTED

PARTIAL
OPENING

FRIABLE AND POSSIBLY

PITTED

MAINLY
PRESERVED

PARTIAL

RESEMBLES A SOIL

PARTLY

ROCKS,

-----------

TABLE 8-2

PRESERVED

SEPARATION

COMPLETE
CEPARATION

SPACING

DESCRIPTION FOR STRUCTURAL

fEATURES:

GRAIN
BOUNDARY

SURFACE
CHARACTER I STiCS

DESCRIPTION FOR JOINTS,

BI;DDING, FOLIATION,

OR FLOW BANDING

FAULTS OR OTHER FRACTURES

SPACING

2 METERS

6 FEET

VERY T~ICKLY (BEDDED, FOLIATED OR

BANDED)

HORE THAN

THICKLY

60 CM - 2 METERS

2 - 6 FEET

WIDELY

MEDIUM

200 MM - 60 CM

8 - 24 INCHES

MEDIUM

THINLY

60 - 200 MM

2 1/2 - 8

CLOSELY

VERY THINLY

20 - 60 MM

3/4 - 2 1/2

INTENSE,Y (LAMINATED, FOLIATED, OR

CLEAVED)

6 - 20 MM

1/4 - 3/4

VERY INTENSEI.Y

LESS THAN 6 MM

LESS THAN IlL! INCH

MORE THAN

INCHES
INCHES

VERY WIDELY) (FRACTURED

OR JOINTED

VERY CLOSELY

DESCRIPTION FOR MICROSTRUCTURAL

FEATURES' LAMINATION, FOLIATIONS,
OR CLEAVAGE
INCH

EXTREMELY CLOSE

TAm 8-3
SEPARATION OF FRACTURE WALLS

TABLE 8-~
FRACTURE FILLING

SEPARATION OF WALLS
IN MM

DESCR I PTI ON
CLOSED

DESCRIPTION

DEFINITION

CLEAN

NO FRACTURE FILLING MATERIAL

VERY NARROW

o - 0.1

STAINED

NARROW

0.1 - 1
1 - 5.0
5 - 25+

DISCOLORATION OF ROCK ONLY.

NO RECOGNIZABLE FILLING
MATERIAL

FILLED

FRACTURE FILLED WITH

RECOGNIZABLE FILLING
MATER IAL

WIDE
VERY WIDE

TABLE 8-5
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
CLASSIFICATION

DESCRIPTION

TABLE 8-6
ROCK HARDNESS
CLASSIFICATION

FIELD TEST

SMOOTH

APPEARS SMOOTH AND IS ESSENTIALLY

SMOOTH TO THE TOUCH. MAY BE
SLICKENSIDED

VERY SOFT

CAN BE PEELED WITH A KNIFE,

MATERIAL CRUMBLES UNDER FIRM
BLOWS WITH THE SHARP END OF A
GEOLOGIC PICK.

SLIGHTLY ROUGH

ASPERITIES ON THE FRACTURE

SURFACES ARE VISIBLE AND CAN BE
DISTINCTLY FELT

SOFT

MEDIUM ROUGH

ASPERITIES ARE CLEARLY VISIBLE

AND FRACTURE SURFACE FEELS
ABRASIVE TO TOUCH.

CAN JUST BE SCRAPED WITH A

KNIFE, INDENTATIONS OF ~ TO ~
MM WITH FIRM BLOWS OF THE PICK
POINT.

MEDIUM HARD

CANNOT BE SCRAPED OR PEELED

WITH A KNIFE BUT CAN BE
SCRATCHED WITH KNIFE POINT.
HAND HELD SPECIMEN BREAKS WITH
FIRM BLOWS OF THE PICK.

HARD

DIFFICULT TO SCRATCH WITH KNIFE

POINT, CANNOT BREAK HAND HELD
SPECIMEN.

ROUGH

LARGE ANGULAR ASPERITIES CAN BE

SEEN. SOME RIDGE AND HIGH SIDE
ANGLE STEPS EVIDENT.

VERY ROUGH

NEAR VERTICAL STEPS AND RIDGES

OCCUR ON THE FRACTURE SURFACE.

* WHERE SLICKENSIDES ARE OBSERVED 1 THE

DIRECTION OF THE SLICKENSIDES SHOULD BE

RECORDED AFTER THE STANDARD DISCONTINUITY
SURFACE DESCRIPTION.

1'1- 4315 - 01

Pmjcet No.

ST. HELENA DAM

Pmjeet

N359, os~

Coordinates

Hole No.

ROCK BORING LOG

Feature
379. 51q

E "

.ype of Bo,;"9 K't.~Y/N)t. COR e:

~I(;I-\'r

Ground Elevation

Total Depth_...!5",'1,,-'_ _ _ _ _ Start

Angle with Horizontal_--=4,..,S,-0

__

8/1:1,./7'1

Water Level - Deplh. ElevatOon. Date --"...!Il'-'_--=\?"'I'-',"'2..,,/.J7c::'lL.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Logged By

LONG YEAR,

Drming Co.
Angle Depth

Elpvation
Sizp

(FEEr)

;--

.--- -------------------------------

1410- START RuN:\.

WP,'fER LosS
l;ts P5; P.WN PRESSURE
1435 - PUL.L RUN L
\5Locl<ED OFF
1'150 - START RUN :>.
ISilO - PULL RUN :t
IS!)S - STI\IH RuN 3

*
1 J-

"', - - - ".0
KT
1
10

"

:r ~

75;4.

+ +

I '" -

... ~ +

~15

"'~-

~
)(

&i

100

"''is

+-

Og~S

- Pll L.L RuN '-I

- STf'lRT ,",uN 5
13I<OlUN W"TeR 'R';',URN

q,/13/?"I
OQ30 - I'ULL 'RUt-!

CLOSEt.'( SPI\CEl), CLOSlOD, CLEAtv, MEDIUM

0
'(OU"'M FRI\c.TURSS crolNiS <:) @:> 75
A"p/'lP.ENT PIP; ..0.5' To ~::>...7'

100

<-25

"72

100
!>- 100

ll<
IV)

-I-

... +

+ +

WIDEL-.... "''''/'Ic.TURe.D, 1'11'11'.1)(0) ;<,<0.4'

Ii'
u.

13(..ocl< ING OFF

~ C.LOSEt>, C~E"'N. ROU6H, \,\EDIU\,\ lOINTE.l)

@30o A~PI\RENT \)IP; ;1.1.5' To ;L1f.S'

W'+
+

SILICIT'II'-t>, I'I/>''Rb To '10.1'.'-/ I-I"RD

1\15 - PULL RUN 7

1135 - STI'-RT RuN 1!

+ +
. +.:.

'-ttILL "''''RGIN 3" TKICK

~ 5\'\1\"...,', l\"IRL.Il-IE., \'\i:REGU~IIR c..ol-lTIlc.T

~ EPll)oTe.-l-\oElJFEI-S; I>I\Rl< liRE\;:NIS" G-Rli-Y

~ SI'E.c.I<Le.\) "~D STRE"KI'-D wITtI trlo\)"RATE" ; 'r'EL~W\HI GRI:EN, 2.. mm SIZ.e. &1'\1'\\.1000~
BLASTIC WITH 5-(0",,,, ~oI\PHY13LI'Isn; of
100
r-3S~ \do ~ EPIDOTE., PENSE.. u\JW\OI'-THEROCD, Cl-OSe.D,
~ C~E'I\I\I, Sl'IooTtl, WlDE'-'< S{>"CI'-D FP.IICTuI\ES,
~~\ \'IMD To VER.... HI'.RD
-

'"

\015 - PUL.L RUN (P

103S - SiART RUN 7

-I

30

Ii

'I

:1.0

I"

110

UNWEATi"tE.REP (ii)I$.O'

I?~S

WIPe., CLA"I FILLEO, SLI<!ott'r....Y F.OUUtl

JOINTS C.l-OSEL'T SPAC.E-D, (Po" Ap'DIP;
Ill.o' To IQ.5 I

~- To

1""40 - srARr RuN

...

1><_

.s_

II-

11.0;1.0 - PULL RuN 3

C"I-oF.ITE., 'Fe:~\)"PI\P' INCII'IE'IVTLY ,,~n;:~E.D To

c.LA.'f. I'IOST I"RAC.TuRE-S @ 30o l\{>l'I'<"EN"f \)IP
SI-IGttTL.'r' We.ATtlERI:D@ 10.7'

4-

SET UP

1030 - OVERBoRt>eN
PRIl.l. IN Q,

?", - l%

....
II

Remarks
(Water Loss and Color. Cilsing
Record, Time of Drilling, etc. )

1,00 -

+- + BEl)!<,oc.l<. - ~\oilTE G\'..ANOOIOR,I1"e.;

SO,.. +- SPEC.KU'-I) GI\~eN\SH 13L.I'ICK {PINKISH
+- + + GR."""/13LUISI-\ Wf\I,E-, Me.Dluf'\ GRI'-INED,
MEOIlJl'l WEl'm,E.R..!), ME"()luM FI\(o..CTuIU.D,
">WITH l'<\oDE-I<,ATE. I3ROWN SlAIN ALoNG
+- + t'\E.l>luM l'\ouGH, NAI<.RoW f'RACTuRES;
22.. ... +........ Me.DIUi'\ HI'IRt>; illoTlTE ToTIILL.~ "'~TaR..e.t> To

S MIT H

(,," CASINr. 0'.(,'

1-0bSE., 1"\01$,-

7.

R S.
Sheet

Watl.'t
Pressure
Test

OVER.BURDEIJ TI\.L.US i I'IN(,.ULI\R. ROc..K.

'FRI\GMENT.s WlTf\ t<\INoi't SA"'b/SI~T)

,----5

i-tuc"o PolTS

Classification and Physical Condition

RQD

DrOller

"k

HRe.

Box No.

DRILLING CO

Bparing N ~O E..

Al'MJ,NlENT
&;to.7

_---=8"--____

"

SflE.I'\RE!), C"UStlED WITH, NARRoW, CLII'I-F'LLI'.\:i

: 5",,0<>1>\, S~ICKENSIPED FR"c.TUI\ES (!i) 'Is'"
Mpl'IREm OIl'; 39.3' To 39.8'

'--a

ConverseWard DaVIS Dixon

Geotechnicil Con,uUlntl

Figure 8-1

...

01 _

:2 10)
J-.~
lAl

~In
,<I
Il.

I'aoo - PUL.L RuN S'

Pmjecl No. _7"-q-'-----'4-=3_1.:::5_ _ __

Hole No. _ _~'i!~___

ROCK BORING LOG

Pmjecl _ _S"-"J.:,'--"""E"L"E"'N"'A:!-L>=Al!:i"IL_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Fe,'ure Rlc;,~T PlaUTI') ",NT

Bearing _ _ _ __

Coordinates _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Ground Elevation _ _ _ _ Angle with Horizontal _ _ _ __

Type of

B.'i"~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1'ot.1 Depth _ _.:::5'--4'--'_ _ _ _ St.rt _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Finish '6/13/7Q

Water Levp\ - Depth, E\f'vation, Dale _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Logged By

Drilling Co.

Sheet

Driller

Angle Depth

Elpvation

%
Rec.

Sizp
BOl{ No.

Classification and Physical Condition

RQD

P. S. S l'liT H

Walf>r
Pressure
Test

Remarks
(Water Loss and Color, Casing
Record, Time of Drilling, pte.)

It

PULL. RUN 9
1515 - STA'RT 'RUN \0

1450-

1(0'1.5 - 'PULL RuN \0

(.,~ USING- LEFT
STEi'\ CA?PED,
PAINTED A/JP STAMPED
:1,'

WITt! BO~ING NiJMBC~

ConverseWard DaVIS Dixon

aeotechnlc,l Conlultontl

Figure 8-1 (continued)

MAJOR DIVISIONS

TYPICAL NAMES
._~,
."Iomerate, graywacke-conglomerate,
rkosic-conglomerate, lithic-conglomerate

CONGLOMERATE (BRECCIA)

.::.:::::
-',
k
k
::::::- q".
te, quartz wac e, graywac e,
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - :: .. ::.:. ~v.~, tuffaceous sandstones
. .

.
II

SANDSTONE
SILTSTONE

"y,

calcareous, siliceous,
or micaceous siltstone

~----------------~
CLAYSTONE/MUDSTONE
f=====::::::: clay shale, marl

....Cl
Vl

~=-=-::==~

==~,c'lr'bolnac:eou'.I'. calcareous, .sil iceous,

SHALE

~ ~,

CHERT
V1

ow
Z

VOLCANIC
PLUTONIC

bedde41 chert, porcellanite

1\

/' /

rhyolite, flIJartz latit~ rhyodacite, dacite,

IdHte,andesite, basalt, tuff

II . . "
'>,," "'"

~!

t!. '"~

,.,.".quartz monzonite, granodiorite, tonalite

dI.d .., dI.b.~, pod'.';",

'"H.

schist, phyll ite, slate, phyllonite

SCHtSTOSE
GRANOBLASTIC

or micaceous shales

calcarenite, dolon.itlc or sil iceous limestone,

calcitic dolostone

LlMESTONE/DOLOSTONE

::J

-r

~-;--;--"
~~

..

granulite, marble, amphibolite, tactite, skarn,

serpentinite

\\" ::\'

SEMISCHIST
HORNFELSIC

~~ gneiss, banded gneiss

~~---------j
~~~- albite-epidote-hornfels, pyroxene-hornfels,
hornb Ie nde-hornfe Is

~~

t[~~ mylonite, phacoldal rocks, melange

"r---------------~~~~~,.~~~.~--------------------~

'"

!:d

CATACLASTIC

z
ol -

BRECCIA ZONE

SHEAR ZONE/FAUL T

I-

:~::.,::

fault breccia, crush breccia

-:.::_~ crush conglomerate
/5/

/F/

clay gouge, slickensides,

use S for shear and F for fault

LOG SYMBOLS
Figure 8-2

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND SOILS

UNIFIED

WENTWORTH

BURMIS'l'ER

~
4026
2048

boulder gravel

boulder

1024

cobbles

512

12-

9"

256
128

cobble

64
coaese gravel

coarse gravel

cobble gravel

T 3/1],;

'"

16

medium grll.vel

,
,

tine gravel

)/'

~,.76

No.4*

fine gravel

sand
No.lOIl

coar~e

2 00

1. 00

granule gravel

0.<12-

No.4QoIIo-

0.25

fine sand

0.125
0.074 -

very coarse sand

coarse BAnd

medium sand

32

---No,30"
medium Band

coarse sand

--No.50'"

mediUlll -sand

1/2
1/'
fine sand

fine sand

very fine sand

No.200

1/'
"t/16

1/32
silt

1/64
1/128

0.005

. i l t or clay

"1/256

dlt

1/512
0.001-

clay

1/1024
-1/2048

u,S.

Standard sieve Number

IGNEOUS ROCKS
NAME

SIZE LIMITS
(inches)

glassy, aphanitic (no grain size visable )

cryptocrystalline (faint polarization effects in thin section,
grains not individually visible)
microcrystalline (grains too small to be seen with a hand
lens but visible under microscrope)

<1

< 0.04

1- 5

0.04 - 0.2

medium-grained

5 - 30
> 30

0.2 - 1,2

coarse-grained

> 1.2

fine-grained

very coarse

GRAIN SIZE
Figure 8-3

TYPICAL CORE PHOTOGRAPH

Figure 8-4

SECTION 9

LOGS FOR OPEN SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS

In general, open subsurface explorations made for engineering purposes are not logged in the detail that fault
investigation trenches are logged.

Below are described the

basic requirements of various field logs needed to record

observations made after exploratory test pits, dozer cuts,
test shafts, and trenches are excavated.
investigation trenches are described.

Later the fault

The log should

reflect field conditions at the time of excavation in as

complete and accurate manner as prs'cticable.
in logging cannot be overemphasized.

Thoroughness

Field logs may

become the only record of geotechnical conditions

affecting the project feasibility.

The examples of field logs included are not intended to

become "standard" formats, although those shown have been in
use for several years by various offices.

However, the

examples do show the basic data needed for analyzing field

conditions in an objective manner.
that should be recorded.

There are minimum data

The following paragraphs indicate

the required data and outline the importance of recording

such data.

9-1

9.1

OPEN EXCAVATIONS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES

9.1.1

Basic Required Data

Although open excavations for engineering purposes may

include test pits, test trenches, dozer cuts, and test
shafts, the basic data recorded on the logs are the same.
The basic data required for subsurface exploration logs for
engineering purposes consist of heading data, the graphic
sketch with a brief description of the subsurface materials,
and the conditions observed at the time of the excavation
and logging.
1)

A list of the required heading data follows.

Project Name and Number.

Assigned by Project

Manager.
2)

Test Pit/Trench/Dozer Cut/Shaft Number.

A simple

consecutive numbering system should be used

throughout the project regardless of the phase of
work, thus avoiding confusion between various
years work.
3)

Excavation Equipment Used. These data allow

evaluation of excavation rates for estimating
costs in future work and evaluation of contractor
performance.

4)

Logged By.

During future evaluation of logs the

proper person can be located.

5)

Date Started/Completed/Backfilled.

Allows evaluation

of excavation rates and documention of the date

of backfilling.

9-2

6)

Water Level.

The depth, or preferably elevation,

of first water seepage encountered and the date

observed should be recorded.
7)

Elevation.

The elevation of highest ground

surface should 'be recorded if available; a +

symbol is used for estimated elevations.
8)

Orientation.

The bearing of the side(s) logged

should be recorded.

For example, Bearing N20 o W,

SW (or NE) wall logged.

9)

Total Depth.

The depth of deepest exploration

should be recorded.

9.1.2

Graphic Sketch

A graphic sketch of the logged exploration surface is useful

for locating samples, constructing profiles of subsurface
conditions, and showing field conditions.

If possible, all

logs should be sketched at the same scale throughout the

project.

Graphic scales commonly use ratios from 1:12 to

1:240 depending upon the complexity of the field conditions,

size of excavations, and final drawing size of the project
report.

The graphic sketch should portray the general geometry of

the excavation, the location of contacts between differing
materials, the nature of discontinuities, and the presence
of ground water.

In addition to the graphic sketch, photo-

graphs are often useful.

A "Polaroid" type camera is a

9-3

useful tool in obtaining quick field photographs.

Stereo-

graphic photos of field conditions can be made by selecting

a distant focal point, taking a picture, then offsetting
five to seven feet in the same plane as the first photo, remaining at the selected focal point and taking a second
picture of the same scene.

The two photos of the same scene

can then be viewed with a pocket stereoscope to produce a

three-dimensional picture of the excavation.

9.1.3

Descriptions

Descriptions of soil should follow the guides outlined in

Section 7 and rock descriptions should follow Section 8.
The written description should contain some comments on
excavation ease or difficulty, caving problems, and noted
changes in ground water.

Some examples of field logs of various types of exploration

pits, trenches, cuts, and shafts are shown on Figs. 9-1
through 9-3.

9.2

9.2.1

FAULT INVESTIGATION TRENCH LOGS

Basic Required Data

The basic data required for fault investigation trenches

consist of heading data, the detailed log, and descriptions

9-4

of the subsurface materials.

A principal difference between

open excavation logging for fault investigations and logging

for engineering purposes is that fault investigation
trenches require 1) more detail and accuracy of the subsurface
mapping and 2) the review and approval of the logs in the
field by senior level personnel.

Thus, due to the complexity

of determining fault displacements, slip rates, and age of

movement, special techniques are required that are not
needed for most exploration trenches.

The heading data should include the

Pt'ojec:t name and

number; trench number; excavatiohequipment used and dates

excavation and mapping were startedahd completed; date
trench was backfilled; orientatiohCof wall (face) mapped;
-

-;-

graphic scale/and names 'o,f piO!:tspnsittapping , reviewing,

and/or approving the logs.

A plan view sketch showing the

trench location with respect to the local topography,

geology, and cultural features should be made.

9.2.2

Trench Mapping Methods

Before fault investigation trenches are mapped, the trench

walls are shored (Appendix B).

Then the trench wall showing

the clearest geologic relationships is selected for mapping.

The opposite wall is rarely mapped but should, nevertheless,
be closely viewed to clarify geologic relationships.
Following trench wall cleaning, horizontal and vertical
control reference lines are established on the wall to be
mapped.

9-5

Several methods of trench wall cleaning are available

depending upon the materials exposed.

The best way to

remove a smeared clayey surface is by forcibly pushing

the broad-blade of a hand pick into the trench wall and then
pulling a small wedge of material into the trench.
Experience with this technique has revealed many shear
planes not otherwise recognized.

Use of a sharp-pointed

pick is not satisfactory for this purpose.

Cleaning the

entire trench wall by use of a broad-blade pick is very

time-consuming and tiring work.

"

Another, lesst.ifue-consuming

method is to clean the wall along a 91:"iclii,patte:rrt.

be done by:

cleaning 2-foot

at 5-foot centers along

Wide'~~Wgf~s from

This can

tJl',to bottom

thG1:"enchi~~~lW';:;leaning <,t;;"foot

wide horizontal swaths at

5f).f6b!.,int~~y,alS
;->,,;,_~

---C_\\,:~_: __ ,j.,

->---';;_: _ '~~.-c

down the wall;

and following cdnta:Cfsbetween mi.fb~i'iari3 with 2-foot wide

-,,,;"--

swaths
':

'<,. it",

Air bloWing hai:!,..,, proven to be a' fast method for revealing

;,

structural

ana

lithologic details in bedrock, semi-consolidated

materials, and some soils.

Hand washing with a fine spray

has the advantage of enhancing color differences but often

erodes or obscures some of the finer fault or shear details.

It is inappropriate to attempt to map a trench wall for

fault investigations without the use of some linear reference system.

For survey control of the mapping, hori-

zontal and vertical reference lines are established along

9-6

the trench wall being mapped.

Normally, a large nail or

spike is driven into the trench wall at one end and a

string-level is established from that point by driving nails
or spikes along the level lines at convenient points keeping
the string close to the trench wall by tied off horizontal
or vertical sections between points.

In deep trenches, two

level lines may be established to aid mapping.

A fiberglass

tape may be used to label appropriate horizontal stations

along the string line.

Other intervals can be added by

marking the string line with a marking pen or leaving the

tape in place while mapping.

A plumb bob is used to make

vertical breaks in the horizontal string line.

Once the

level line is established, the ground surface and trench

bottom can be quickly mapped ,by using a carpenter's rule,
Philadelphia Rod, or a field expedient rod (such as a long,
l"x2" strip of wood).

One person holds the rod vertically

at close intervals along the string line while the other

person records and plots the distances from the reference
line to the ground surface and trench bottom.

Obvious

contacts can be plotted this way at the same time as the

trench profile is being drawn.

After cleaning the trench

wall and establishing a string line, contacts between major

units are usually painted with DayGlo spray paint (orange,
red, green, or yellow is best).

This speeds mapping and

greatly clarifies photography of the trench wall.

9-7

Once a linear reference line is established along the trench

wall, a grid template may be used along the wall providing a
faster, more accurate method of mapping.

(Alternatively,

but far more time-consuming, a string grid system may be

established using the string level line as a reference.)

grid template can be made from concrete reinforcing wire mat

with six-inch squares.

The mat is cut to a convenient size

to fit between the trench shoring and sprayed with DayGlo

paint.

Nails are driven into the wall to hook the grid

template in alignment with the reference string line.

One

section of the wall is mapped and thent!le grid is moved in

a leap-frog fashion using the
reference points.

alrea.dy~driven

nailsas

The fine details in each six-inch grid

square can thus be accurately mapped in :rapid fashion.

All

details are shown, not in sui!lnlarized~:fasliion, but in actual

representative detail.
easiest to map.

Key planar features are often the

The feature of interest is mapped on

gridded mylar at the feature's intersection with the wire

template and is carried across the mylar grid, noting
intersections with each of the reference grid squares on the
trench wall.

Symbols may be used to label key features and

to note features that are too small or poorly defined to

show on. the map, such as degrees of weathering, color
changes, moisture changes, and direction of discontinuities.

9-8

Normally, fault investigation trenches are mapped at a scale

between 1:10 and 1:50.

Commonly, a scale of 1:12 or 1:24 is

selected when using English units.

At these scales, an

average pencil line (0.5 rom Pentel mechanical pencil)

represents a feature

to

inches thick.

All details

larger than the threshold level of resolution should be

recorded when mapping the actual zone of deformation.
Beyond the zone of deformation, the level of resolution can
be modified to reflect only those geologic features which
may demonstrate the absence of deformation from faulting.

Although no standard log format exists for fault investigation trenches, the following guides have been helpful.
1)

A masonite board if cov$red by a sheet of white

(exposed blue-line diazo) paper.

Fade-out blue,

grid mylar is then mounted (with the frosted

side out) over the white paper.
2)

A mapping board of 24" by 36" is easily handled

in the trenches and accommodates an unbroken
trench profile at scales of 1:12 to 1:24.

3)

A grid on the mylar is an aid in locating the

horizontal and vertical reference lines and drawing
the geologic features as previously discussed.

4)

A survey stationing is made from left to right,

unless opposite walls of the same trench are
mapped on the same log.

5)

A recording of the elevation of the horizontal

reference line is an aid in subsequent evaluation.

9-9

6)

An indication of all sample locations is an

aid in interpretation.

7)

A standard use of geologic symbols provides

consistency with other geologic mapping.

An example of both the detailed mapping needed for fault

investigations and a typical field log format are shown on
Fig. 9-4; Trench Log.

9.2.3

Trench Photography

Once the trench has been mapped, the entire wall should be
photographed using color print film~

E:x;p1:;)rience has shown

that the following procedure~sproduCe good results.

l)~

String level stationirigisslown

every five feet
.
,-

with two-inch highnumera.ls to assist in locating

items in photos and in matching adjoining photos.
The field vision for a 35-mm camera is about six
feet when standing along the opposite wall of a
three-foot wide trench.

Adequate overlap of the

photos should be obtained.

2)

Photos are taken with the trench wall shaded,

often using flash unit to enhance the detail in
dark shadows.

When the trench wall is in full

sunlight, the contrast from small shadows along

the irregular surface and the reflected light
obscures important features.

The ideal lighting

condition for trench photography is when it is

overcast.

9-10

3)

Log of trench photos is maintained to aid in later

identification of the photos.

An example Trench

Photo Log is provided, Fig. 9-5.

9.2.4

Displacement Evaluation Techniques

One of the primary purposes of fault investigations is to

evaluate the amount and nature of both incremental and total
displacements along or across a fault.

Displacement measure-

ments to evaluate fault activity are usually dependent on the

recognition of subtle textural differences and/or similarities
of Quaternary age (less than 2, 000 ,0'('0 years ago) deposits or
younger soils that are offset by the ,'1fault.

Recording particle proper,tiesof cl<l;stic materials, such as

size, shape, roundness, surface texture, orientation, and
mineralogical composition of clasts, is required before
correlation of Quaternary age materials can be made.

Thus,

these properties need to be carefully described during the

fault investigation trench mapping.

Other subtle features, such as weathering rinds on clasts,

clast lithology distributions, soil weathering profiles, and
grain-size distribution skewedness or kurtosis, are not
described by the engineering classifications of soils discussed
in Section 7 of this Exploration Guide, nor by the Soil

9-11

Conservation Service, Soil Taxonomy, Ref. 55.

For this

reason, engineering and agricultural classification of soils

for fault investigation are inappropriate and should be
discouraged.

The techniques described in Refs. 44, 55 and

52 are more appropriate for recognizing and describing soil

profiles during fault investigations.

Field geologists

inexperienced in trench mapping for fault investigations

should become familiar with the techniques and the use of
soils in Quaternary stratigraphic relationships.

A brief

summary of the data necessary for describing a sot,l profile

for fault investigations is provided in Table9;"Z.

When

describing soil profiles, the correct "designation of color

is extremely important for making 6I;i':t;"rell1'bive andi11)terpretive
judgements.

The use of the GeOlogical/ Society of America

Rock Color chart, Ref. 30, is irll!tde'guat~, for describing soil

--.';;-'

color for fault investigations.

The complete Munsell color

chart, Ref. 53, sl\.0I11dbe,used'for describing soil profiles,

as color is of,ten a:guide to the relative development, and
consequently age, of soils, particularly buried soils.

9.2.5

Age Evaluation Techniques

Another primary purpose of fault investigation trenches is

to evaluate the frequency of displacement or slip rate along
the fault.

The estimation of the frequency of displacement

relies on the ability to date materials that have (or have

9-12

not) been displaced, which is usually a difficult task.

Field geologists should become familiar with methods
summarized on Table 9-1, thus minimizing the possibility
that critical samples be contaminated, destroyed, or
overlooked during the trench wall cleaning process.

9-13

0-

Q)

-~
Q)

0:

-g
o

c:

g
r-------~--

__

.;

,aOl

..;

..;

..:

.,;

,;.

~ 'lV~l~mnW _ _ _ _J...._ _: ... - - - - ............... -....

.3

...:

"

..;

.: ... --""'-..,. .....:. .... ,..,..-:;

L... ____ .......... .,.. .... __ ........ ___

,QmU~N ~:lV-~,U.LV1:n1

'0
u
<+.:

L -________________-L____~________________________________~________~------~~

..

Q)

e
Q)

c:

"C
C

'0
U

Data necessary for

describing a soil profile

Plasticity is measured by rolling the soil between thumb and foretin'

n
attempt to form a thin rod. Several classes are recognized: nonpiastic
..Id
forms~ slightJ... plastic-weak rod forms that is easily deformed and bro"ke-n:
plastic-a rod forms that will resist moderate deformation and breakage during
moderate handling; ['er.v plastic-a rod forms and is readily bent and otherwise
manipulated before breakage. Wet consistence is very important in determining change in soil texture with depth and textural class: it is a major field cluE'
to textural change if several adjacent soil horizon~ in a profile lie within the
same textural class.
Texture Determine the textural class of the less than 2 mm fraction. by noting
the grittiness and wet consistence. Broad guidelines are given in the rating
chart. but for more accuracy one should determine the limits for himself using
n.,h,m

L,,:om

g
Sill i n I" ,

..::

sili I,,"m

!:;

co

:::'"'

It is important that the terminology developed by soil scientists is used to

describe soils.2 Examples of a variety of soil-profile descriptions with accompanying laboratory analyses are given by the 80il Survey 8taf[3 The followi~
properties should be recorded:

'

I
I Sill, d,,; I.",m

iI

Loam'- ""nd' I
and ;::;;:;c!-----j

S.nd~- ;"am

1::

'I:.:JE

Sand;' d:,,:I lo>~m

Depth The top of the uppermost mineral horizon (A or E) is taken as zero

Consistence This is a measure of the adherence of the soil particles to the

fingers. the cohesion of soil particles to one another, and the resistance of the
soil mass to deformation. Because this property varies with moisture content,
it is taken when the soil is dry, moist, and wet. The wet consistence (natural
wetness or artificial wetness) is useful in determining texture classes in the
field and is composed of two quant.ities, stickiness and plasticity. Stickiness is
measured by compressing the soil between thumb and forefinger and noting the
adherence of the soil to either upon release of pressure. The classes recognized
are nonsticky-no adherence when pressure is released; slightly sticky-soil
adheres slightly upon release of pressure and stretches only slightly before
being pulled apart; sticky-soil adheres on release of pressure and stretches
before being pulled apart; very sticky-soil adheres strongly and will sustain a
fair amount of stretching before rupture.

l-----~d,d,I\'

I,

Slight

iI/one

depth. The O-horizon thickness is measured up from that point (2 to 0 cm), and
all other horizons down from that point (0 to 8 cm).

Color List dominant color and size and color'variation of prominent mottles.
Use Munsell Soil Color Chart'(Munsell Color Co., Inc., Baltimore) Or other
suitable charts that use the Munsell color notation. List moisture state when
taken.

~ill'd";1I

---

II
I

Sticky ~nd
plastIC

Very

SnrK!:-.:r:s.<; A:-':D PLASTICITY RATI",(;

samples with known particle-size distribution. Greater than 2 mm particles

should be described according to size, and volume per cent of the soil they
occupy. Be watchful for shape and lithologic changes, as they may indicate
parent-materials -of mOre than one origin.
Structure Describe ty-pe (Table 1- 3). size. and grade of structurp. Size classes
vary with type of structure as shDwn in the following tabulation.

Size class
vf (very fine)
f (fine)
m(medium)
c (coarse)
vc (very coarse)

Granule or
crumb
diameter

Plate
thickness

Block
diameter

Prism
diameter

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

<1

<1
1-2

<5

5--10

2-5
5-10

20-50

>10

>50

<10
1020
2050
50-100
>100

1~2

2-5
5-10
> 10

Ref: Birkland, 1974

Table 9-2: SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTION

1020

Grt
classification of structural development: single grain-no bonding
bet",
particles; massive-no ped formation, but there is enough interparticle bonding for the soil to stand in a vertically cut face: weak-few peds
are barely observable, and much material is unaggregated: moderate-peds
are easily observable in place and most material is aggregated; strong-mass
consists entirely of distinctly visible peds. In generaL structural grade is
stronger with increasing amounts of day-size particles.
Clay films Record their occurrence, frequency, and thickness. Films occur as
colloidal stains on grains, as bridges between adjacent grains, or aligned along
pores or ped fac-es. Frequency classification is based on the, per cent of the ped
faces and/or pores that contain D.lms: very few-less than, -5%: few-5-:..25%;
common-25-50%; many-50-900/0; and continuous-90-1000/0. Thickness of
films is determined with a hand lens: thin-film is so thin that very fine ~and
grains stand out; moderately thick-very fine sand grains are so envelpped by
film that grain outlines are indistinct. yet grains impart microrelief to film:
and thick-very fine and fine sand grains are enveloped by clay, forming a film
with a smooth appearance, and films are visible without magnification.

Carbonates Note distribution of carbonate, estimate the v-olume per cent,

and classify on stage ofdevelopment 1 (Fig. A-I); see following table.
III

Thin discontinuous pebble

coatings

Few filaments or faint

coatings on sand grains

II

Continuous pebble
coating: matrix is
calcareous but loose

Few to common nodules of

varying hardness: matrix is
commonly calcareous

III

All grains are coated with

carbonate; best developed
where voids are fill'd
with carbonate

Internoduiar matrix grains

are coated with carbonate:
voids can be filled with
carbonate

IV

Laminar horizon of nearly pure carbonate overlies horizon

of stage III development

Indicate effervescence with dilute (..... 1 N) Hel: very slight few bubbles:
slight-bubbles readily observed: strong-- hubbIes form a low foam; violent
foam is thick and has a "boiling" appearance.

pH Record field value, using a field test kit.

II

'I "
IV

K2

K22m

K3

, K3

0",

",,)?f
, 'i</,
~'i;"

Horizon boundaries Record width of transition zone from the overlying to

the underlying horizon (distinctness) and the topography of the zone. Distinctness classes are very abrupt-no greater than 1 mm; abrupt--l mm 2.5 cm:
clear-2.5-6 cm; gradual-6-12.5 cm; diffuse- > 12.5 -em. Topography descriptions are smooth-boundaries are parallel to ground surface; wau)'
boundary undulates and depressions are wider than they are deep; irregular
boundary undulates and depressions are deeper than they are wide; broken
parts of horizon are disconnected laterally.
Percentage estimate It is important to estimate the per cent by volume of
various soil features, such as gravel or carbonate content or extent of mottling.
The chart below is provid-ed to aid with such -estimates. (Taken from Yaaion,4
C 1966, The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore.)

. .............
.... : ....-..... ..
.........' ........... ::..
.....'....

..... ,

Fig. A-I Sketch of carbonate buildup stages (1. II, III, and IV) for gravelly {top)
and nongravelly (bottom) parent materials. (Taken from Cile and others,l c
1966, The Williams & Wilkins Co .. Baltimore.)

...

Cementation Record the kind of cementing agent, whether it is continuous

or discontinuous, estimate the volume per cent it occupies. and estimate how
strongly the horizon is cemented: weak-material is brittle and can be broken
with the hands; strong-material is brittle and brokE>n easily with a hammer;
indurated-material is brittle and broken only with a sharp hammer blow.

':. ",,'.
':::::!~!

",

Ref: Birkland, 1974

NOfljJran>/I. . . parent material

Gra['ell.v parent mataiai

Stage

------------"

"'....

5%

..

II_

.~

~.~.~::,

II

lO'if

Table 9-2 (continued)

I; ;
I

..

2O'if

30%

40%

SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTION

Convel'$eWarc/ Davis Dixon, Inc.

Geotechnical Consultants
TEST PIT No.
1

Started Oat!! :U_ MARCH 1'11'1

lim!!

Dj!~5

Proi. No.

Finished Oat!! 2.'--

Ii!!ll

0'130

Proi. Narl')tlGORILLI>.. GROTTO

~lient

MIIRc.H

'PL{>.NN AND DRl\w ARct-\ITE.C.TS

S!1rface Elevation

-r 1<'7.7 FT.

I2gtum MSL
Water EI!!l!ation
DE PTH
E[r

SeE NOTE.

COLOR MOIST

COM
(0)>..;

by

i"\

Ot'

1"\

SAMPLE

oY-

by

C\\EMICAL CP. E><.PANS"loIV

~l\cavator

O'DEl..L E)(.c.AvATlol\J

~!;I!1il2me[!t

CA~E

!&gged By-

A.

co.

ql/o

Sl..EE.P

REMARKS

DESCRIPTION OF SOIL

NO.

T01"SOIl.. - SoIL'Iy SAIVDCS'M) SoME.. CL@ O'i"

5MRS t>1t;.Ct;.S of cDIIRSE ':;"''''0.1.- - R<>d'I"s

IBP

1.0'
CLAYt;.y ,,'LTCML)" SILTY CLAY(CL') LIWE:REI) WITfj
.solliE. THIN (<.1") 5P-~M LENSS:5

:<.5 I

CI.IWE'( SILT (f/lL) ... c.c.Aye.y SAND Csc) - LII'r'ERED,

W 1'1'1\ Soo!'l\ lO- THIN (4 I':,) 5P-SM LE:NSr.S

It "'~
-to
i - It

q.oFT.

Total De[1th

-0

b..

N;l.OW

Orlentgtion

Site AJAX

VM

sr::ef>A&1:.
(>.FTER 1. \\OuI\

I3El..oW :2..5'
'PIT WA(...LS
SLouGHING

ZBP

to
YS
7.S'

or-br

...

01<. <6

\..oj

.s

Go~I>..VEI,.('"

3BP

y SAN\') (Sf 10 FINE SAI-lt> (.1'\) WITt'< -SoME

!"IL.

'1.0'

?IT BI'ILK riLLE I>

@ \030

13dfToM of PIT

f-l05 70E,

I
-r

12.'
: . TopsoiI , ... ."

f-15-

q.O'

---

_l,...

SM ..... . .

I'1L - CL

3l

ML-SC
_se:.-s~

~SP~M

-.

-:

- . . .j

-=-S.f?=SN}=~

=SEsa~

a>

20
EXAMPLE TEST PIT LOG
Figure 9-1

--,-....

oi:Z

SE1>I'I(;cIO MIN, A'fTE'R

c)I,CAVATIotJ

:s:

5
o
cJJ

~.

~
:::.
NOI.l.'iIl.3'i:3

SHAFT No. ?
ELEv"noN
~""'E. SEA
LEVEL.

WALL

(j)

1.0'1.0-

-~O'I.O

t,,,

txl2.

txlZ,

2.xl2-

t"xl2.

t.)(IZ,

'1\9.EGUL.hR, 'f'lc..IPIE"NT Hf\ltt,UNE. SKEARS

@
201.0-

1.00.0-

-1'1/0.0

-Iq~.o

LAfl\INATi:J) F1\RTING ALoNG IRREGU!...A'R St'\EA'R 'PL..f\NES,

SoME SLiC.l<EN'SIDe..t> QJRFACE.S, MiNoR FRAc'iUI\ES SoMETlfot\i:S
I'IL1.ED WITH C~'1 'DR sHALe. --Z-" CLAY A'-ONe> FRACTuReS;
fREOOfqINANi. SHEAR AT'fITUOE Nlf.Sl.IJ1 .... 6to-70NEj SHEARING CON
~1'ED IN i't,AC.'ES wrrH TIGHT
RADIOS CU~VE$i SM"L

I~I.

rbOE-AATE YEUoWIS~ 1O~WN 1t) G-RA"f1S1-\ O~NGE GrRA'r'w,te.KEj F.G.

To V,F.G., HAP-D, MEt)IUft\ WEATt\EREO, IR'P.EGtIJI.,.A~ St..oa'T'. CloSEL.1( TO
VEf'..,- CWSEl.'1' SVACEO FAAC.TUI\E.S; Stl.EAREO SAND'-( CJ.I..'1 I'TlATftIX
SUP.'kOUNOINGr C.~-'" DI"I'\E."'e.~ ClASTS IN PLAC:E.S, SANDi' ClAY MAT1'!1K
IN <Ycf" wiDE- r~~EGUI."'R SEAfo\~ I\lbNG SthH,P' 'Pl..,A""E,5: SAME. AS
@ aUT I"'\OP"e. WEA TtfE.RED.

a"'I!:e:"'ISt\ GoRAl{ TO 0#'11\1( YELLOWisH ORANGE,. CLAY (CL/c:.H); MOIST.

FIRM; SII'\ILM\ TO
~EPT RELIC sAAI..E. 'PM\TINr:rS NoOT .sEEN.

rb

i?'MIOEI;) Gt\E'E.t&tSI\ GRAY CLIoY s~ ~'I ~ J4f.~ WIOE ALoNG. SHEAR 'PlANESj

OVSkY SLUE. TO bARK G~AY INTENSELY' St{II\RE.O SHAl~j ! SO. . OF

SI\~LE. ...:!.... Cl""l.1 (CL) F'11\"", ftlOIST; CONTAINS OISc.o/>lTINUOUS vEINL.TS
OF lOtl.rE. QlIII1\Tl. IN A FEW f"LACES; SHA/..E IS SOFT, SLIGHTLY
WEATt\ERED To UNwEATIi.R.t::D, E)(TP.EI"'\E.L"r' c.L.oSE. SPI\C.e.O PA1\TINGALoNa. SLICI(EJJSIDE'O, 'POLISHED SH'EA.'R. ?l.)..N~ Tt\.....T AP.E CONTORTED
IN CURVEt) IN PLACESj SI-'AL.E. OCCASION/l.U'r' SuRROONDItJG 3'-Gl"
P'''METER FoG.. GoAA'I'WAc.KE INCLUSIoN,

/lJAPPE)

NOTE. NUMBER

Y.F:c;..' GR~'c'wAC"; HIGKL'T WEATttE.P.E.D, MEOllJ~ HM\D"TtI H,o..RD,--

-1'12..0

ew

LIG~T OUVE SROWN To G!\AVISH OMNG-E. S~EARED SHAL-E wrrH

'--'3"

SEeN

ATTiTUDE OF SHEAR. "PLANES WITH "RESPE"c.T "n3 tioRrzAJTAL "PLANt::.

~etoNt>S H"''RDEQ. GrfVtttWt'.c.k&. INCUJSIONS UP 1b (,1I_ogIlIN Oh'.METeR.

-1'111.0

.Jss

OLIVE: SL/t.C.~ TO MEDIUM. BLUISH Gf\I\V IN''fENSE-LY CR,USI'\ED SHAL.E

..I......,. CL"Y(CL), )o\OISTJ FIRM, CAN STILL SEE Rf.,L..\C- S\\Al.E. 'PI\RTltJGS
ALONG- St\EA,f\S1': INCLuDliS \ott II DlNf\E.T"EP. SUBR.ouNDe.O CLASTS OF
F: G. Go.....vwl\C..Ke.

Cl.o~EL'"

-200.0

Airm..lDE. Of SHEAF.. PLANES ALONG 8E.l>PING

FACE wALL

hi..
-~O2.0

SYMBOLS

EXPLANATION

"',. ....

GEOLo6/C u)NrAc.r BETWEEN DIFFERING fttAreR/ALS,

PRo:rec..rE.p BeHIND LAGGING

DoTTE..D WlfERE.

WPlTE.1\ SURFACE.
TOft. VANE. S"EA.'R TEST WITH SHfJ'R STRENGTt\ IN' KIPS

SEVE.. ,.L RooTS

G1tOWI~ ,,1J)Nt;

SEA/'I\.

NOTES
TOP 0"F SMI'\FT it.A..

ELEVf\nO(lJ

I~.(.,''''

ABOVE- O>NCReTE. SLAB WITH !u'R'lE.VE.O

:toS,i

LoNG AXIS O~I~NTA:noN: N7W

OLIVE ~PJIN To DARK. u~EENISH GRfW GAAYWACI<'E..j f,G., 'BLOCKY,

SPAcED SHEARS, HARD 10
Ffl..ACTIJR,,.S "LON(; CLOSE"'", TO VER!.r' CLOSE
VERY H~I"'1); SI\P\'E AS @ I3UT COARSER GRAltvED.
G~EEN\S'"

l .. '.

GMV CJ.,/\y (el/e",), . FIRM, MOIST" TO VERY (WIST, /..LIrrt\. CLA'r' SHALE

fAAGrI'tlENTS ORIENTED ALONG. StlEAA PLANE; S\otA.Le.. IS FRIA"SLE. VERY

CLoSE.LY L.J.."'INATED. ~/..lsHEO SKEA~ ?lANES.

DARK OrRoEEf..iIS" GlRAy SH.ftLE; ClOSE.LV LAMINATED, MEotUf'W\ Hhl\t> TO

t\frI."RD, 'PLATE'!', FREsH, EASILlf BRE:J..J(S OUT AU>N6 BEDDfNtl PlANE.S.
TO QARK GRAY I1\G\-k.Y SH"EARED St\~L.E.i SOFT, f'RIA8LE,

'f~.~~~,,~~;~~M~~~

CLOSE
S'PACED PARTIMG ALON& PoLISHEI>,
,~
"PU\N~S THAT ~RE INTERl.AC.ING-, i.JJI>,VEV ANo
Sl\6\-\'TloV cotJTORTE.D IW PLACES; IO-,U)/.. OF SttAc...E. ToP .. CJ..I.,~, SoME..
CUlY ALONG- tWRLlNe. $HEARS

'132.10

ScALE. IN FEET

.. ~.-~~@&"h~~.

GREENISl\ G.~t.i' To ,OL.NE. G\\AY (UNWEA.T-HeRE-D) GJ\fWu.w:.KE.;

L.OCA/../..'{ t3e:COMES F..G" HARD TO VEfty
~l~:~-:::{:tf~,,,~~oAAijB~'YJJNt.oEA'-HEREt> To 'SL.IGHTt-"r' WEAn,ERED, ~n_ .,,- CLAV SEAMS
--""""N'"
A~"ii~EDt>lNG- "PLI\NE. SHE....RS, Suc/<'E.NSIDED SURFAaS AL0N<7

....<:~~~s;f::;3.;i')~~'0.9ffUNII.TEW V.FoG. 'BUT

bY}f::f

-162.0

-H:::;'~~~Hl7+'n;tf~'jrrttl-::::'--r~ffi*,rH~+*t-i- 18'.o-l~~?f,
:c.'\}'S\

~Si\'tti~oaiD:~CU)~ES; s:~:~ ~~~~~JR:A~~~~~6fS

M.\'!:;$41?:Jg6JuSIl>~[)i O<XASIONAu..V BEODIAJ6 IS: TIGIiTLV FoLDED A5OUT"
. </:)tl~-~~;::lfItblO:S; CLAY SEA,I'IlS ARE. G-P,EE.NISH &"P.AY Ul I..IG.Hr OLiVE!. G-RAY,

~~~;:Th5~~V~~f}i~rt~M, "PU\S\lC, {Itolsr; SoME. IiIGHLY POL/SHtm SLJCJ<fNSIDEJ) SUR-

: ",:~sr<;:::-';:-<<'FACI5.S

NEAR BOTroM. OF stMFT'" I.oITH CU\Y ~TIN6-; GRAYWACI<E IS

ME,Oluf't\
TO HI6Hl..'t" /..tJE.ATHERED TO ABOUT w' BELoW SURFfiGE
(SEE (3), ME-Olul"'\ WEAiHE.RG:D"""Tb AeoUf /0' BELOW SUJi\FI\GE" AND
UNWEATHeRED SEf..OW THAT; MOS. FRACTURES AND SHEARS HAVE
r&ojl. -to AND "'I\O. . ~ cop...TING SOf\FACES

'.;~;;~::~c>,

.. - I"

Lt~

TE.R\l.A.CE.

Pr.j.Numb..r: 77 4IQ'l'07
Sh....t i'of 1
DQ.te: I'll-I'! Auqust 1917

Geol"'lY by: D.I<. ROGERS

C nec.kILd by: A.L.O.
AI>provILd by: 1\. L. O.

WIDE. CRliSHED sHEAR WITH O'f\A<3- FotDS ON EACIl SIt>E UP To

FRoM Sf"l.EARj CRUSHED GRAYWACKE. FRAGMli-NTS IN ,.,

fJ.IJJI\y

. SAND" CLAY M~TRIX:

fIoa;. No.m.. : LAKEVIE.W

'

I~r..." WIDE. HIG/Wr' 'SftEI\RED ZoNE WITH. BRAIDED, EXT-REME.L.<r'

ctDS S,"/I,CE.b. ~HEI\RS fQRMING- LEf,JSE SHAPED FRMJIIENrs WITH
HIGHLY POLISHeD .SUCJ<ENSIOED SURFACES; FRAGf"IENn RANGE: IN
Sr7-E. FROM...J!AI~"';'J2."i IN CLAy I'VlA'RI)I...

EXAMPLE TEST SHAFT lOG

..

Seal.

EXPLORATION GUIDE

Projo<'''Io.

78-0078

Preport<lby

Chocl<edby

@CoriverseWardDavlsDixon

G.al.chnicil COMu1lan11

Approved by

9-3
'.

G) CoII"i..1 slope ",..sh, ~, SILTY, SMALL COBBLE ~ (see sh ...t 1 10"

Blotkvin. , ...",..f,on: TUFFACEOUS, FINE SANDY CONGLOMERATE

C. . .

o....cRlption)

meto.morphlc(?) fra.qm ..nts tho.t o.re po.rti ..l1~ to toto.lly o.ltered to chlorite a.nd
minor c\a.I,J; medium ha.rd a.nd rnodaro.tell) cema:C\tl2.d (Y(l.cemented ?l

shout 1 r... description)

LOCATION

LANDSLIDE DEBRIS: light broUJn to IIqht brownish qrey, heterogeneous, chO-otic

mixture of &1.<kvi\l~ Formo.tion TUFmCEOUS, Elli!; SM:!ID:' CONGLOMERATE with

(I;) INTENSELY FRACTURED ~:~.lIowish qre~ wi,h liqht btown coeded c1o.sts; ,nta.hs..ly
fmct.ura4 and crusha.d ma.tctt"io..\ with incipilloot, lineo.t' s'neo.Y's subpa..ro.\\Il.\ to the o..d)o.cent
f..,lt; sl'~"t o.liqnment of pebbles and cobbles, approxlmaie\lj 30" of the of the do.st, a.t.

MAP

few andesite cobbla.s o.nd many Clngular cobbl .. fro.gments; highly varia.ble In
composition a.nd physical cha.ro.ct.eriS1.1cSi qenerQJly Inta.nsel"J fra.c.tured, medium
",eather..d, medium ho.rd to soft, mo.ny hClitline, cla.yfilled, ra.ndom fro.ctures.

anqulo.r lithic fra.qment. of metoJT\orphic rocks (slo.te, schlst(1') and posslbl~ greenstone); n few
a"qulnr fra.qmen\.s or "",In (7) 'lvo.rtZ o.to. nJso present o.!thouqh Inr.ensely 'hea.red, zone Is medium
hntd ""d modero.tely cemenr..a (rocement"d?)

!Ill PALEOSOL: modero.te yellOWish brown (\0.,,1'1 5'~) ~ C.LAY,

(i). ~ fRACTURED ZQMf..: modernte oro.nq. pink to light brown, closely frO-ct.ur..d B\oc.~vi II..
formo.r.lon with YOlo.ted and vo.quely aligned andesite clo.st.; cio.sts have clay coa.ted
surfa.ce. with thinly spa.ced otriO-tions a.nd sho.ll.... 9roo".... ; clay coo.tlng i. commonly waxey;
shqhtly tra.nsluco.nt, hiqhly hydroscOPIC, and occo.sionally vary flnoly lamlno.ted when flllln'l
fro.cturos; do..t sutfD.C"S Clppeo.t 'pollshed' from mov"mcznt o.long sheo.r plo.ne. or from clast
toto.tion between sheo.r plo.nes; commonly the clayey ma.hlx surrounding the clo..~. Is closely
fro.ctured Into very friable, crumbly fro.qments les. tha.n V,,' In dla.meter.

stic:.k~, v12r'1 plo.stlc, c,oa.rs

to very coa..rae, modero.te to &tronq prisma.tic peds, common, t~in cla.y Film coa.ting
peds;: stronq cemehta.tion when dr~, cleo.r to qro.duo.l boundaries wit'" overlylnq
collUVium.
@ Slickensides have ro.ke of 6Q' south Indica.ting right normo.l, obli'lue-slip mov..men\...

@FClults hClve genera.l trend of N~4W, 7qE.

(jj) BI..kville formation: TUffACEOUS, SILTY, VERY fiNE SAND; same as above but ",ilhout o.n~
cobbles of o.ode.lte; IIttl" fra.cture., medium
.... Sht 1

ho.rd to

ho.rd, medium ",oo.thered.

. CRUSHED ZQ!:i1: dark greonlsh qrey micro breccia. with o.pproxlmo.tely"kO" a.ngulo.r, coo.rse
. sands,ze quartz i'r<1gments, 30" anqula.t, ver~.;;.~rse son~:sJ;,(HlJ!Jl& meto.morphic
frnqments of slate, schist (?) Md greenstone (?) IQ';~" cr~!!Ml\ill:>i'_'CCrobd qroundmo.s. of

'1<40'

i't~~i<,}S"

TRENCH BEARING N56W, NE WALL MAPPED

.JI

-.1._

.1'0.1

4:; /
Se.etior. c.orN&. \"
15, It.. l.I, 'l.l., T10N,
1'.351;:

ap~~noo
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
o Cobbles, boulders of ptedominat"l~
andesite and porphyritic andeslt.e
(;' Cobb/.. -boulder c.ost - c.laSl removed during excavatIOn

fiv' faull. with slickensides and fluted grooves

",y Fault with )o\'-.li~ clay tilled shear:s

,pi' Shear zone;

many polished cobbles with well-developed linear shear planes

::;: Inciplentl\! sheared and sho:l::tered zone; few polished cobbles; some with pa.ro.llel Clhgnment to shear zone
:.f:~

Mlcrobrecia. zone

Fro.ttures - JOints
Lo.ndsl1de Fo.Ilure pla.ne; !Ii'-~: Wide, moderate brown to 9reQIsh brown ~ CLAY (CH); strlo.tlons 0.1009 plone
perpenclicvlo.r to trench/rood cut.

/
/

/ / Contact between colluvial soils; pClleosolls, Io.ndslld" debris and bedrock.

3~O

Surve.~ control point.

Nates: QShorinq
~

not shown.

Zone of d.formoilon from 3W to 60.0

:1,
L

..

:~~~~:t=~~~~~*~]~~~~~~~:--

l'\o.j.Narne"ST.
THOm
1"t.,i.Numb.r: 7Q-41%-02.
Fo.ult Investlgo.tlon Trench: TR-2.(sheet Z of q)
EXco.va.tlon E"ulpment Used: HOPTO 500 D ""t.h 3' wid .., 7 tooth bucket
E,co.vo.tlon Started: &/12./79
COl'lpleted: 8!1~/7~ Backfilled: q/ll7q
Loqqed B~, D.K.Ro~ers
81lq- Silbl7Q
Check.d By: HAS. 8/1~179
Approved &Y' RAH., I\.L.Q 8/?SI7Q

FAULT INVESTIGATION - TRENCH LOG

8<.,.

P,.)<.,No

P,.p.",dO.

"""....,~~.--

EXPLORATION GUIDE

......'.-- 9-4
A~o< <I~.

~~-----------------~"."'

~ConverseWardDaylsDixon

ao.todtllo.ICo_

...

Roll No. ST- \

Project:_ S~ TI'lorvll\$ J)AM

7Cj- Lfl "if&> - o~

TRENCH PHOTO LOG

Film Type KoDAcHRoME.

tographer D.I<. "RO&E.RS

Frame Trench Name Station Ref. Date

Geologic Description

TR-:l.

II

35 - yo

/I

1/

40 - 45

"

/I

4S

-So

II

If

II

50

-ss

If

1/

If

{p

II

SS-l.IJo

"

/I

/1

30-35

Page~of_\

'8/11(/71 UN f> l.s/vR BED

BLC>CI<V/LLE

FORMATION

FAULT ?.oNE.
(ANDSLI DE- Dt:BRIS OIJe.R OLD St/EARS
II

II

II

I,

"

If

"

If

If
II

@ConverseWardDavlsDlxon
Finll ... 9-5

Geolechnical Consultants

10

FIELD PERMEABILITY TESTS

Field permeability tests measure the coefficient of permeability (hydraulic conductivity is another name used) of
in-place materials.

The coefficient of permeability is the

factor of proportionality relating the rate of fluid discharge,

per unit of cross-sectional area, to the hydraulic gradient
'(the pressure or "head" inducing flow, divided by the length
of the flow path).

This relation is usually expressed

simply:

Q/A

where Q is discharge (volume/time); Ais cross-sectional

H

area;

L is the hydraulic gradienu;, (dimensionless) ; and K is

:

- '.

'

<-.---

the coefficient dfpermeability, expressed

in length per
-.
-

uni t

time (cm/sec, ft/day, a'te.) .,' The area and length

factors are oftencombine'd' 'in a "shape factor" or " conductivity

coefficient".

He'reinafter "permeability" will be used to

signify "cOefficient of permeability".

Evaluations of permeability are require,d whenever discharge

or seepage quantities, subsurface fluid pressures, and/or
velocities of groundwater movement are important.

Field

permeability tests and field percolation tests are conducted

in many geotechnical explorations.

In addition, in many

environmental and water resource investigations knowledge of

material permeability is important.

10-1

Field percolation tests

(paragraph 10.4) are generally near surface tests whereas

permeability tests are usually conducted in exploration
borings or wells.

Permeability is the most variable of all the material

properties commonly used in geotechnical analyses.

permeability spread of ten or more orders of magnitude has

been reported for a number of different types of tests and
materials.

With such a great range of possible results, it

is not surprising that the measurement of permeability is

highly sensitive to both natural and test conditions.

The

difficulties inherent in field permeability testing require

that great care be taken by the field representative to
minimize sources of error and to correctly interpret, and
compensate for, deviations from ideal test conditions.

10.1

EVALUATING THE BEST TYPE OF TEST

Many types of field permeability tests can be performed.

All the tests discussed in this Guide are conducted by
measuring the rate of flow for a given head change applied
to a boring.

In geotechnical exploration, equilibrium tests

are the most common.

These include constant and variable

head gravity tests and pressure (packer) tests conducted in

single borings.

In a few geotechnical investigations, and

commonly in water resource or environmental studies, nonequilibrium "aquifer" or "pump" tests are conducted (a well
is pumped at a constant rate for an extended period of
time)

10-2

Permeability testing methods differ in the manner in which

the head differential is applied, in the geometry of the
test zone, in the duration of the test, in the number of
observation-points used, in interpretation techniques, and
in other ways.

In spite of the wide variety of testing

procedures, one or two methods are generally best suited for

a given set of conditions.

Decisions as to test method are

made at both the office and the field levels.

This Guide is

primarily concerned with field operations; however,

awareness of the overall objectives of testing is important
in the selection of the most accurate field procedures and
methods of observation.

The following five physicalcl;laracteristics influence the

performance and applicability of permeability tests:
1)

position of the water level,

2)

type of material - rock or soil,

3)

depth of the test zone,

4)

permeability of the test zone, and

5)

heterogeneity and anisotropy of the test zone.

These variables usually have a greater influence on the

method by which the test zone is to be isolated than on the
basic testing method to be used.

The influence of the

variables on testing procedures and methods is discussed in

the following paragraphs.

General points concerning various

types of tests are:

10-3

1)

In geotechnical investigations, the most generally

applicable permeability test is the constant head
test.

It may be difficult to perform in materials

of either very high or very low permeability since

the flow of water may be difficult to maintain or
to measure.
2)

In a saturated zone with sufficiently permeable

materials, the rising head test is more accurate
than a constant or a falling head test.

Plugging

of the pores by fines or by air bubbles is less

apt to occur in a rising head test.

In an

unsaturated zone, the rising head test is inapplicable.

3)

In zones where the flow rates are very high or

very low, the falling head, test may be more accurate
than a constant head test.

In an area of unknown

permeability the constant head test should be

attempted before a falling head test.
4)

In large scale seepage inves,tigations or groundwater

resource studies, the expense of "aquifer" or
"pump" tests may be justified as they provide more
useful data than any other type tests.

Pump tests

require a test well, pumping equipment, and

lengthy test times.

Observation wells are desirable.

A vast number of interpretive techniques have been

published for specialized conditions.

10-4

5)

In a boring, gravity and pressure tests are

appropriate.

The segment of the boring tested is

usually 5 to 10 feet, but may be larger.

A large

number of tests must be conducted to achieve an

overall view of the seepage characteristics of the
materials.

The zone of influence of each test is

small, usually a few feet or perhaps a few inches.

These methods can detect changes in permeability
over relatively short distances in a boring,
which conventional pump or aquifer tests cannot.
Exploration boring (as oppc;Jsed to "well") methods
are therefore useful in geotechnical investigations,
where inhomogeneity and anisotropy may be of
critical importance,.

Results from pressure tests

using packers in fract\:tred rock may provide an

indication of static heads, inflow capacities, and
fracture deformation characteristics, but conventional
interpretation methods do not give a true permeability
in the sense that it can be measured in porous
media.
6)

In all cases, running different types of permeability

and pressure tests on the same zones and materials
will provide desirable redundancy and allow a more
positive interpretation of groundwater conditions.

10-5

10.2

PRE-TEST PROCEDURES

Borings for foundation investigations are primarily for

geotechnical exploration and sample recovery, thus selection
of the type of drilling equipment is usually made with only
secondary consideration given to the requirements of permeability testing.

Certain basic drilling and preparation

procedures should be followed if permeability tests are to

be conducted in a boring.

The primary consideration is to

avoid plugging, or to ,restore the natural openings (pores

and fractures) that may have been distUirbed by drilling, so
the permeability measured is representative of the in-place
materials.

Factors affecting permeability test results in a boring

include:
1)

vibration from drilling operations compacting

granular soils,

2)

movement of drilling tools or casing past the

boring wall smearing natural openings in cohesive
materials, and

3)

fluid containing drilling additives and/or cuttings carrying materials into open pores and
fissures.

These can be mitigated by appropriate drilling procedures

and test preparation.

10-6

10.2.1

Drilling and Casing

Ground water or water introduced for permeability testing

will generally cause a boring to cave in granular materials
coarser than fine silt; therefore, borings in unconsolidated
material must often be supported, either by casing or by the
hydrostatic pressure of fluid (water with or without drilling
additives) standing in the boring.

In addition, drilling

fluid serves to carry cuttings to the surface and to cool

and lubricate the drill bit.

Excellent referet'l:c::es for

drilling procedures to be used in con1,lnction. wi th permeability

testing are Refs. 34 and 38.

It

would be ideal to avoi~dr,:i.llin(:f,by methods that require:

1)

the use ofcircul(i1:,ing l'1~iili'ng

fluid to remove
."."
drill' cuttings, or:,

2)

the

US""

of forceful driving of casing.

In actual practice, however, drilling fluid may be necessary

to advance the boring, and driving casing may be the most
effective method of isolating test zones in unconsolidated
materials. -Common drilling methods that neither use a
drilling fluid nor drive casing include augering and airrotary.

Augering is generally practical only in unsaturated

materials at shallow to moderate depths.

The air-rotary

method, in which cuttings are carried up the annulus by

compressed air, is usable over a wider range of materials

10-7

and conditions than the auger.

Generally the use of air-

rotary methods exerts a minimal influence on natural porosity

and permeability.

Unfortunately, the bits used with air are

easily clogged in cohesive materials, and sludge forms

rapidly in a boring beneath the water level.

The conventional

air-rotary method works best in dry, consolidated, granular

materials.

The Becker hammer drill, Fig. 4-11, employs compressed air

and was designed specifically for granular, unconsolidated
materials.

Casing is continuously advanced and"fairly

representati ve disturbed samples can/be recovered.

(A

cutting edge is used, reduqing forI1ll'l'tiQn disturbarioe.)

Casing may be withdrawn, wi thspecial'~quipment, for
.

permeability testing.

water;;'bea:tlll:';ilib:i1es are easily detected.

However, the Becker drill is not in widespread use and may

be unavailable in many areas.

When rotary drilling with fluid, and undisturbed or penetration

samples are not required, the reverse circulation technique
may reduce plugging problems as cuttings are carried up the
drill pipe rather than up the annular space outside.

Erosion

of the boring is lessened by a lower fluid velocity than in

conventional hydraulic rotary methods.

However, with the

reverse circulation system, some plugging still occurs from

fines that circulate through the settling pit.

10-8

Caving sections in unconsolidated materials may be the most

critical seepage zones, and thus the most important zones
for permeability testing.

If the test zone will stand un-

supported during drilling, casing may be set in reamed,

rotary-drilled borings then driven the last few feet to
establish a good seal.

The boring can then be deepened by

r?tary or a small wire line bit, gravel packed, if necessary, and tested.

Alternately, a telescoping well screen

of perforated casing may be installed and swedged tightly

into the blank casing (Ref. 34, Ch. 12).

This is a relatively

expensive procedure and would not normally be used unless

the installation is to be permanent.

As a last resort, well

points may be driven in granular soils.

10.2.2

Boring Cleaning

Every boring should be cleaned prior to permeability testing.

This is similar to water well development (Ref. 34, Ch. 14),
with the major exception that natural permeability is not to
be increased, only restored to its pre-drilling state.

The

time and effort required to clean the boring depends on the

drilling method used and the types of materials penetrated.
Air-rotary and reverse circulation drilled borings in granular
or consolidated materials will generally require the least
attention, whereas rotary borings drilled with fluid or
drilled in clays require the most attention.

10-9

A scratching tool applied to the sides of a shallow boring

may be adequate preparation for simple gravity tests
conducted above a low permeability layer.

In most cases,

however, some flushing of the boring is necessary, particularly

if a drilling fluid, with or without additives, has been
used.

The most effective flushing technique is to move a

surge block or bailer (Fig. 10-1) slowly up and down (an

upward velocity equal to or slightly greater than the freefall velocity of the tool is about right) inducing a gentle
flow in and out of the boring walls.

The surging tool

should be just slightly smaller than the boring.

A flap

valve allowing water to pass thr()ug'~!16n the downstroke is

desirable as i t reduces theflowi:i~i.,f(l}:t.Gid.Y water :!..nto the
formation.

Short test sections (5 tq10 feet)

surged for about 5 minutes and then

bailing, pumping, or airlifting.

t~

should be

water removed by

The cycle should be

repeated until the wa.teris reasonably clear.

Longer test

sections should be surged in 5-to 10-foot sections (longer

sections are permissible in relatively clean borings) and
water removed after each surging.

The water does not need

to be completely clear after cleaning each short section,

but the entire test section should be surged until the
return water is free of most of the sand- and 'silt-sized
particles, but not necessarily clear.

In granular or

consolidated materials, or when drilling mud has not been

used, surging may be unnecessary and the final cleaning may
be accomplished by alternately filling and pumping the

10-10

boring or by circulating the water through a settling pit

until the return flow is clear.

Unless a bailer is used,

the pump should be turned on and off at intervals to generate

turbulence in the boring.

In consolidated formations, alternative "cleaning" methods

include the use of a rotating, stiffly bristled brush while
washing and jetting with water.

An average jet velocity of

150 feet per second is desirable.

This is approximated by

a rate of pumping equal to 1.4 gallons per minute per 1/16inch-diameter hole in the drill rod.

On completion of

jetting, the boring should be blown or bailed out to the

bottom.

10.2.3

Test Section Isolation

Exploration borings drilled in consolidated materials are

generally uncased.

with uncased borings, mechanical or

pneumatic packers are conveniently used to isolate sections

of a boring for permeability tests.

A test section near the

bottom of a boring can be isolated by a single packer and

different zones can be tested as the boring is drilled or is
backfilled.

Multiple test zones can be isolated by double

packers, connected by a perforated pipe, in 5- to 20-foot

lengths throughout the boring.

Schematic single and double

packer configurations are shown in Fig. 10-2.

10-11

Mechanical and pneumatic packers are the two principal types

used.

Types of mechanical packers include wedge, bottom-

set, and screw-set.

Wedge packers are simple but useful

only to pressures of about 25 psi.

Both bottom-set and

screw-set packers can be used to higher pressures.

Each has

a rubber cylinder which is mechanically expanded against the

sides of the boring by compressing the cylinder.

With the

bottom-set type, the rubber cylinder is located between the

drill rods attached to the drill and the drill rods extending
to the bottom of the boring.

The rubber cylinder is compressed

and expanded laterally by using the drill rods to transfer

the load onto the cylinder from thE!. drilling machine.

with

the screw-set solid rubberpacker,ahadjusting nut is used

to compress the packer.

Mechanical packers are suitable for

hard rock and moderately jointed,.non-'c';'wing, non-erodible

formations.

Although mechanical packers may be used with

higher water pressures than pneumatic packers, the difficulty of sea.t:ingthe packers properly at greater depths
severely limits the use of the mechanical packers.

Inflatable rubber packers (pneumatic packers) ,which reduce

testing time and maintain a tighter seal, are usually more
economical than mechanical packers, particularly in roughwalled, out-of-round, or erodible borings (Ref. 38, p. 249).
The packers are inflated through tubes extending to the
packers from a cylinder of compressed air or nitrogen at the
surface.

The packers should be at least 5 times as long as

10-12

the boring diameter; however, permeable, erodible, or irregular

surfaces may require even greater lengths.

Care should be

taken that the packer is attached to the drill rods right

side up, as some pneumatic packers require installation with
a particular end toward the top to seat properly.

Stable borings in unconsolidated materials are most conveniently tested in sections as the casing is advanced or
withdrawn, Fig. 10-3(a).

The best time to test a boring is

immediately after it is drilled and, in most types of drilling,

a good casing seal can only be obtained as the boring is
advanced.

When casing has been continuously driven, however,

it may be possible to

test~

advantage of testing as the

as

the~casing

ca~sing

is withdrawn.

The

is withdrawn is that a

complete geologic log is available from which to select test

sections.

If the casing makes a tight, leakproof seal with

the wall above the test section, but the open zone is
unstable, gravel backfill should be used, or perforated
casing or well screens should be installed.

Fig. 10-3(b)

illustrates two configurations for cased test sections.

Procedures for installation have been discussed previously
and are given by Refs. 37, pp. 37-42, and 34, Ch. 12.

The gravel backfill method is generally more practical than

installing perforated casing or well screen.

Gravel back-

fill is especially applicable to loose granular materials

that might tend to heave or to flow into a perforated casing.
Fig. 10-3(c) shows

a typical

configuration.

10-13

For adding

water and measuring heads, one rigid PVC pipe for variable
head tests, or two pipes for constant head tests, must
extend from the.ground surface to within about 12 inches of
the bottom of the gravel backfill.
be 1"

The pipes should generally

(+/- !:i") in diameter, but if very permeable materials

are to be tested, one pipe must be large enough to conduct

the maximum flow of water that surface equipment is capable
of providing.

If the boring is not cased, or if casing has beenset rather

than driven, it will generally be necesf3ary to seal off the
test section.

(If neither the maximum applied head nor the

groundwater level extend above thetes~tzone, as in.Fig. 10-3(d),

sealing will not be necessary).

Ca.sing should be pulled up

far enough above the test zone to>,pl:l;rmit: installation of a

minimum3-foot-thick tamped bentonite or puddled clay seal.
A non-retrievable> packer may be required to provide a base
for the seal. 'Thicker seals, up to 10 feet, should be used
to isolate test zones separated by relatively pervious beds.
Alternating one-foot layers of sand and bentonite may be
used for thicker seals, and one part cement to two parts
bentonite can be added when extremely impervious seals are
required.

A 24-hoursetting time should be allowed if

cement is used.

10-14

When the formation takes very high quantities of water, as

in uniform, permeable sands and gravels, or when quantitative measurement of anisotropy is desired, the open-end
blank casing test method, Fig. 10-3(c), may be the only
practical technique; however, it should be avoided in rout:
permeability testing of low-permeability or stratified
materials.

10.3

PERMEABILITY TEST PROCEDURES

The information necessary to conduct routine types of field

permeability tests is presented in this Section.

For detailed

discussions of theory, interpretation, and variations of

these and other tests used for specialized purposes, see the
following references:
Ref. 32 (tests in the unsaturated zone)
Ref. 33 (boring test interpretation)
Ref. 34 (water well evaluation)
Ref. 35 (specialized pump tests)
Ref. 36 (hydraulics of wells)
Ref. 37 (boring permeability testing)
Ref. 38 (general)

10.3.1

Equipment

The equipment needed for permeability tests depends on the

conditions and the test being conducted.
equipment is given in paragraph 2.3.4.5.

10-15

A checklist for

For pump tests, a submersible pump of sufficient capacity to

draw down the aquifer is the easiest pump to install and use
where conditions permit.

In a large volume pump test an

off-line water measuring device such as a Parshall Flume,

weir, or orifice may be used instead of a water meter.

10.3.2

Data to be Recorded

Figs. 10-4, 10-5, and 10-6 are data sheets to be used for
each the three major types of test.

The forms are largely

self-explanatory, but a few points should .. be emphasized.

One of the most important pieces of data in any seepage
analysis is the static, or un(listurbe.d,groundwaterlevel.
In a typical stratified section, groundwater levels may vary
from one test zone to another..

While drilling techniques

may preclude measuringthe levels independently, any useful

information such as relative moisture contents should be
recorded on the rooring log.

Static water levels should be

measured and recorded when the boring is completed and at

frequent intervals thereafter to establish when equilibrium
has been reached.

If that is impossible, an appropriate

note should be made in the Remarks section of the data

sheet.

To have a complete understanding of the relationship of the

test section and conditions, a sketch should be supplied
(with measurements) showing the depth of casing, test section,
water level prior to test, and any other conditions useful
in the interpretation of the data.
1

-1

The data forms include

generalized boring diagrams on which appropriate dimensions

may be merely filled in.

For pressure tests, a sketch of

surface apparatus is also necessary, showing all fittings,

pipe and hose diameters, and lengths from the pressure gage
(so that friction head losses can be computed).

In all cases, a graph of the results should be plotted in

the field as the test progresses, to evaluate when to
terminate the test.

Formats for plotting the data vary

among the tests and are described in the appropriate subparagraphs below.

10.3.3

10.3.3.1

Types of Tests

Rising Head Tests.

for a rising head test.

Figure 10-4 is a data sheet

The static water level must be

established at least three feet above the top of the test

section, or even higher for relatively permeable materials.
water should be bailed or otherwise rapidly removed to a
level no lower than the top of the test section.
of water removed should be measured and recorded.

The quantity
Water

levels should be measured every 30 seconds during the first

5 minutes and at longer intervals, generally 1 to 5 minutes,
thereafter.

Methods of measuring water levels in deep

borings are discussed in paragraph 10.3.3.5.

Observations

should be continued until the water level has recovered 90%

10-17

of its initial drawdown, or at least 30 minutes has elapsed

and an adequate test is indicateq by three or more points on
a graph of time vs. the logarithm of the ratio H/Ho forming
a straight line, Fig. 10-7(a).
by either the 90%

equali~ation

If such a plot is not obtained

or an elapsed time of one

hour (longer times may be designated for particular projects) ,

check for leakage and errors in measurement or recording.
By probing with the drill rod or a length of plastic pipe,
check for caving or heaving of the boring.
has occurred, backfill the boring with

gravel~&$:!ti.llustrated

in Fig. 10-3 and conduct a constant he~",\

test.

If disturbance

or

faping head

If no reason can be foundfoi~the

lack of~~ a straight
---"'-:-,-->-.

line semi-log plot, a constant heidrtl;!!3~tshould b,,{.,conducted,

but the test cavity does not need ,tc)cbe modified.
Note 10-2 at the end of

section6n~intEi~pretation
- _"J

(See
of

variable-head tests.)

10.3.3..2

Constant ,'M'ead Tests.

for constant head tests.

Fig. 10-5 is a data sheet

Note that the static water level

and the depth to the nearest underlying low permeability

layer (0.5 or more orders of magnitude less than test zone
permeability) are required data for a proper interpretation.
The depth to the underlying low permeability layer may have
to be noted later when the boring is deepened.

Temperatures

of the ground water and added water (slightly warmer where

possible) should also be recorded.

Water is added to the

boring to maintain a constant level at or above the top of

the test zone.

The top of the casing is often a convenient

10-18

level; however, in uncased borings in unsaturated materials,

the water level should be kept just at the top of the test
zone.

For sealed test sections or in saturated materials,

it may be desirable to maintain a level consistent with the

maximum water level anticipated after completion of the
proposed project.

If the water level is to be maintained at a constant head

below the ground surface, two electric probes can be lowered
into the boring to the desired depth, one several inches
above the other.

A constant head can be maintained with one

probe continuously on and the other continuously off.

Unless the water level is near the ground surface, it is
handy to use separate PVC pipes
for adding water and for
,
lowering measuring probes.

To

maintain the desired constant

height of water, vary the flow.

If the flow is from a

constant head tank (Ref. 38, p. 579), volumes are recorded

from a calibrated rule in the tank.

Otherwise, record the

flow rate by the volume passing a totalizing meter over oneminute intervals.

In a low-permeability medium, it may be

possible to measure the flow by very carefully pouring water

into the boring from a calibrated container or through a
measuring device over one-minute intervals.

The following measuring intervals are generally suitable,

but the field representative should adapt the timing to

10-19

conditions, as indicated on a graphical plot of the data:

I-minute intervals for 10 minutes
S-minute intervals for 30 minutes
IS-minute intervals for 4 hours
I-hour intervals for 24 hours
The test may be terminated at any time after the first 20
minutes of constant discharge as indicated by 3 or more data
points falling on a straight line in an arithmetic plot of
cummulative volume of water added vs. time, Fig. 10-6(b).
Additional points are useful if time permits.

As described for rising tests, irregular readings should be

checked for sources of error and gravel,backfill cil!lided, when
appropriate.

Falling head ,tests should be used to supplement

any suspect test data.

(See Note 10-lconcerning interpretation

of constant head tests.)

10.3.3.3

Falling Head Tests.

Falling head tests should be

used only where it is not practical to conduct rising or

constant head tests, or in instances where it is convenient
to use the test to check on the results of' others.

Falling

head tests above the static water level are often inaccurate
and very difficult to interpret.

Therefore, constant head

tests are preferred in unsaturated or partially saturated

test zones.

The boring water level should not fall below

the top of the test zone.

Data are recorded as in the

rising head tests (Fig. 10-4), and the same criteria apply
for duration and validity.

(See Note 10-2 at the end of

this section concerning interpretation of variable head tests.)

10-20

10.3.3.4

Pressure (Packer) Tests.

Pressure tests using

either mechanical or pneumatic packers are generally performed

on consolidated (rock) formations to measure the flow of
water in fractures, or the changes in flow, over a range of
pressures.

10.3.3.4.1
test setup.

Setup.

Fig. 10-8 shows a schematic of a pressure

All connections should be kept as short and

straight as possible with a minimum number of changes between

the diameters of hose, pipe, etc., to minimize friction
losses.

All joints, connections, and hose between the water

meter and the packer or casing should be tight, allowing no

water losses to occur between the meter and the test section.
Worn or damaged drill rod or water pipe connections should
be "wicked" (a short lengthdf cord placed in the joint) to
reduce leakage.

Pressure is usually measured by a gage, which should be

located as close as practical to the collar of the boring to.
minimize errors.

Downhole pressure monitoring devices are

preferable to the surface device, but they are not in common

use.

Friction losses in pipes and fittings below the pressure

gage are a potential source of error in the test.

Swivels

used on most drill rigs have a narrow constriction which

results in a considerable loss of pressure as the water
passes through.

If the pressure gage cannot be placed below

the swivel, then a swivel with a uniform inside diameter is

recommended.
10-21

Drill rods are commonly used as intake pipes in pressure and

permeability tests.

NX and NW drill rods can be used without

seriously affecting the reliability of the test data if the

intake of the test section does not exceed 12 to 15 gallons
per minute and the depth to the top of the test section does
not exceed 50 feet.

Fig. 10-9 shows head losses per 10-foot

section at various flows of water for different sizes of

drill rod hoses and

l~-inch

pipe, as compiled from experimental

tests, Ref. 37.

The length of the test section is' g,c;>vern.E'!d by the character

-~-, --_--_. -_"'

-~-,-'-;-:--:

'- 0 --

--

Z-':}:

goods~a! cann<Y~j:l~obtained'or the

of the rock.

When a

packer at the

planneddePthb~bause;;fbridging,

raveling,

'"'-'

or the presence of fractures.,thlif.J!l.'l'ff>t section length should

be increased or .decreased,

or

,test sections overlapped to

produqe a test madEl,wi th.<well-seated packers.

In some

formations, a H)-foot section will take more water than the

pump carideliver; hence, no pressure can be developed. The

length of the test section should be shortened until pressure
can be developed, or the falling head test used.
L

The test sections should never be shortened to a ratio,

D,

of less than 5, where L is the length of the test section

and D is the diameter of the boring.

Unless the casing has

been grouted in the boring, no packer should be set inside

the casing when making a test.

The use of test sections

greater than 20 feet in length is inadvisable.

10-22

Longer test

sections usually do not permit sufficient localization of

permeable zones and may complicate the computations.

Tests are often conducted using a mud pump for pumping the
water.

Such pumps are generally of the multiple cylinder

type and generally fluctuate in pressure.

Many of the pumps

have a maximum capacity of about 25 gallons per minute and,

if not in good condition, the capacities may be difficult,
if not impossible, to analyze.

When pumps do not have

sufficient capacity to develop pressure inthe test section,

the tests are generally reported:
no pressure developed".

"took capacity of pump,

Such test results do not permit an

accurate evaluation of the permeability of the material

tested, other than 'it is proJ:5ablyhigh.

The fluctuating

pressures of multiple cylinder pumps," even when an air

chamber is used, are ofteh difficult to read accurately
because the high and low readings must be averaged to
approximate the true effective pressure.

In addition,

multiple cylinder pumps occasionally develop instantaneous

excessively high pressures which fracture the rock or blow
out a packer.

permeability tests made in borings ideally should be performed using centrifugal or auger type positive displacement
pumps having sufficient capacity to develop pressure in the
test section.

A pump with a capacity of up to 250 gallons

per minute against a total head of 160 feet would be adequate

10-23

for most testing.

Head and discharge of such pumps are

easily controlled by changing engine speed or with a control

valve on the discharge.

10.3.3.4.2

Pressures to be Used in Testing.

When

sub-

surface conditions for proposed reservoirs or other waterimpounding or storage facilities are being explored, the
pressure range imposed on the test section should include,
as a minimum, the head to be imposed by the maximum proposed
reservoir level (1 foot of water is .43 psi).

:However, when

tests are made in locations where the 'iJ!I;ound surface is well

below the proposed maximum pool level, the use of such test
pressures may be impracticcal cbecau$~c6;f the danger" of
blowouts or hydraulic fracturing., For consolidated rock a

'"
maximum pressure of 1 psi pe:rt:ootofdepth
from the ground
surface to the top of the test section is a rule-of-thumb
guide, in th.~absence of other criteria imposed by the
project.

Multiple pressure tests are conducted in the same manner as

other pressure permeability tests except that the pressure
is applied in three or more approximately equal steps.

For

example, if the allowable maximum differential pressure is

90 psi, the test might be run at pressures of about 30, 60,

and 90 psi.

10-24

10.3.3.4.3

Length of Time for Tests.

The minimum length of

time for a test depends upon the nature of the material

being tested.

Tests should not be conducted until stabili-

zation occurs; that is, until three or more readings of

water intake and of pressure taken at I-minute intervals are
essentially equal.

If this is not practical, each pressure

step should be maintained for at least 20 minutes with

intake and pressure readings taken at no more than 5-minute
intervals and, as the pressure is decreased, each pressure
step should be maintained for 5 minutes.

stability is

obtained more rapidly when testing below the static water

level than when testing in unsaturated material.

In tests

above the static water level, water should be pumped into

the test section at the desired pressure for about 10 minutes
in coarse-grained materials or 20 minutes in fine-grained
materials before making measurements.

After stabilization of flow, each step of a multiple pressure

test should be maintained for a minimum of 5 minutes and
intake readings made at I-minute intervals.
may then be raised to the next step.

The pressure

On completion of the

highest step, the process is reversed with the pressure

being maintained for 5 minutes at approximately the same
middle and the lowest pressure steps.

A plot of intake

against pressure for the five steps in a multiple pressure

test may be useful in assessing hydraulic conditions.
in different borings on the same project should all be
conducted at the same pressures, to permit comparison.

Tests

10.3.3.4.4

Calibration and Detection of Leaks.

The accuracy

of packer test results depends significantly on the correct

estimation of the head loss in the system.

If precision in

a pressure test is desirable, the head loss in the drill

rods or water pipes can be determined by pressure testing
the system of drill rods (water pipe), swivel, pressure
gage, water meter, and pump at ground level.

The procedures

for conducting this test can be found in Ref. 37.

Packer leakage can be investigated by monitoring the pressure

in the test section while commencing inflowin:to the system
and then incrementally increasing paoRe:r pressure.
.

..~

will also aid in the removal of

the test section.)

any

(This

large air pockets within

As the packer b't~ssure increases, leakage

past the packers will decrease, the p:r~ssure in the test

section will increase ,and the flo.l rate into the test
section (measured by the water meter at the top of the
boring) will consequently decrease.

After a certain point,

further increase of packer pressure will not cause any

increase in cavity pressure when the packer pressure is
increased.

Figure 10-10 illustrates typical relationships

between packer pressure, test section pressure, and test

section inflow throughout the packer sealing procedure.

10.3.3.4.5

Test Procedure.

Prepare the boring and, if

necessary, calibrate testing equipment, as previously described.

Prior to setting the packer(s), record the pre-test water
pressure, if the test section is below the static water level.
The difference between the pre-test pressure and the test

10-26

section pressure measured during testing is the excess

pressure applied to the immediate ground mass.

The excess

pressure is plotted vs. the observed flow rate into the test
section.

Investigate packer leakage by the method described

in paragraph 10.3.3.4.4 as the packers are inflated.

Record the data on a form similar to that in Figure 10-11.

Plot excess pressure (vertical scale) vs. flow.

A high

quality test should provide a linear plot indicative of

laminar flow.

A non-linear plot may indicate problems such

as leakage around packer, erosion of test zone, clogging of

fissures, or hydraulic fracturing.

10.3.3.5

Well-pumping Tests.'

The construction and testing

of wells are specialized tasks that -must be adapted to the

conditions of each site.

The selection of a pump, location

and depth of observation wells, and type and duration of

test depend on the analyses of a number of variables and
will normally be performed in the office.

Thus only

generalized test procedures for constant discharge pumping

tests are given in this Guide.

The quantities recorded in a pumping test are initial static

water level, discharge (constant), elapsed time, and pumping
water level, for all observation wells as well as the pumped
well.

Drawdown is computed by subtracting the depth to the

static water level from the depths to water measured at

intervals over the duration of the test.

Compass bearing

and distance from the pumped well to the observation wells,

and to all bodies of water or discharging wells affecting
the test, should be recorded to the nearest foot.
should be prepared showing the layout.

A sketch

A sample data sheet

for a single pumped or observation well is shown in Fig. 10-11.

Provision should be made to transport discharged water away

from the test site.

Such water should not be allowed to

seep into the ground and recycle to the test well.

Control

of the pumping rate during the test reqciires an.accurate

device for measuring the dischargeof.tJ:i~
pump and a con"c.-.-, .__., _.-..c:;,;.
,_~

venient means of
as possible.

adjUsting~herat~,i~keep

A v.aive in the,

dItdl}arg~.;;l.ine of the pump

'1.'h~

provides the best control.

i t as constant

size of the discharge pipe

and the valve should be aucI1that the valve will be from

one-half to three"'t9urths open when pumping at the desired
rate.

A simple and accurate method of determining the pumping rate

is to observe the time required to fill a container of known
volume.

This method is most practical for measuring rel-

atively small pumping rates.

10-28

A commercial type water meter may be employed to measure

quantity pumped in a given time.

The dials on the meter

show the total volume in cubic feet or in gallons discharged

through the meter.

subtracting two readings taken exactly

one minute apart gives the pumping rate.

the easiest apparatus to use.

This is perhaps

Its main disadvantage is the

unavoidable delay in getting initial values at the start of

the test when the pumping rate is being adjusted to the
desired level.

Figure 10-12 shows how to make measurements and compute the

discharge for various pipe sizes.

An approximate discharge

can be computed from a horizontal pipe, flowing full and

with free fall from the end, by measuring horizontal and
vertical distances from the end of the pipe to a point in
the flowing stream of water.

The point, P, may be located

at the outer surface of the stream rather than at the center,

if desired.

In such a case, the vertical measurement must

be made from the top of the stream at the open end of the
pipe.

When brooming or spreading of the flow occurs, the

center of the falling stream can be located more reliably

than can a point on the surface.

The discharge pipe should

be a straight length, at least 5 feet long, so that the open

end is at least 5 feet from the nearest elbow, bend, or
valve.

10-29

other measuring techniques include flumes, weirs, and pipe

orifice devices (Refs. 34, pp. 83-88 and 38, pp. 233-243).

The depth to water must be measured many times during the

course of the pumping test.

Readings should be taken at

close intervals during the first 2 hours of the test with

the time between readings being gradually increased as the
test continues.

water level measurements should be recorded

to the nearest ... inch or 0.02 foot in all

obser'l!!~ion

wells.

This same accuracy should be attempted, .butCri!ajr not be

__.--.

practical, when measuring the wateFJ)l.evel in the pumped well

because of pump vibration or otheir~ntEterence fr~ the

'f~('"c1,~ .

pump.

".~;:'~i;,:)_,

Measurements inthepU!1lped

well

should be made every l:i

minutedurihgthefirst5~iri~tes after starting the pump;

then'E!very 5 '1lI1nutes for an hour; then every 20 minutes for
about 2 hours . Then readings taken at hourly intervals are
sufficient.

Water level measurements in the observation wells should be

taken every 2 minutes at the start of the test for a period
of one hour. Readings every 5 minutes should be taken for
the next hour; then every 10 minutes for the next 2 hours;
and then every 20 minutes until the test is completed.

10'- 30

When the pump is stopped after running the test, the drawdown and time at which it was shut down are recorded.
Measurement of the water level is immediately initiated in
the pumped well and in all observation wells.

The same

procedure and time pattern is followed as at the beginning

of the pumping test.

As in the pumping test, the time and

depth to water are noted for each measurement.

The recovery

usually will not return to the original static water level

within a reasonable length of time, so, when several measurements at I-hour intervals show less than 0.1 foot difference
in recovery, measurements may be discontinued.

The data

may be even more useful than the original drawdowns in computing

aquifer constants, and recovery information should always be
recorded.

The handiest device to use for measuring water levels is the

electric sounder or electrical depth gage which is available
from several manufacturers.

An electrode is suspended by a

pair of insulated wires and an ammeter indicates a closed

circuit and flow of current when the electrode touches the
water surface.

Flashlight batteries supply -the current.

To

improve the accuracy of readings, the electrode and wire

should be left hanging in the well for a series of readings,
thus eliminating errors from kinks or bends in the wires
changing the length slightly when the device is raised and
lowered.

The change in water level should be measured along

the wire with a steel tape, using one of the reference

marks -

which are commonly attached to the wire by the

manufacturer at about 5-foot intervals.

The wetted tape method is also a very accurate way of

measuring depth to water and can be used readily for depths
up to 80 or 90 feet.

First, a lead weight is attached to a

steel measuring tape.

The lower 2 or 3 feet of the tape are

wiped dry and coated with carpenter's chalk or keel before

making a measurement.

The tape is lowered in the well until

a part of the chalked section is below water and one of the

foot marks is held exactly at the top of the casing or at
some other measuring point that may have been selected.

The

The wetted. line on the tapEI; can be

tape is then raised.

read to a fraction of an inch on the chalked

--.'Ij:), ~

se~tion.

The

reading is subtracted from the foot ...ma.rk held at: the meas--;-~I~,(':-;

uring point, the differencebeing>hea~ual

depth to the
, -_. -__ .-, _'c ',-_
~

water level.

A disadvantagebf thi$:tnethod is that the

approximate depth to water mustibe know@.

--,:: -, so that a portion
of the chalked section will beSubm~i'ged each time to
produe a wetted line
of any other me.thod.,

Tl1e a.ccuracy, however, exceeds that

Where the depth to water is mOre than

80 or 90 feet, 'the tape is difficult to handle.

A third measuring technique, the air-line; is described in

Ref. 34, p. 90-91.

This method is less accurate than the

first two, but may be the most practical method for the
pumped well.

10-32

10.4

PERCOLATION TEST PROCEDURE

percolation tests are used to ascertain the acceptability of

the site for septic tank systems and assist in the design of
subsurface disposal of residential waste.

Generally, the

length of time required for percolation tests varies with

differing soils.

'rest holes are often kept filled with

water for at least four hours, preferably overnight, before

the test is conducted.

In soils that swell, the soaking

period should be at least 24 hours to obtain valid test

results.

The percolation test method most commonly used, unless there

are specified local requirements, is the test developed by
the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineeripg Center as outlined
in the HUD, Public Health Service Manual of Septic Tank
Practice (Ref. 56).

There are other methods available and

the Project Manager should specify the field procedure

consistent with local regulatory requirements and/or local
field conditions.

Regardless of the method used, the

principles are basically the same.

A specified hole is:

1)

dug (generally 2 fee-t square) or drilled (4 inches minimum)

to the depth of the proposed absoprtion trench, 2) cleaned
of loose debris, 3) filled with coarse sand or fine gravel
over the bottom 2 inches, and 4) saturated for a specified
time.

The percolation rate measurement is obtained by

filling the hole -to a prescribed level (usually 6 inches)

and then measuring the drop over a set time limit (usually

30 minutes).
minutes.

In sandy soils the time limit may be only 10

The percolation rate is used in estimating the

required leach field area as detailed in Ref. 56.

10.5

INSTALLATION OF PIEZOMETERS

Piezometer installations are special types of observation

wells designed to permit measurement of the water level or
piezometeric head in a particular geologic stratum or zone.
Each installation, Fig. 10-13, should consist of;three basic
components:
1)

a piezometer tip consist,i;ngOf a well lScreen,

porous tube, or other stitiilar'&ature
fine-grained or

llri~tableIt\~terials,

~a~<!J.,

in

a surrounding

zone offil.ter sa.nd;

2)

a watertight standpipe, . M the smallest practical

d:Fa.met~iY';'tt.a.cJaed"

to the tip and extending to

the~urfa.e.e of the ground; and

3).

a seal or seals consisting of cement grout,

bentonite slurry, or other similarly impermeable
material placed between the standpipe and the
boring to isolate the zone to be monitored.

Where several piezometers are required at a given location,

but at different elevations, it may be possible, as a costsaving feature, to install them in a single boring with an
impervious seal separating the respective zones.

10-34

Practical

difficulties may be encountered, however, in establishing

effective seals between multiple piezometers.

If measurements

are needed in zones with 10 feet or less of vertical separation,

it is generally best to install piezometers in separate
borings.

In addition to the described standpipe-type piezometer,

there are several commercially available instruments that
are operated by hydraulic or pneumatic pressure, or by an
electric signal.

Such instruments may be especially val-

uable for difficult subsurface or monitoring conditions,

such as in very low permeability materials.

The casing or pipes in an observation well or piezometer

installation usually extend above the ground surface at
least a foot (unless pit installation is necessary).

Each

installation should be identified in a manner that will be

permanent.

The top of the casing. or each pipe should be

fitted with a screwcap or locking cap containing a small

hole to permit adjustment of air pressure in the pipe in
response to water level fluctuations or barometric changes.
Where artesian flow conditions are present, a tight-fitting
cap which has been drilled and tapped for a Bourdon gage or
mercury manometer should be used.

If climatic conditions

require protection against freezing, a suitable shelter

equipped with heating facilities or the replacement of the
water in the upper portion of the piezometer by a nonfreezing fluid may be necessary.

10-35

Facilities should be protected against standing surface

water, and leakage alongside the casing, by proper grading
of the surrounding ground and placement of grout or clay
seals at the surface.

When an observation well or piezometer installation must be

located in an open area where damage by livestock or farm
machinery may occur, it should be adequately protected.

10.6

BACKFILLING BORINGS

Test wells and exploratory borings?illi;;~lia never be left in a

state that could be hazardous topeqple, livestock, or
wildlife.

Nor should they be allowed to contribute to

contamination of groundwater aqUifers".\~hich means adequately

plugging, capping, or otherlliise'Pief'l1l'lnting surface water
entryto>tl1e,boring.

When a.. boring penetrates a groundwater

aquifer and it-is h.ot to be used as a well or piezometer

installation, the boring should always be completely backfilled
wi th the Jnost impervious material available to prevent
contamination by surface runoff or intermixing of poor
quality ground water from another stratum.

Bentonite is

usually adequate for sealing, but cementing of critical

zones may be required where groundwater quality is potentially
jeopardized.

There are regulatory requirements, and failure

to comply with them will leave CWDD and/or the client liable
to various legal penalties.

10-36

Note 10-1: C u VALUES FOR CONSTANT HEAD TESTS ABOVE WATER TABLE
(U.S.B.R. Method)
For constant head permeability tests conducted above the water level, the U.S. Bureau
of Reclamation (1977, p. 262) provides a chart giving values of the "unsaturated conductivity coefficient", C u , to use in standard formulas. The chart is reproduced in
O'Rourke and others (1977, p. 107). Unfortunately, the chart is not applicable when
applied head differential is more than 10 times the length of the test interval. In this
situation, often encountered in deep borings, permeabilities may be computed from
the following formula-'.
Q
['h-1(L)
Ll
K -- 2n L (2Hc
-L) Lin
re - Hcj

The symbols are specified in the above references.

* Zangar, c'N., 1953, Theory and problems of water percolation: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Engineering Monograph No.8, p. 48.

Note 10-2: COMPUTING BASIC TIME LAG FOR THE HVORSLEV FORMULAS
(Variable Head)
Unmodified use of the basic time log (Hvorslev) formvlas (Cedargren, 1977, p. 66-76;
O'Rourke and others, 1977, p. 94-97) can lead to svbstantial errors in interpreting variable
head tests if steady state flow conditions are not immediately attained, If the straight
line segment of the semi-log plot does not pass through H/Ho=l.O, use the following
procedure.rsymbols are defined in the references.)

1.0

Displaced straightline portion

\
0.1

Original data plot

L-.._--+______
Time

Procedure:
1) Plot H/H o on log scale versus time on arithmetic scale.

2) Draw a line passing through t = 0, H/H o = 1 parallel to the straight-line portion

of the original data plot.
3) Pick any points H/Ho and t on the new line and calculate T using the basic formula,
T = -t/ln (H/H o )' If the line passes through or is easily projected through H/H o = .37,
T can be read directly, as described in the references.

, .

; Sand pump$ and regular bailer, with

details of ftat~valve bottoms.

Typical

valve~typc

surge plunger.

Johnson Divhlon UOP

TYPICAL BORING DEVELOPMENT DEVICES

Figure 10-1

WATER IN

Packer ~b7:;bb77.1

~,.' 'lh

.\-.Test
.... I
Sectionl
:: ...

Packer
fection

...

-+-r~\
~///~

'----'

SINGLE PACKER

PACKER ARRANGEMENTS
Figure 10-2

DOUBLE PACKER

GftOUND SURFACE

H1---

PLASTIC

TUBI~G

+-It--- PLASTI C

_OOTER
CASING

TUIING

_~RKING

CAS I NG

CASING
CASING

CASING

GRAVE

to 10 It

WELL

SCREE.--I1!--~-!iI
I'

5 ft MINIHUM

6 In

GRAVEL
FILTER

PACK~

T
5 ft M,.,HOI<

'~
,

"'-----10'

(b) Perforated Test Section,

Cased Bori ng

(a) Unlined Test Section,

Cased Above

SURFACE

~I--PLASTIC

CAS I NG _--f..l_1

TUBING

PLASTIC TUBING - -......+-l

CAS I ." -__14__

+jf+fI--PLASTIC TUBING

GROUT SEAL

(Altornate layors of
sand and bentonite)
Severa 1- inches extension
Into casing

FINE SAND

ft minImum

lin.

GRAVEL

GRAVEL
GRAVEL

-----I1IlflI

In.

(c) Unlined Test Section, Cased

Above and Gravel Filled

(d) Unlined Test Section, Gravel

Filled and Sealed

TEST ZONE ISOLATION METHODS

Figure 10-3

_ _1-

In.

(e) Open-End Blank Casing,

Entire Boring Modified
from US Bureau of Mines

FALLING/RISING HEAD TEST DATA SHEET

(CROSS OUT ONE)
PROJECT NO. _ _ _ _ _ __

LOCATION:
DATE; ___________

E''''''ING NO. _ _ _ _ __

OBSERVER:
.

IoAR ELEVATION:
REMARKS:
STATIC WATER DEPTH (Y) _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
STATIC WATER ELEVATION:
GROUNDWATER TEMPERATURE:
TEMPERATURE OF ADDED WATER;

'
f

BLANK CASING

oIr
~ GROUND

O~S.

7SURFACE

en
t:cr:0::; 'VI". vW z 4(
2~
...
4( II
<II w
CI) ~ wa:
to- W
Z N
II.
WII3

-I:JOz

w!Q"-

I, '

iii W

..a

II)

o ~:!

4'

1t------b-----t----1f----I.....:.=-I--..-f---I----I----I----l
It----t-----t----If---J---I---_+---I-----I----I----l

11....--t---l---1f---1----I---+--4--4--+---l
II

ID

0>

~ ~~~
~:
-- ........
~~
r .:
-r-I:::!.....

..,

...I~

..-J

ii:

- 1.... -

.....

::

'._o~'1
~ ~ ~

.. ..

,.

C[it:~~

.'

..
. .

GRAVEL CUSHION
IMPERVIOUS"AYER
/, \

-';." \

.I' ,

"

f"

I,

t,

"

...

....

"

~ -Oi:.11 __ -. If--+-+--+----lf---I---l---\----\---I---l

!
(J)

..J --

~I' HI' ~ ___ J 1f----t---t--4---t---J.--+---I----l---t---l

0I

II"

....

I _
...
(/)(,)

w-

~......

....:. ~

III U.

:5

r----llr---i---+---t---t----t--~--~--~--~-~
.....

)000

~
III 0

~ ... 1:J11----t---t----II----J---I'----I---I---_J.--_I_---I

cr: 0

>-

:!: 11----\----11---1---1--4----4---1----1-----1------1

I::: ~1 ~~~
~ ~ -It ~'-1
L~:.:...:.:~=-iltll------_-_t+-_-_-_-_i-l-_-:-_-_-1-:-:---_-_-_-Jt--_-_-_-_-t..-_-_-_-_--1.t:---_-_-_-_t-I--_-_-_-_++-_-_-_-_-1-1-_-_-_-_-1-1

(J)

~ ~

e! I
I"

*
I

~~ ~I'
I

__

J If--+--+--l-----l---I---l---\----\---I---l

1-_

+I

(1)(,)

II

uz-l-

UI ';'!(

.... ::l CC -I

w......

cr:<II

0.-

00

Cl)W

~ -IL..-~I-----If___--_+---_+---l--_J.--_I_--_I_--_l__---l

O~III!:!*'r
cr: 4( > " If----:f----II-----t----t---l---I----I----I----l-----l

I:J".IIIZ>

_;:'..J_m

ConverseWard DavIs Dixon

Figure 10-4

CONSTANT HEAD TEST DATA SHEET

"ROJECT NO. _ _ _ _ __

LOCATION:
OBSERVER: _______________________________

DATE: ___________

JRING NO.
COLLAR ELEVATION:

REMARKS,

STATIC WATER DEPTH (V')

STATIC WATER ELEVATION:
WATER LEVEL DURING TEST (V)
HEAD (Y'-V)
GROUNDWATER TEMPERATURE:,
TEMPERATURE OF ADDED WATER:

f -. ' ' ".

BLANK CASING

J.

I/)

a:o
0

..... / '

WW...l

I, ,.

GROUND

t- a: (I):W:::
t-O..lD:
OU)_~

0(:::1

00
-D:
(IlIw

....

UJa:

cn~t-w

Wua

0>-

~l
'"

I--
. .. . u:~~
-'-I ...... tr
1'00"
.
.

010

'.O~ 1

'.

'.

.'

~~:~~I~
[:co~
~

"

......

/\.",.;,,,,'"
,

.'

,.

GRAVEL LSHION
IMPERVIOUS LAVER
I

eLAPSED VOLUME
METER
TIME IN ADDED OR CUM.
MINUTES
VOL.

! ..

s::~ ~

li.....

TIME
OF
DAV

ZN

zu:;,cn

......

'"

en

..I

w!c:i'

eLAPSED VOLUME METER

TIME IN
ADDED OR CUM.
. MINUTES
VOL.

V'W z-

'w/,

-C"z

TIME
OF
DAV

KEY TO SYMBOLS
COl.LAR
EL EVATION

(MAV BE ZER.O)

~ ff~

TEST-

V'

PR E-TEST- ~
(S TATIC)
I

I"

---.l
:1
.. I
L

111

1--

ZW
-z
,,0
zN
WI><W
WI-

1-1/)

oX. WATER LEVEL

LIMITATION:

<0
:I ...
W

I ___
1-

..

*VOLUME ADDED COLUMN MAV BE

OMITTED IF TOTALIZING METER OR
FLOW BARREL IS USED.

L~5d

ConverseWard DavIs Dixon

Figure 10-5

PRESSURE TEST DATA SHEET

'ROJECT NO. _ _ _ __
NO. _ _ _ _ __

~ORING

LOCATION: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
DATE:-_ _ _ _ __

COLLAR ELEVATION:

OB$ERVER. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____

EQUIPMeNT SUMMARY:
1) pACKER(S): NO._ TYPE' _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

STATIC WATER DEpTH(Y')'_ _ _ _ _ __

2) DRILL ROD/WATER PIPE: I.D. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___
TYPE: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

STATIC WATER ELEVATION: ________

3) HOSE BETWEEN DRILL ROD a pRIOSSURE GAGE:

I.D. ___
LENGTH' _________________________

"RECORD EVEN IF BELOW TEST ZONE

4) METER TYpE: _________________________

GROUNDWATER TEMPERATURE, _______

5) SWIVEL: NOMINAL I.D.

TEMPERATURE OF ADDED WATER, _____

TYP": ___________

CALIBRATION RUN? VIIS _(ATTACH DATA SHEET)

..
R...
E-M...
A...
" ...
K...
S ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . , NO_(STATE CONDITION OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAW SKETCH
IN REMARKS OR ON BACK)

FILL IN ALL DIMENSIONS

WATER IN

TIME INTER "LAPSED

OF
VAL'" TIME
GAGE
DAY (MIN.)
(MIN.)
PRESS.

PRESS.
CORR.
(ELEV.,

TOTAL HEAD
PRESS.
WATER
"T
(PTryw) METER

AVG. FLOW
RATE OR CUM
VOLUME

(COLLARELEV.F===~===i~~===F=.:;.~F=R~I;C=T~IO~N=)~ib==~===i======~======~
.

..
.

..

If:

>:

l
=1

l=

11.:

'~ll

. II I

.J

In
I

1 1

:
~

I~I ~ (X-OUT
:~~':~R

,WI
1

TPACKER

L __ I_~--L

_IMPERVIOUS LAYER
",.
\ . / ...... /

........ /

,/'-.,

STATIC (PRE-TEST)
WATER LEVEL

ConverseWardDavlsDlxon .
Figure 10-6

1.0
Straight-line semi-log plot
indicates adequate test duration

"
o

Vl

0.1

~------~----~-T--------~--------~
10

20
Time (Minutes)

30

(a) Variable (Rising/Fallihg) HeCldTest

Straight-line arithmetic plot

indicates adequate test duration

10

20
Time (Minutes)

30

(h) Constant Head Test

DETERMiNING ADEQUATE DURATION OF TEST

Figure 10-7

"

.--,

SWIVEL (If
required)

"ALTERNATE LOCATION FOR TEST

)..-- WATER PRESSURE GAGE
/

,/

'-r(

r- LL """\.

. 1",1

\~:L ___ I:],

r---~

Ii-in. WATER PIPE (PREFERRED)

OR DRILL RODS

PlASTIC TU8111G
AIR LINE
PREFERRED LOCATION
FOR TEST WATER
PRESSURE GAGE ~

---PUMP

~---;

PRESSURE RELEASE
XL-- VALVE

GRClJIID SURFACE

PACKER PRESSURE

BYPASS VALVE

~ OVERflOW

Mi
GAS PRESSURE/,
REGUlATlR

IlFlATA8LE*
PACKER UIIIT

CYLINDER PRESSURE

COMPRESSED GAS

----I--

* USE

SAME IMTER ASSEMBLY FGR

OTHER TYPES OF PACKERS

WATER

US Bureau of Mines

PRESSURE TEST SETUP

Figure 10-8

o
o
o

u..!:'-~

'lJ

0.

C I.':) 4l}

~
~"'
~
E
.- 0 :I
"0 ~ C
il)

....

o
o

Q)

;J

..

\II

"t:l..c

Col
I...

:J

~"O

>-<no

'-'.-c;u
:J"cQ)O

..c

c..+__+_+_-f___+-+-

111.- I-

-g '"00
a.

....

I...

(Il

.
"0

III
_

0.........

I..

o
_

0..,
,_ C

.~

EO

It!

I-.

~.

.-

Q)

L.

11)

l~.in.

..

!RONPIPE*

0'1 ..,.
C);::IlIl\llL_-I--I---_l-__
--I-'.......+--_---jL-J~-..,.~.:..+-....,.-~+--"""':~+----+_---__l
C 111 ...... C

......
.-

VI

QJ

111'-

C 0

g.

0. ....

r:J

C ...... 0

DRI LL
RO 0

Vl-OU

A*
B*
AW"

aw;
N

lo~~~~~~~~::I:::::~_~
10

20

30

ROD 1.0. COUPliNG

(I nche.) 1.0. i nche,

1-1/8

9/16

1-1/4
1-1/4

5/8
5/8

1-3/4

3/4

_ _ _ ~_ _ _ _ ~_ _ _ _ ~--~~~~p~IP~e~D:~~~~~~~
Rod Len th

40

FLO W

50

Q ,

60

2,5, or 10ft

'Parallel wall type (Acker , 1974)

70
80
90

9 P m
US Bureau of Mines

AVERAGE FRICTION LOSSES IN DRILL RODS, PIPE,AND HOSE

Figure 10-9

"

......
VI

...
<lJ

STEADY STATE

cI

.
>-

;:;:

I-

ZO ......
VI

0.

16

D-

12

UJ

I-

LEAKAGE
TERMINATED

I-

::.
u..

w
rs:

II>
II>

:::>

IVI

8 UJ
rs:
DIt
0

>-

t-

>

10
15
20
5
25
30
P (psi) PACKER PRESSURE

(a) TYPICAL DATA INDICATING SEALING OF PACKER

us Bureou of MlmlS

PACKER LEAKAGE ANALYSIS

Figure 10-10

AQUIFER TEST OAT A SHEET

Ii

Project No.:
Well No. or Name:
Date Test Started:
Ground Elevation:

Location:
Pumped/Observation Well (x-out one)
Blank Casing Length:
Total Depth:
to
Screened or Perforated from

Static Water Depth:

Screen, Perf. Casing, or Open WELL I.D.:

Static Water Elevation:

Type of Well Screen/Perforated Casing:

Groundwater Temperature:
Size Gravel:
Gravel Pack O.D.:
If Observation Well, Bearing and Distance from

Depth to Aquifer Base:

Depth to Aquifer Top:
Saturated Thickness:
Inltial Pumping Rate:

Pumped Well:
Type of Observati on We II:
Open
Cased to Depth
Cased
,
Standpipe PleZOI!It"r (open), I.D.
Standpipe F'",itOIMter with grout seal at top
of fllt.rl"fk~I.D.

Constant Discharge Maintained?

Yes
No
How Measured?:

o
o
o

..'
"

Time
of Day

Elapsed
Time (min)

Drawdown .

Depth
to Water

ReiriDl'I<s (note fluctuatiOrlor change in discharge

< ...raft,cessation of pumping, etc.)

.. ' .........

.. , ,

.... .

... ..... ...

'

.
.

','

'

'.

....

'"
..,.,......

'.'

"i

C, .

'.

..

.
<

.. \ ..." ..

.'

.,......

'.

..
I

ConverseWard DavIs Dixon

Figure 10-11

.----J_:::~=_~----1
"-------"'-E2~~~~

~~0""0_."'~

\..
~~~\\ ~\

0:~Z:",\

\\\\\

12"

\ I

Rate of flow from a horizontal pipe

can be estimated from the distance x.

Dischar~eJrom horhtbntql
fl f II .
-~ IEle owing u l m9E!m
Distance
X in

'.

Pipe diameter

inchlls.
at 12"

drop

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
15
20

'"

3"

21
46
24
54
28
61
69
31
35 77
38 84
42
92
52 11 5
70 154

4"

...80
93
106
119
133
146
159
199
265

5"

125
146
167
188
208
229
250
313
417

'"

B"

181
312
211
364
242
416
272
468
520
302
332
572
362 624453
780
604 1040

. Johnson Division UOP

ESTIMATING RATE OF FLOW FROM PIPE DISCHARGE

Figure 10-12

PROTECTIVE COVER
WITH LOCK

THREADED CAP

--.--.!!4I:;;;I=- "'-........'

..

to-

"'tol:'"'!

~::

): ',:

.'.
'.

::. ~STANDPIPE

..

'.
~

"
SAND OR SAND
AND GRAVEL..
BACK FI LL----,~____irLi I ,

Cl A '(
OR BENTON ITE
. BACKFILL

.--t"U,jUL.C.U

"

"
"

"

s..---sElECTED
BACKFILL
MATERIAL

.'

CEMENT/SAND
OR PUDDLED
CLAY BACKFILL

~R

COAL?

SAND OR GRAVEL
BACKFILL

"'
:::: -:: ~
'.1

.W;~--

ZE~Il>-- PUDDLEO CLAY

OR BENTONITE
BACKFILL

'1 ..: I
I. ".1 I:,
"I 1"

..JL-_-J.:",j '"
:.~.. I

PLUG

. PLUG

.' :: ."'-.

NOTE
TEST SECTIONS
WITH SLOTS OR

MAY BE PERFORATED
DRILLED HOLES

MESA

OPEN STANDPIPE PIEZOMETERS

Figure 10-13

References

1.

Hvors1ev, M.J.:
"Subsurface Exploration and Sampling
of Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes," waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss. 1949. Reprinted
1962 and 1965 by The Engineering Foundation.

2.

Hough, B.K.:
"Basic Soils Engineering," Ronald Press
Co., New York, 1969.

3.

Nichols, H.L. Jr.:

"Moving The Earth, The Workbook
of Excavation," North Castle Books, Greenwich, CT. r 1976.

4.

Earth Manual, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1974.

5.

Acker, W.L. III,:

"Basic Procedures for Soil Sampling
and Core Drilling," Acker Drill Co., Inc., Scranton,
PA. 19

6.

"Excavating and Trenching Operations, Safe Work

Practices, Series," OSHA 2226, U.S. Department of
Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
1975.

7.

"Trench Shoring," California Geology, Division of Mines

and Geology, August, 1976.

8.

"State of California Construction Safety Orders,"

Title 8, . Chapter 4, Subchapter 4 - Division of
Industrial Safety, as amended to December 14, 1975.

9.

"symposium on Soil Exploration," ASTM Special Technical

Publication No. 351.

10.

"Annual Book of ASTM Standards," Part 19, Soil and

Rock; Building Stones; Peats, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.

11.

Equipment Catalog, Acker Drill Company, Inc.,

scranton, PA.

12.

Equipment Catalog, Sprague & Hanwood, Inc., Scranton, PA.

13.

Equipment Catalog, Diamond Drill Contracting Co.,

Spokane, WA.

14.

Equipment Catalog, Longyear Company, Minneapolis, MN.

15.

Hunt, R.E.,:
"The Tools and Methods of Exploration,"
Joseph S. Ward and Assoc., Caldwell, NJ.

R-l

I
16.

Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R.B.: "Soil Mechanics in

Engineering Practice," John Wiley & Sons Inc., New
York, 1968.

17.

Gibson,' R.E., and Anderson, W.F.,: "In-Situ Measurement of Soil Property with the Pressuremeter," Civil
Engineering, May 1961.

18.

Dixon, S .. J., and Jones, W.V.,: "Soft Rock'Exploration

with Pressure Equipment," civil Engineering, October
1968.

19.

Calhoun, M.L.,: "Pressure-Meter Field Testing of

Soils," civil Engineering, July, 1969.

20.

Schmertmann, J.H.,: "Static Cone Penetrometers for

Soil Exploration," Civil Engineering, June 1967.

21.

"The Unified Soil Classification System," '):'echnical

Memorandum No. 3-357, U.S. Army Corps o:t;..i;)ilJ!gineers,
March 1953.
o_~"'l -;j~/2~D--<_~~-::-:_;t
Casagrande, A.: "Classif icat+9l'ii.,4hd Idetlb';if ica tion
of Soils," ASCE Transactiol'\~i~;.Pa:l?er No. 2~5'l, 1948.

22.
23.

24.

Burmister, D.M.,: "J.!.'Jgest~~~;~~~l1.&ds of T~liI~. for

Identification of So'i!l:t!&,," ASTMiSpecial Technical
Publication No. 479 ,l;9!1iO
:,,_(v-;~:):_ -_:-:;tP:, -~~\~kC~j>:,__ - ~:~\}?~
Burmister"p"M'H. ":r~~:m~~~W<;l~tl;9n and Classification
of Soilsi(p. An Aj;1l?rais~i;;~p.d,s;:e'atement of Principles,"
ASt:~., sp~pial~~dhniclfl'[Publication No. '113, 1951.

2 5.;'61~s:,~~riU~4;df;ttp.eri~sign of Asphalt Pavement

;"OC$tructt@!:ls ,IW;~he Asphalt Institute, Manual series No.
<10
(MS--lOD
Miili.ch
1978.
--, :__ i
'!.

~--'

26.

":PCAsoil Primer," Portland Cement Assoc., 1973.

27.

"Classification of Soils and Soil Aggregate Mixtures

for Highway Construction Purposes," .AASHTO Standard
Ml45.

28.

"Airport Paving," DOT-FAA Advisory Circular No.

l50/5320-6A, May, 1967.

29.

deMello, V.F.N.,: "The Standard Penetration Test,"

Fourth PanAmerican Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Vol. 1, ASCE, June 1971.

R-2

30.

"Rock Color Chart," Geological Society of America.

31.

"Final Repoft (July), Commission on Terminology, Symbols,

and Graphic Representations," International Society of
Rock Mechanics, 1975.

32.

Bouwer, Herman,:
"Groundwater Hydrology," McGraw Hill,
Inc., New York, 1978, Chapter 5, p. 90-131.

33.

Cedergren, a,R.,:
"Seepage, Drainage, an~ Flow Nets,"
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1977, Chapter 2,
p. 26-85,

34.

"Groundwater and Wells," Johnson Div., Universal Oil

Products Co., St. Paul, MN., 1972.

35.

Krul3eman, G.P. and DeRidder, N.A.,:

"Analysis and
Evaluation o;E Pumping Test Data," Inte):'national
Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Bull.
11, (P.O. Box 45, Wageningen, Netherlands), 1970.

36.

Lohman, S. W. , ,
"Groundwater HydrauliCI3," U. S. Geological
Survey Brofe~9ional Paper 708, 1972.

37.

"FieldPermeability Test Methods with Application to

Solutiqn Mining," U.S. Bureau of Mines, Open File
Report 136-77 (N.T.I.S. Accession No. PB 272 452), 1977.

38.

"Groundwater Manual," U.S. Bureau of Reclamatih'n,

CO. 1977.

Denve~,

39.

"Engineering and Design Manual - Coal Refuse Disposal

Facilities," Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration,
Dept. Interior, 1975.

40.

Core Logging Con~ittee, South Africa Section, AEG,

1978, "A Guide to Core Logging for Rock Engineerinsr":
Assoc. Engineering Geol. Bull., v. XV, No.3, pp 295328.

41

Geological Society Engineering Group 'i'Jorking Party,

1977, "The Description of Rock Masses for Engineering
Purposes", Quart. Journ. Engng. Geol. V. 10, pp 355388.

42.

Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party,

1970, "The Logging of Rock Cores for Engineering
Purposes": Quart. Journ. Engng. Geol. v. 3. pp 1-24.

43.

Deere, D.U., Dunn, J.R., Fickies, R.H., Proctor, R.J.,

1977, "Geologic Logging and Sampling Rock Core for
Engin~ering Purposes:"
Assoc. Prof. Geo1. Sci., 15 pp
w/App. A-N.

R-3

44.

Birkland, P.W., 1977, Pedology, Weathering and Geomorphological Research: Oxford Press, New York 285 pp.

45.

Hatheway, A.W., 1978, "Trench, Shaft and Tunnel Mapping": AGI/AEG Short Course, Engng. Geol. for Geologists, pp 61-76.

46.

Colman, S.M., and Pierce, K.L., 1977, Summary Table of

Quarternary Dating Methods: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc.
Field Studies Map ~!lF 904.

47.

Peck, R.B., Hanson, W.E., Thornburn, T.H., 1974,

"Foundation Engineering", John Wiley and Sons; Inc.,
New York.

48.

"Underwater Soil Sampling Testing and Construction

Control", 1972, A Symposium presented at the
Seventy-Fourth annual meeting, American Society for
Testing Materials, Atlantic City New
, 27 June2 July, 1971, ASTM Special
tion 501,
American Society for Testing
, Philadelphia,
Pa.

49.

"civil Engineering in
issues, the
York, N.Y.

50.

Offshore

ts, 1969 and

of Mining,
'1g:th1ee.rs, Inc.
'A[)r-IT

Soil..,.Geomorphic
Mojave Desert, California and
Soi Is (Wrn. C., Mahaney, ed.)
england, pp 187-207.

52.

R.B., 1978, Quaternary Soil Stratigraphy , Methods, and Problems: in Quaternary soils
Mahaney, ed.) Geo Abstract~ Norwich, England,
pp. 77-108.

53.

Munsell Color Company, 2441 N. Calvert St., Baltimore,

Maryland 24218.

54.

Department of the Navy, 1971, Design Manual, Soil

Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures: NAVFAC
D11-7, March 19 7J., Table 2-2, pp 7-2-3 and 7-2-4.

55.

Soil Survey Staff, 1976, Soil Taxonomy: A basic system

of soil classification for making and interpreting soil
surveys, U.S. Dept. Agriculture Handbook No . 436:
Washington, U.S. Gov't. Printing Office, 754 pp.

R-4

56.

HUD, Public Health Service, 1959, Manual of SepticTank Practice, Developed in Cooperation with
the Joint Committee on Rural Sanitation. NTIS
PB-218 226, Public Health Services Publication
526, 85 pp.

INDEX

Adits, 4-4,5
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials System (AASHTO), 7-7
Augers, 4-15,17
bucket, 4-19; 5-2,23; 7-14
disc, 4-19; 5-23
flight, 4-19; 5-4,23
hollow stem, 4-19; 5-4
hand, 4-18
power, 4-18
Backfilling borings, 10-36
Becker Hammer drill, 4-23; 10-8
Bedrock, 8-6
Boring types, 4-15
BU9ket auger, see augers
Bulk samples,
rock, see rock sampling
soil, see soil sampling
Burmister, 7-6
Checklists, 2-12 to 16; 3-9,10; 6-4; 7-14
Churn drill, 4-15,20,24
classification systems (soil),
AASHTO, 7-7
Burmister, 7-6
FAA, 7-7
USCS, 7-2,3; 8-7
USDA, 7-7
Wentworth, 8-7
Ccmstant Head Test, 10-4,18,19,20
Contractor Selection, 2-10
Color charts,
rock, 8-8
soil, 9-12
Core drilling, 6-3 to 10
Core drilling equipment, 6-10 to 14
Core photography, 8-14
Core recovery (percentage), 8-3,4
Core storage, 6-9
Daily Report, 3-5,10; 6-5
Diamond core barrels, 6-11 to 14
Discontinuities (rock), 8-9 to 12
Disturbed samples, see soil sampling
Downhole percussion unit, 4-22
Dozer cuts, 4-4; 9-1,2
Drifts, 4-4
Drive energy, 5-7, 7-14

I-l

Excavation
test pits, 4-4,6,7,8; 9-1 to 4
trenches, 4-4,11; 9-1 to 4
Exploration
methods, 2-9
direct, 4-1 to 27
indirect, 4-1
offshore, 4-1,2; 5-42
onshore, 4-1 to 27
Falling head test, 10-4,20
Fault investigation
evaluation techniques,
age dating, 9-12
displacement, 9-11,12
log, 9-4
mapping methods, 9-5 to 10
photography, 9-10
trenches, 4-11
Federal Aviation Agency (FAA),
Flight Augers, see augers
Fractures (Rock),
filling, 8-11
orientation, 8-12
roughness, 13-12
Fugitive data,6'"T;']'-13,a ..... 1,
Geo10giyquadrahgl!lI'Iaps,

2:t;{

Geo~oQfca.l~l.)rv~ofAt!leric!a,;(GSA)
Geop~ysicak'!Olllrv~YI3' 4...a;'i2
--.
------,-,.-.---:
.
Hollq~stem au~er ,see augers

color chart, 8-8, 9-12

Hardness (rock), 8-13

1s01ati6hof Test section, 10-11 to 15
Log,
boring,
rock, 8-1,2
soil, 7-1,13 to 16
fault investigation, 9-4
heading data, 7-11,12,13
open subsurface explorations, 9-1,4
Maps, 2-2,3
Mechanical probing (soundings), 4-1 to 4
exploration, 4-3
field testing, 4-3
Munsell color chart, 9-12

1-2

Ob~ervation

wells, 10-27 to 35
Offshore exploration, 4-1,2; 5-42
Opsnore exploration, 4-1 to 27
Packers, 8-14,10,11,12,21,22
Penetrometers,
cone, 5-37,38,39
standard, 5-15,36
pocket (Torvane), 5-46
Percolation Test, 10-33
Percussion drills, 4-15,20,21,22
permanent data, 7-13
Permeability,
coefficient, 10-1
data to be recorded, 10-16
test equipment, 10-15
Permeability tests,
constant head, 10-18,19,20
falling head, 10-20
rising head, 10-17,18
well pumping, 10-27 to 32
Per~its, 2-11; 6-3
Photographs,
core, 8-14
trench, 9-10,11
Piezometers, 10-34,35,36
Pressure (packer) test, 8-14; 10-4, 10"21 to 27
leak detection, 10-26
Probing, mechanical, 4-1 to 4
Pump (aquifer) test, 10-4. 10-37 to 32
ReGonnaissance,
preliminary, 2-4
supplemental, 3-11
Recovery, core (percentage), 8-3,4
Right of entry, 2-5
Rising head test, 10-4,17,18
ROCk,

drilling bits, 6-10

lithology, 8-6,7,8
sampling,
bulk, 6-1,2
core drilling, 6-3 to 10
RQI'l, 8-3,4
Rotary drill (ing) , 4-15,25 to 29; 5-3; 10-8
skid mounted, 4-27,28,29
truyk mounted, 4-25,26,27

1-3

Safety, 3-5 to 8; 10-35

Shafts, 4-4,5,6,9; 9-1,2
Side scan sonar, 4-2
Site,
access, 2-5
mobility, 2-6
reconnaissance report, 2-4; 3-11
Soil Conservation Service (SCS), 2-3
Soil Sample,
bulk, 5-17,22,23; 7-15
bulk containers, 5-34
channel, 5-22
disturbance, 4-5; 5-20,26,27
frequency, 5-20
grab, 5-17
hand trimmed, 5-14
loss, 5-23 to 27
marking, 5-33,35; 7-15
packing and shipment, 5-33,35
preservation, 5-31
ring, 5-16
sealing, 5-32
size, 5-28,29,30
....
tube, 5-8,9,11,12,15 , lilY 17 , 31
Soil samplers,
..
'.
Converse, 5-16:; 7-14
Dennison ,5-13 '"
.
double tube corellarrel, !)';f~
hydraulic ,piston, 5-11
J'itche r't. 5 "'13
.
;retract~qle'H~ug, S""h7
Shelbyt.URe ,5,;"8
spli t barrel, 5'\-15
stationcf;ry piston, 5-9
sUbmari.ne (subaqueous), see submarine samplers
Soil Sampling,
bulk, 5-4,17,22,23
disturbed, 4-23; 5-1,10 to 18,22,28,34
grab, 5-17
hammering (driving), 5-5,16,17,21,27
hand trimmed, 5-14
operations, 5~18 to 22
preparation, 5-2,20
pushing (pressing), 5-4,9,10,16,21
rotating, 5-5
undisturbed, 4-19,24; 5-1,6 to 14,20,23,31,32
Soundings, 4-1 to 4
Standard Penetration Test (SPT), 4-24,27; 5-34,36; 7"'8,14

1-4

State Geological Survey Reports, 2-3

Sub-bottom seismic reflection profilers, 4-2
Submarine samplers,
Petersen dredge, 5-42
open barrel gravity corer, 5~43
Phleger corer, 5-44
piston gravity corer, 5-45
vibratory corer, 5-46
Test pits, 4-5 to 7; 9-1,2
Test trenches,
exploration, 4-4,7,10; 9-1,2
fault investigation, 4-11; 9-4/

se~

f.ultinyest~ga~ipn

undisturbed samples, see soil sampling

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), 7-2,3; 8-7
U S Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2-3) 7-7
U S Geological Survey (USGS), 2-2
Vane shear test, 5-41
Wash boring, 4-15,19; 5-2
Water pressure test, see pressure .teSt
Weathering (rock), 8-9
Well,
. observation, 10-27 to 32
piezometer, 10-33,34,35
pump test, see pump test
Wentworth, 8-7

1-5

Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols Relating to

SOIL AND ROCK MECHANICS'

This Standard is issued under the fixed designation 0 653; the number immediately following the designation indicates
the year of original-adoption OT, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the
year of lasl reapproval.
These definitions were prepared jointl)' by the American SOciel}' of Civil
Engineers and the Amen'can Society for Testing and Materials.

INTRODUCTION

A number of the definitions include symbols :~_Q_~~:djcate the u~hs of measurement.

The symbols appear in italics jmmediatel_X-__ QJ~~_~)he' name of thejerm, followed by
the unit in parentheses. No significance=. _stJ:~uld be placed on the _ 6~-der in which the
symbols are presented where two or m-(j~e_ are _giy~n for an individual term. The
applicable units are indicate<i by capitallett~~Ltts~'t6nows:

F - Force, such as pounJ~f();~~;;_:}_?n-fOrc~-~jtre~~~n

L-Length. such as inch,J~_Qf;~,:~n-limetre T - Time, sUfh,as second;--minute_>;-/

D - Dimensiohless
Posidve_ expon~rtts~ desigrtile;_,~m_~uYtipl~~-

,Tn the numerator. Negative exponents

designate-multipleS-:-ifi'the den_o_rilin-ator. Degrees of angle are indicated as "degrees."'
-_--':f:xpre~si-ng---t-he--Ul1its either -in _5.1 or the U.S. customary system has been purposely
QmJUed in::(),rder to'-le,ave~:the -choice of the system and specific unit to the engineer
and-the pa-rti~uJar appliOO;iion, for example:
FL:"''':-may;Jje expressed in pounds-force per square inch, kilopascals, tons per
square foot, etc. LT".'.l-may be expressed in feet per minute, centimetres per second, etc.
Where synonymous terms are cross-referenced, the definition is usually included
with the earlier term alphabetically. Where this is not the case, the later term is the
more significant.
Definitions marked with (ISRM) are taken directly from the publication in Ref 42
and are included for the convenience of the user.
For a list of ISRM symbols relating to soil and rock mechanics, refer to Appendix
Xl.
A list of references used in the preparation of these definitions appears at the end.
AASHTO compaction -see compaction tesf.
abrasive-any rock, mineral, or other sub"A" Horizon-see horizon.
stance that, owing to its superior hardness,
abrasion - a rubbing and wearing away.
toughness, consistency, or other properties,
(ISRM)
is suitable for grinding, cutting, polishing,
I These definitions are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee 0-18 on Soil and Rock for Engineering Purposes.
Current edition approved Sept. 30, 1977. Published December 1977. Originally published as D 653 - 42 T. Last
previous edition D 653 - 17.
This extensive list of definitions represents the joint efforts of Subcommittee D18.93 on Nomenclature and Definitions
of ASTM Committee D-18 on Soil and Rock for Engineering Purposes, and the Committee on Glossary of Terms and
Definitions in Soil Mechanics of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
This list includes some terms from ASTM Definitions D 1707, Terms Relating to Soil Dynamics, which were discontinued
in 1967.

122

~m)l
scouring, or similar use.
abrasiveness-the property of a material to
remove matter when scratching and grinding another material. (ISRM)
absorbed water-water held mechanically in
a soil or rock mass and having physical
properties not substantially different from
ordinary water at the same temperature
and pressure.
absorption loss-that part of transmitted energy (mechanical) lost due to dissipation or
conversion into other forms (heat, etc.).
active earth pressure -see earth pressure.
active state of plastic equilibrium -see plastic
equilibrium.
"
adhesion-shearing resistance between soil
and another material under zero externally
-applied pressure.
Symbol
Unit Adhesion
Total Adhesion

'.c.

0653
water and subsequently deposited by sedi~
mentation.
amplification factor-ratio of dynamic to
static displacement, velocity, or acceleration.
amplitude (L. LT-'. LT-') - maximum deviation from mean or center line of wave.
angle of external friction (angle of wall friction). 8 (degrees)-angle between the abscissa and the tangent of the curve representing the relationship of shearing resistance to normal stress acting be_tween soil
and surface of another mat~Jl~~t~~$
angle of friction (angle()!.,~i~icill between
solid bodie.) <f>s (~~gr.,eS)7~ngle whose
tangent is
betwee-t)ftJi~ maximum
value
that r~~i~js slippage
bodies at ~--r~st- with reand the normal stress

Unit

FL~I
--_--,> ;.;:-.,:........
ngle
ForFL-I"h--

of

~-::~r~ce),

-.

adsorbed water-water in a soi_~ ~o,_r rock mas~:;?' -\,:~~r~al

held by physicochelTli.5~1;:;(:Jo,r~_s" havin$:<
cQclppe

physical properties . su~s!ilntialIycdiffererif'faiJ~f<1titf~SS

from absorbed wateb."r chemically com~,c !!,.~oto~""uity. "'.

(angle of sh~~r~esist..
between the axis of
tangent to the Mohr
representing a given

for solid material.

13. </>"'1' (degrees)-the

bined water,__ at the --'fa-die tempe-tature and:_'t "-'->angie between the direction of the resultant

a~~1!!!~~::~~~rj;~@i~:~:~M~I~5J~1 an~~::~~;.;!~r.t~~lf!:~~s~

air-splice ratio G. (I)}"- ratiOipl, (1) volume

of water that can- be; drairiea~'if'rorn a saturate(f'$O:i-~~or roc~\~riaer the -action of force
of gravi~,t.o(2)tot'al volume of voids.
air-void "'tlel,G; (D) - the ratio of: (1) the
volume of-air space, to (2) the total volume
of voids in a soil or rock mass.
allowable bearing value (allowable soil pressure), q/;IJ Pa (FL -2) - the maximum pressure that can be permitted on foundation
soil, giving consideration to all pertinent
factors, with adequate safety against rup-ture of the soil mass or movement of the
foundation of such magnitude that the
structure is impaired.
allowable pile bearing load, Qal Pa (F)-the
maximum load that can be permitted on a
pile with adequate safety against movement
of such magnitude that the structure is
endangered.
alluvium - soil, the constituents of which have
been transported in suspension by flowing

:i:::l:l::;w:::
the horizontal and the maximum slope that
a soil assumes through natural processes.
For dry granular soils the effect of the
height of slope is negligible; for cohesive
soils the effect of height of slope is so great
that the angle of repose is meaningless.
angle a/shear resistance-see angle of internal
friction.
angle 0/ wall friction -see angle of external
friction.
anisotropic mass-a mass having different
properties in "different directions at any
given point.
anisotropy-having different properties in different directions. (ISRM)
apparent cohesion -see cohesion.
aquifer-a water-bearing formation that pro-vides a ground water reservoir.
arching - the transfer of stress from a yielding
part of a soil or rock mass to adjoining
less-yielding or restrained parts of the mass.
area of influence of a well, a (L2)-area

123

~~1~

0 653

bedrock (Iedge)-rock of relatively great

thickness and extent in its native location.
bench-(1) ~he unexcavated rock having a
nearly horizontal surface which remains
after a top heading has been excavated, or
(2) step in a slope; formed by a horizontal
surface and a surface inclined at a steeper
angle than that of the entire slope. (ISRM)
bending-process of deformation normal to
the axis of an elongated structural member
A, ~ [(D; - Df)/ Dr] x 100
when a moment is applied normal to its
long axis. (ISRM)
where:
maximum external diameter of the
bentonitic clay - a clay with a high content of
D,.
sampling spoon, and
the mineral montmorillonite, usually charminimum internal diameter of the
acterized by high swelling on wetting.
D,
sampling spoon at the cutting edge,
berDl-a shelf that breaks the continuity of a
attenuation-dying out (decay), reduction of
slope,
" '.'.. ,
amplitude or change in wave form due 10
biaxial compression -compr,e~sidn::ta'used by
energy dissipation or distance with time
the application of nQrni~t:sttesses in two
perpendicular d\recfiI?I1S.(iSJi.M)
(see also energy loss).
"8" hor;zofl-see horizon.
biaxial state g~,,~f,i"-.-s'iate of sJf~~_s in which
b@ck-packing-any material (usually granuone o\,,'_tp:~:~;:i~-lee principal str,~~,~e.s is zero,
lar) that is used to fill the empty space
(ISRl>ir.
.,_
between the lagging and the .rock surface.
binder (~g~~bi~f\~dS~portion of soil~:passing
( I S R M ) ' , No. 40 (42-~"ff!l1,ti.s. standard si~"'e'.
base course (base)-a layer of specified of:'o ~~,~~_~HbilitY~:in~,-ex value of the resistance of a
selected material of planned thickness coo~;/ ',."--~"t~C,~~ format.io~, to blasting. (lSRM)
slrUl;lt:u un tlie subgrade,,9L~~~~,~se for the,:,; . b'-all:i~_t ;cap '(~~nator, inifiator)-a small
purpose of serving one,'ot,'~more'_ ,~unctions';',
tu~,~ _ ;9.ntainfiftf~:a"flashing mixture for firing
such as distributing load, provitfi!l;g drain- ... ' .e~l>los[v~,,(ISRM)
age, minimizing frost',acHon, etc,:'
'--X\JJlodUng""::'''wood blocks placed between the
base e,xclt~,n.,e,~:~h~ phys_i~o~h~"ItHalprocess ~.',' excavated surface of a tunnel or shaft and
y!herehY'o"'e;$~~cies (jfj9~s'adsorlSed on
' the main bracing system. (ISRM)
's,oiJj~artic1es in',e'pl~ced I:ty;~~pother"spa~les,
body force - a force such as gravity whose
beai"i,1i8,'capacit)' -se(Vultimat~':b:~aring cllpaceffect is distributed throughout a material
it,)' ~"o
body by direct action on each elementary
bearingalpacity (of. pile), Q,,, P" (F)-the
part of the body independent of the others.
(ISRM)
load per pile re(juired to produce a condition offa.Uure.
bottom charge-concentrated explosive charge
bedding-applies to rocks resulting from conat the bottom of a blast hole. (ISRM)
solidation of sediments and exhibiting surboulders - a rock fragment, usually rounded
faces of separation (bedding planes) beby weathering or abrasion, with an average
tween layers of the same or different matedimension of 12 in, (305 mm) or more.
rials, that is, shale, siltstone, sandstone,
boulder c1ay-a geological term used to deslimestone, etc. (ISRM)
ignate glacial drift t~at has not been subbedding - collective term signifying the exisjected to the sorting action of water. and
tence of layers of beds. Planes or other
therefore contains particles from boulders
to clay sizes.
surfaces dividing sedimentary rocks of the
same or different lithology.
bulb of pressure - see pressure bulb.
bedrock-the more or less continuous body
bulkhead-a partition built in an underground
of rock which underlies the overburden
structure or structural lining to prevent the
soils. (lSRM)
passage of air, water, or muck. (ISRM)
surrounding a well within which the piezometric surface has been lowered when
pumping has produced the maximum steady
rate of flow.
area ratio of a sampling spoon, sampler, or
sampling tube, A r (D) - the area ratio is an
indication of the volume of soil displaced
by the sampling spoon (tube), calculated as
follows:

"

"

.,

.,"

124
.j

0653
bulking - the increase in volume of a material centrifuge moisture equivalent-see moisture
due to manipulation. Rock bulks ul-'on
equivalent.
being excavated~ damp sand bulks if 10Dsely
chamber-a large room excavated underdeposited, as by dumping, because the apground, for example, for a powerhouse,
parent cohesion prevents movement of the
pump station, or for storage. (ISRM)
soil partic1es to form a reduced volume.
chamber blasting (coyotehole blasting)-a
buoyant unit weight (submerged unil weight)method of quarry blasting in which large
explosive charges are confined in small tunsee unit weight.
burden - distance between charge and free
nel chambers inside the quarry face.
(ISRM)
surface in directiDn of throw. (ISRM)
"e" Horizon -see horizon.
Chip-crushed angular rock fragment of a size
California bearing ratio, eBR (D)-the ratio.
smaller than a few centimetres. (ISRM)
of: (1) the force per unit area required to
chisel- the steel cutting tool used in percuspenetrate a soil mass with a 3 in.~ (19 cm 2 )
sion drilling. (ISRM)
circular piston (approximately 2-in. (51clay (clay soil) - fine-grained soil or the finemm) diameter) at the rate of 0.05 in. (1.3
grained portion of soil that can be made J()
mm)/min, to (2) that required for correexhibit plasticity (putty-like prop~t-lf!l;)\
sponding penetration of a standard matewithin a range of water contents~ jlud,",i-hat
rial. The ratio is usually determined at 0.1exhibits considerable streIl,gth_~J;leiUlI~:,,_pry.
in. (2.5-mm) penetration, although other
The term has been,_ -_~~-q)o -designa~e:; ~he
penetratJons are sometimes used. Original
percentage fine~,JIia.h"O:002 mm (0;005
California procedures required determinamm in some',~a~~s):o- but it~~is strongly -_r~_~_
tion of the ratio at 0 .1-in. intervals to 0.5
om~_ended thatit4~~ us~g~-~_~e_ discontinue,d~
in. (12.7 mm). Corps of Engineers' proce~i~_~-e,:~~ere is ari1~-',~;~yitlen-Ce from an engi'"dures require determination of the ratio at
n-~rf~g::Nandpoin:~;-~.t~a-t the properties de0,1 in. and 0.2 in. (5.1 mm). Where the
sQl;J~ed';J9::;the abdY~.::~_definition are many
ratio at 0.2 in. is consistently high~()_han
times m-or.~jmportan(at 0.1 in., the ratio at 0.2 in. is-used~"~>_-'_-'
clay:osiU-thaVpoq}on-'--6fothe soil finer than
camoufiet -_the underground _cavity created
0.002, !11!11'LO'!:i'mm in some c",es) (see
by a fully contained explosive. (!SRM)
also"dIlY);
I
capillary .ction lIpillarity) - tbe , rise Or clay sQU ~ see clay.
movement -ot_watet-- in~ th~ _interstices-,of-_a ----_cl_eavdge';;;...in crystallography, the splitting, or
soil or rdc)ta~e to capill~ry_::~orce-~~-;>
--'~tendency to split, along planes determined
capillary flow_ j::s.~e capillary--rnigratiolh:_\,
. by the crystal structure. In petrology, a
capillary fringe z~ne - the zontiabove _th~Jree
tendency to cleave or split along definite,
water elevation in which: wtiier is held. by
paranel, closely spaced planes. It is a seccapillary aetioll-.
ondary structure, commonly confined to
capillary head, h (Lr-the potential, exbedded rocks.
cleavage - the tendency to cleave or split
pressed in head-_~or-water, that causes the
along definite parallel planes. which may
water to flow by capillary action.
be highly inclined to the b,dding. It is a
capillary migration (capillary Oow)-the
secondary structure and is ordinarily acmovement of water by capillary action.
companied by at least some recrystallization
capillary rise (height of capillary rise), hI'
(L)-the height above a free water elevaof the rock. (ISRM)
cleavage planes - the paraliel surfaces along
tion to which water will rise by capillary
which a rock or mineral cleaves or sepaaction.
rates; the planes of least cohesion, usually
capillary water-water subject to the influparallel to a certain face of the mineral or
ence of capillary action.
crystal.
cavity - a natural underground opening that
cleft water-water that exists in or circulates
may be small or large. (USBM)
along the geological discontinuities in a
cavity - underground opening created by a
rock mass.
fully contained explosive. (ISRM)

125

~~l~
closure-the opening is reduced in dimension
to the extent that it cannot be used for its
intended purpose. (ISRM)
cobble (cobblestone)-a rock fragment, usually rounded or semirounded, with an average dimension between 3 and 12 in. (75
and 305 mm).
coefficient of absolute viscosity -sec coeffi~
cien. of viscosity.
coefficiem a/active earth pressure-see coefficient of earth pressure.
coefficient of compressibility (coefficient of
compression), a (L2 F-l)-the secant slope,
for a given pressure increment. of the pressure-void ratio curve, Where a stress-strain
curve is used, the slope of this curve is
equal to ",./(1 + e).
coefficient of consolidation, c/, (L2T- 1 )_a
coefficient utilized in the theory of consolidation, containing the physical constants of
a soil affecting its rate of volUlfJe change.
,

0 653
principal stress, to (2) the minor principal
stress. This is applicable where the soil has
been compressed sufficiently to develop an
upper Hmiting value of the major principal
stress.
coefficient of friction (coefficient of friction
between solid bodies) f (D)-the ratio betwecn the maximum value of shear stress
that resists slippage between two so1id bodies with respect to each other, and the
normal stress across the contact surfaces,
The tangent of the angle of friction is cJ>s,
coefficient offricfion-a constant proportionaWy fac~or. p.. relating normal stress and
the corresponding critical shear stress at
which sliding starts between two surfaces:
T = WCT. (ISRM)
.
coefficient of internatJtittiolf /.L (D)-the
tangent of the a~-gle~~of il)ternal friction
(angle of _$I:te.~r resistance) _(see internal

fric!I~_"}(TWl1~,--::-

:,~<,'<:-

coeffiiii.~iJliif permeability (pedneabilily) k

where:
(L 1'~1)'c- thera,ltt of dischargepf,water unk
coefficient of permeability, LT~_\ :_'~,
der -1~tnina-(J(Qw-'conditions through a unit
e
void ratio, D.
- _:/~/~~
cross-s~C:t~()nal area of a porous medium
ll',"
coefficient of compressibility, L~-,:?f; _;~:~~ under a'-~:\jhit hydraulic gradient and stan-" -"'<_'_,:- _
"" -""
-i--~. .--b. --~.-?.c. .).tern. p...'.e.."rature conditions (usually
and
'Y1I"
unit weight of.\Y'ater;- FL"'a,
c..(J.e. ffi' Cit:.tll.,.of-shear resistance - see coefficient
NOTE-In the Iiteratui~--published pnor to lc}3~_/-,
'
the coefficient of conso,lid"tion, usually designate-d,'---- ~ --'- --6f iil~i11al friction p. (D).
c, was 9~fi~ed l;Ir the eqlttt_!Ion::;::;,~_- '"
coefficient of subgrade reaction (modulus of
~,,,,klacY~(!+.')
subgrade reaction), k, k, (FL-')-ratio of:
(1) load per unit area of horizontal surface
This :original definiti~n otth~_~~effidi~rit-of:~~"nsol
of a mass of soil, to (2) corresponding
idation may be fou:!'IU --,in sori1~~more rece-nt papers
and_care should be'taKen to 3v()iaconfusion,
settlement of the surface, It is determined
as the slope of the secant, drawn between
co.ffident of .arth pre.su:e'~ (D) - the printhe point corresponding to zero settlement
cipal-~tress ratio
a point in a soil mass,
and the point of O.05-in. (1.3-mm) settleco.(!ffici~-'li. of earth pressure, active, KA
ment, of a load-settlement curve obtained
(D)-the rninimum ratio of: (1) the minor
from
a plate load test on a soil using a 30principal stress, to (2) the major principal
in. (762-mm) or greater diameter loading
stress. This is applicable where the soil has
plate, It is used in the de"sign of concrete
yielded sufficiently to develop a lower limpavements by the Westergaard method.
iting value of the minor principal stress.
coefficient of earth pressure, at rest, Ko coefficient of uniformity, C (D) - the ratio
D6<~/Du" where Duo is the particle diameter
(D)-the ratio of: (1) the minor principal
corresponding to 60 % finer on the grainstress, to (2) the major principal stress.
size curve, and DIU is the particle diameter
This is applicable where the soil mass is in
corresponding
to 10 % finer on the grainits natural state without having been persize curve.
mitted to yield or without having been
coefficient of viscosity (coefficient of absolute
compressed,
viscosity), T/ (FTL -2)-the shearing force
coefficient of earth pressure, passive, KI'
per unit area required to maintain a unit
(D)-the maximum ratio of: (1) the major
C

= k(I
c

+ e)/a,.'1,'

at

jj

126

0653

primary consolidation (primary compres~

sion) (primary time effi'ct) - the reduction
in volume of a soil mass caused by the
application of a sustained load to the mass
and due principally to a squeezing out of
water from thc void spaces of the mass and
accompanied by a transfer of the load from
the soil watcr to the soil solids.
secondary
consolidation
(secondary
compression) (secondary time effect) - the
reduction in volume of a soil mass caused
by the application of a sustained load to
the mass and due principally to the adjustment of the internal structure of the soil
mass after most of the load has been transferred from the soil water to the soil solids.
consolidation curve - see consolidation time
curve.
consolidation ratio, U.~ (D)-the ratio of: (I)
the amount of consolidation at a given
distance from a drainage surface and at a
given time, to (2) the total amount of
consolidation obtainable at that point under
a given stress increment.
consolidation test - a test in which the specimen is laterally confined in a ring and is
compressed between porous plates.
consolidation-time curve (time curve) (consolidation curve) (theoretical time curve)-a curve that shows the relation between:
(/) the degree of consolidation, and (2)
the elapsed time after the application of a
given increment of load.
constitutive equation-force deformation
function for a particular material. (ISRM)
contact pressure, p (FL -2) - the unit of pressure that acts at the surface of contact
between a structure and the underlying soil
or rock mass.
contraction -linear strain associated with a
decrease in length. (ISRM)
controlled blasting - includes all forms of
blasting designed to preserve the integrity
of the remaining rocks, that is, smooth
blasting or pre-splitting. (ISRM)
controlled~strain test - a test in which the load
is so applied that a controlled rate of strain
results.
controlled-stress test - a test in which the
stress to which a specimen is subjected is
applied at a controlled rate.
convergence - generally refers to a shortening
of the distance between the floor and roof

128

of an opening, for example, in the bedded

sedimentary rocks of the coal measures
where the roof sags and the floor heaves.
Can also apply to the convergence of the
walls toward each other. (ISRM)
core drilling; diamond drilling - a rotary drilling technique, using diamonds in the cutting
bit, that cuts out cylindrical rock samples.
(ISRM)
cover - the perpendicular distance from any
point in the roof of an underground opening
to the ground surface. (ISRM)
crack-a small fracture, that is, small with
respect to the scale of the feature in which
it occurs. (ISRM)
crater-excavation (generally of conical
shape) generated by an explosive charge.
(ISRM)
creep - slow movement of rock debris or soil
usually imperceptible except to observations of long duration. Time-dependent
strain or deformation, for example. continuing strain with sustained stress.
critical circle (critical surface) -the sliding
surface_assumed in a theoretical analysis of
a soil massJor which the factor of safety is
a minimum.
critical damping-the minimum viscous
damping that will allow a displaced system
to return to its initial position without oscillation.
critical density ..... the unit weight of a saturated
granular material below which it will lose
strength and above which it will gain
strength when SUbjected to rapid deformation. The critical density of a given material
is dependent on many factors.
critical frequency, It:' - frequency at which
maximum or minimum amplitudes of excited waves occur.
critical height, Hr (L)-the maximum height
at which a vertical or sloped bank of soil or
rock will stand unsupported under a given
set of conditions.
critical hydraulic gradient - see hydraulic gradient.
critical slope-the maximum angle with the
horizontal at which a sloped bank of soil or
rock of given height will stand unsupported.
critical surface - see critical circle.
critical void ratio - see void ratio.
crown-also roof or back, that is, the highest
point of the cross section. In tunnel linings,

a_
0653
the term is used to designate either the
arched roof above spring lines or all of the
lining except the floor or invert. (ISRM)
cryology - the study of the properties of snow,
ice, and frozen ground.
cuttiugs - small-sized rock fragments produced by a rick drill. (ISRM)
damping-the dissipation of energy with time
or distance.
damping -- reduction in the amplitude of vibration of a body or system due to dissipation of energy internally or by radiation.
(ISRM)
damping ratio - for a system with viscous
damping, the ratio of actual damping coefficient to the critical damping coefficient.
de(:ay time-the interval of time required for
a pulse to decay from its maximum value
to some specified fraction of that value.
(ISRM)
decoupUng - the ratio of the radius of the
blasthole to the radius of the charge. In
general, a reducing of the strain wave amplitude by increasing the spacing between
charge and blasthole wall. (ISRM)
deOocculaUng agent (denoceulant) (dispersing agent) - an agent that prevents fine soil
particles in suspension from coa1escing to
form floes.
deformation - change in shape or size.
deformation -a change in the shape or size
of a solid body. (ISRM)
deformation resolution (Ielormallolt sensiMity) Rd (t.)-ratio of thesmallest:subdivisian of the- indicating stale of a -deformation-measuring device to :the sensitivity of
the device.
degree of consolidation (percent consolidation), U (D)...;.the ratio, expressed as a
percentage, of: (1) the amount of consolidation at a given time within a soil mass, to
(2) the total amount of consolidation obtainable under a given stress condition.
degree-days - the difference between the average temperature each day and 32 F
(0 C). In common usage degree-days are
positive for daily average temperatures
above 32 F and negative for those below
32 F (see freezing index).
degrees-of-freedom-the minimum number
of independent coordinates required in a
mechanical system to define completely the
positions of all parts of the system at any
0

instant of time. In general, it is equal to

the number of independent displacements
that are possible.
degree a/saturation -see percent saturation.
degree of saturation - the extent or degree to
which the voids in rock contain fluid (water,
gas l or oil). Usually expressed in percent
related io total void or pore space. (ISRM)
degree of sensitivity (sensitivity ratio) -see reg
molding index.
delay - time interval (fraction of a second)
between detonation of explosive charges.
(ISRM)
density - see unit weight.
NOTE-Although it is recognized that density
is defined as mass per unit volume, in til,e:'field
of soil mechanics the term is frequently,useddn
place of unit weight.

detonation-an extreme~y rapid--and violent

chemical reaction ,'Causing the production
.
of a large volume Otllas. (ISRM)
deviator stre$S,oi-4; 'u (FL -2)_the diffeclfce
b_etween the_-::-ni~jor _~nd. ,minor princit1al
stresses in a trlaxiahest.
deviator, of stress (slrain) - the stress (strain)
teo so, "lJtained bY'-subtracting the mean of
--the normal stress _($tt~in) components of a
-stress (stI'ainl."tensot-\from each normal
stress (straih)cnmponent. (ISRM)
dilitancy~property of volume increase under
loading. (ISRM)
dilitaftcy - the expansion of cohesion less soils
,'>. when subject to shearing deformation.
direct shear test - a shear test in which soil or
rock under an applied normal Load is
stressed to failure by moving one section of
the sample or sample container (shear box)
relative to the other section.
discharge velocity, v, q (LT-t)-rate of discharge of water through a porous medium
per unit of total area perpendicular to the
direction of flow.
discontinuity surface - any surface across
which some property of a rock mass is
discontinuous. This includes fracture surfaces, weakness planes, and bedding
planes, but the term should not be restricted only to mechanical continuity.
(ISRM)
dispersing agent-see denocculating agent.
dispersion-the phenomenon of varying
speed of transmission of waves, depending
on their frequency. (ISRM)

129

0653
displacement - a change in position of a material point. (ISRM)
distortion-a change in shape of a solid hody,
(ISRM)
divergence loss-that part of transmitted energy lost due to spreading of wave rays in
accordance with the geometry of the system,
double amplitude - total excursion or over-all
height of wave (peak-t(}-pcak, crcst-totrough) or for sinusoidal wave twice the
amplitude.
drag bit-a noncoring or full-hole boring bit,
which scrapes its way through n:latively
soft strata. (ISRM)
drawdown (L) -vertical distance the free water elevation is lowered or the reduction of
the pressure head due to the removal of
free water.
drift -see adlt. (ISRM)
drillabilify-index value of the resistance of a
rock to drilling. (ISRM)
drill carriage; jllmbo - a movable platform,
stage, or frame that incorporate:>._ several
rock drills and usually travels on tht! ,funnel
track; used for heavy drilling work in large
tunnels. (ISRM)
drilling pattern-the number,position. depth;
and angle of the blastholes, forming the
complete round in the face of a tunnel or
sinkingpit.(ISRM)
dry unit weighr (dry density)-see unit weight.
ductility-condition in which materIal can sustain permanent deformaNon withl'ut lqsing
its ability to resist load'. (ISRM)
earth - see soil.
earth pressure - the pressure or forC"\:." exerted
by soil on any boundary.
Symbol

Pressure
Force

p
p

l';'lil
FL- ,
F('[ FL-I

active earth pressure, PA , PA - :he minimum value of earth pressure. Tbs condition exists when a soil mass is pe!:"milted to
yield sufficiently to cause its inter:1al shearing resistance along a potential f:.;.ilure surface to be completely mobilized.
earth pressure at rest, Pm po-lhe value
of the earth pressure when the s. . . . il mass is
in its natural state without ha\'ing been
permitted to yield or without ha \'ing been
compressed.

passive earth pressure, PI" Pl.-the maxi~

mum value of earth pressure. This condi~
tion exists when a soil mass is compressed
sufficiently to cause its internal shearing
resistance along a potential failure surface
to be completely mobilized.
effect diameter (effective sb.e) , DHI! D" (L)particle diameter corresponding to 1() %
finer on the grain-size curve,
effective drainage porosity -see effective porosity.
effective force, F (F) - the force transmitted
through a soil or rock mass by intergranular
pressures.
effective porosity (effective drainage porosity), n, (D) - the ratio of: (l) the volume
of the voids _of a soil or rock mass that can
be drained by gravity, to (2) the total
volum~ of'the mass.
effective pressure - see stress.
effie/ive size .-see effective diameter.
effective_stre~s -see stress.
effective f,lnit weight-see unit weight.
~Iasticlty - property of material that returns
to it$ __original form or condition after the
appliedlorce is removed. (ISRM)
ellis_tic liuiit-point on stress strain curve at
wh-ich transition from elastic to inelastic
behavior takes place. (ISRM)
elastic state of equilibrium - state of stress
within a soil mass when the internal resist~
ance of the mass is not fully mobiHzed.
elastic strain energy - potential energy stored
in a strained solid and equal to the work
done in deforming the solid from its un~
strained state less any energy dissipated by
inelastic deformation. (ISRM)
equipotential line -see piezometric line.
equivalent diame.er (equivalent size), D
(L) - the diameter of a hypothetical sphere
composed of material having the same specific gravity as that of the actual soil particle
and of such size that it will settle in a given
liquid at the same terminal velocity as the
actual soil particle.
equivalent nllid-a hypothetical fluid having
a unit weight such that it wi!] produce a
pressure against a lateral support presumed
to be equivalent to that produced by the
actual soil. This simplified approach is valid
only when deformation conditions are such
that the pressure increases linearly with
depth and the wall friction is neglected.

130

D 653

excess hydrostatic pressure - see hydrostatic fauU - a fracture or fracture zone along which
pressure.
there has been displacement of the two
exchange capacity - the capacity to exchange
sides relative to one another parallel to the
ions as measured by the quantity of exfracture (this displacement may be a few
centimetres or many kilometres). (See also
changeable ions in a soil or rock.
excitation (stimulus)-an external force (or
joint fault set and joint fault system.
other input) applied to a system that causes
(ISRM)
the system to respond in some way.
fault breccia - the assemblage of broken rock
extension-linear strain associated with an
fragments frequently found along faults.
increase in length. (lSRM)
The fragments may vary in size from inches
external force -- a force that acts across exterto feet. (lSRM)
oal surface elements of a material body.
fault gouge-a clay-like material occurring
(ISRM)
between the walls of a fault as a result of
extrados - the exterior curved surface of an
the movement along the fault- ~\h:faces.
arch, as opposed to intrados, which is the
(ISRM)
_-_,/-,_ ----->---'-.
interior curved surface of an arch. (ISRM) field moisture equivalent_;;;;-,S"e,--pjoisture equivalent,
__ c_;:.:-,_-:'::\ <-_--_-:_--~:
fabric - the orientation in space of the elements composing the rock substance.
fiU- man-ma?:tg}_~9_~_pOgits of natur~t:~soiJs or
(ISRM)
rock pr'1du~I~:and waste materials"",
face (heading) - the advanced end of a tunnel,
filling - ge~~_!~;IIy, _t,~~At!!tIterial occupyj~g the
drift, or excavation at which work is pro_~;_-:space bet"'_~:C;P{Jg.iJ:l:f--~urfaces, fauh~-.--,~and
gressing. ( I S R M ) ! ) t h e r ro&pJsc,oniinuities. The fillingmafailure (in rocks) -exceeding the maximum _:~,~;'\~~tqt!._ may h~l{~!ay, gouge, various natural
strength of the rock or exceeding the stress '. :--;--< cetij:~.t.i_ng ag~~i$._J _or alteration products of
or strain requirement of,asp~Cificdesign..' thea'ilja~~nt ro!i~!,,(ISRM)
(ISRM)
, ".r"ter,gro~~f!~ve fUlcr)-a layer or combinafailure by rupture -see sll~~~ failure,__-_
-~Eifi9.t_tof-lay~rs"bf pervious materials designed
failure crite_~i-~_D;.s_-s~_ecifiCi\t~;9n_o~,~~-~-;m~chan- ---,:):-afHfinstalled in such a manner as to provide
ical, ~?fl_~h~on-:c_U~_ger wh,~5~~;;~6!~d_--;~,~!~Ei~ls
--:<:grainage, yet prevent the movement of soil
fail~l':Jf.cturi"g;oi'"y d(ptxnlngbeYej)~.
.. particles due to flowing water.
some,:~sp_ecified Iim-tf?r~is s~c_i~ication~may
fines-portion of a soil finer than a No. 200
be in)erms of the st:re_sses. st:~arns, rate-of(75-Jl.m) U.S. standard sieve.
change __ .-of stresses~ _"~ rate-at,,;.-change of finite element - one of the regular geometrical
strains~--()r: :s~me c()-",~illation of these quanshapes into which a figure is subdivided for
tities, in -the--ll1a_~et~~ls:
the purpose of numerical stress analysis.
failure criterioD:-'theoretically or empirically
(ISRM)
derived stress or strain relationship characfissure - a gapped fracture. (ISRM)
terizing the occurrence of failure in the
floc -loose, open-structured mass formed in
rock. (ISRM)
a suspension by the aggregation of minute
particles.
fatigue - the process of progressive localized
permanent structural change occurring in a flocculation-the process of forming floes.
material subjected to conditions that pro- flocculent structure - see soil structure.
Ooor- bottom of near horizontal surface of
duce fluctuating stresses and strains at some
point or points.and that may culminate in
an excavation, approximately parallel and
cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient
opposite to the roof. (ISRM)
number of fluctuations. (D 671, D-20; flow channel-the portion of a flow net
E 206, E-9)
bounded by two adjacent flow lines.
fatigue-decrease of strength by repetitive
now curve-the locus of points obtained from
loading. (ISRM)
a standard liquid limit test and plotted on a
ratigue limit-point on stress-strain curve begraph representing water content as ordilow which no fatigue can be obtained renate on an arithmetic scale and the number
gardless of number of loading cycles.
of blows as abscissa on a logarithmic scale.
(ISRM)
now failure-failure in which a soil mass

131

D 653

moves over relatively long distances in a

fluid-like manner.
flow index, Ftc'. I, (D)-the slope of the flow
curve obtained from a liquid limit test,
expressed as the difference in water contents at 10 blows and at 100 blows.
now line-the path that a particle of water
follows in its course of seepage under laminar flow conditions.
flow net - a graphical representation of flow
lines and equipotential (piezometric) lines
used in the study of seepage phenomena.
flow slide-the failure of a sloped bank of
soil in which the movement of the soil mass
does not take place along a well-defined
surface of sliding.
flow value, NdJ (degrees)-a quantity equal to
tan [45 deg + (<I>/2)J.
fold-a bend in the strata or other planar
structure within the rock mass. (ISRM)
foliation - the somewhat laminated structure
resulting from segregation of different minerals into layers parallel to the schistosity.
(ISRM)
footing - portion of the foundation of a st~uc-.
ture that transmits loads directly to- th_e .
soil.
footwall-the mass of rock beneath a discon ..
tinuity surface. (ISRM)
forced vibration (forced oseilliltiUlI) - vibration that occurs if- the response __j_!; imposedby the excitation. If the_ excitation is pc.:.
riodic. and __cofltimiin-g? -~he- '_o~~iHation Js
steady-state;
forepoling - driving [orepotes (pointed boards
or steel rods) _ahead of _i'he excavation,
usually over the last set ere"cted, to furnish
temporary overhead protection while installing the next set. (ISRM)
foundation -lower part of a structure that
transmits the load to the soil or rock.
foundation soil- upper part of the earth mass
carrying the load of the structure.
fracture- the general term for any mechanical
discontinuity in the rock; it therefore is the
collective term for joints, faults. cracks,
etc. (ISRM)
fracture - a break in the mechanical continuity of a body of rock caused by stress
exceeding the strength of the rock. Includes
joints and faults.
fracture frequency - the number of natural

132

discontinuities in 8 rock or soil mass per

unil length, measured along a core or as
exposed in a planar section such as the wall
of a tunnd.
fracture pattern-spatial arrangement of a
group of fracture surfaces. (ISRM)
fragmentation - the breaking of rock in such
a way that the bulk of the material is of a
convenient size for handling. (ISRM)
free water (gravitational water) (ground water) (phreatic water)-water that is free to
move through a soil or rock mass under the
influence of gravity.
free water elevation (water table) (ground
water surface) (free water surface) (ground
water elevation)-elevations at which the
pressure in the water is zero with respect to
the atmospheric pressure.
freezing index, F (degree~days)-the number
of degree-days behveert -the highest and
lowest points on -the curmllative degreedays ~__ ti~e'_ctirve for one-freezing season.
It is used- as a measure of --the combined
duration and magnitude of be.}o_w-freezing
temperature occurring during 'any given
freezing season. The index determined for
air temperatures at 4.5 ft (1.4 m) above
the ground --is commonly designated as the
',- air-Jreezing index, while that determined
for-temperatures immediately below a surface is, 'known as the surface freezing index.
free vibration - vibration that occurs in the
absence of forced vibration.
frequency, f (T-l)-number of cycles occurring in unit time.
frost action - freezing and thawing of moisture in materials and the resultant effects
on these materials and on structures of
which they are a part or with which they
are in contact.
frost boil- (a) softening of soil occurring during a thawing period due to the liberation
of water from ice lenses or layers.
(b) the hole formed in flexible pavements
by the extrusion of soft soil and melt waters
under the action of wheel1oads.
(e) breaking of a highway or airfield
pavement under traffic and the ejection of
subgrade soil in a soft and soupy condition
caused by the melting of ice lenses formed
by frost action.
frost heave - the raising of a surface due to

D 653

the accumulation of ice in the underlying

soil or rock.
fundamental frequency -lowest frequency of
periodic variation.
gage lenglh, L (L) -distance over which the
deformation measurement is made.
general shear failure -see shear failure.
glaciallill (liII) - material deposited by glaciation, usually composed of a wide range of
particle sizes, which has not been subjected
to the sorting action of water.
gradation (grain~size distribution) (texture)the proportions by mass of a sailor fragmented rock distributed in specified particle~size ranges.
grain~size analysis (mechanical analysis) (particle-size analysis) - the process of determining grain-size distribution.
gravel- rounded or semirounded particles of
rock that will pass a 3-in. (76.2-mm) and
be retained on a No.4 (4.75-/Lm) U.S.
standard sieve.
gravitational water-see free water.
ground arch - the theoretical stable rock arch
that develops some distance back from the
surface of the opening and supports the
opening. (ISRM)
ground water-see free water.
ground water elevation - see free water eleva~
tion.
ground waler level-lhe .leveLbelowwbich
the rock-and subsoU,'-fo urikno\\in depths,
are salurated. (ISRM)
ground wafer surface --see---Iree wa,fer elevation.
hanging waD-the mass-of rock above a discontinuity surface. (ISRM)
hardness- resistance of a material to indentation or scratching. (ISRM)
hardpan - a hard impervious layer, composed
chiefly of clay, cemented by relatively insoluble materials, that does not become plastic
when mixed with water and definitely limits
the downward movement of water and
roots.
head - pressure at a point in a liquid, expressed in terms of the vertical distance of
the point below the surface of the liquid.
(ISRM)
heave-upward movement of soil caused by
expansion or displacement resulting from
phenomena such as: moisture absorption,
I

133

removal of overburden, driving of piles,

frost action, and loading of an adjacent
area.
height of capillary rise - see capillary rise.
heterogeneity-having different properties at
different points. (ISRM)
homogeneity - having the same properties at
all points. (ISRM)
homogeneous mass - a mass that exhibits essentially the same physical properties at
every point throughout the mass.
honeycomb structure-see soil structure.
horizon (soil horizon) - one of the layers of
the soil profile, distinguished principally by
its texture, color, structure, and chef!1ical
content.
"A" horizon - the uppermost layer of a
soil profile from which :inorganic colloids
and other soluble _. materials have been
leached. UsuaUy--contains remnants of organic life.
"8" horizon -tile jayer of a soil profile
fn -which mater_i_at--Ieached from the overlying "A" horizon is accumulated.
HC~ -horizon ~undisturbed parent material from- 'rhich-_ the overlying soil profile
...
has been dew:loped.
humus.;...a oro'W,u:or black material formed by
- the partial <fecomposition of vegetable or
an~mal matter; the organic portion of soil.
hydraulic conductivity -see coefficient of
penneability.
hydrauliC gradienl, i. s (D)-the loss of hydraulic head per unit distance of flow, dh!
dL.
critical hydraulic gradient, ic (D) - hydraulic gradient at which the intergranular
pressure in a mass of cohesion less soil is
reduced to zero by the upward flow of
water.
hydrostatic pressure, U O (FL -2) - a state of
stress in which all the principal stresses are
equal (and there is no shear stress), as in a
liquid at rest; the product of the unit weight
of the liquid and the difference in elevation
between the given pdint and the free water
elevation.
excess hydrostatic pressure (hydrostatic
excess pressure). u, 1I (FL-ll)-the pressure
that exists in pore water in excess of the
hydrostatic pressure.
hydrostatic pressure - a state of stress in

D 653

combination of any of these, with organic

linear (normal strain) - the change in length
matter (see humus). It is sometimes called
per unit of length in a given direction.
topsoil in contrast to thl)! subsoils that con(ISRM)
tain little or no organic matter.
line of creep (path of percolation) - the path
that water follows along the surface of local shear failure - see shear failure.
loess - a uniform aeolian deposit of silty macontact between the foundation soil and
terial having an open structure and relathe base of a dam or other structure.
tively high cohesion due to cementation of
line of seepage (seepage line) (phreatic
clay or calcareous material at grain conline)-the upper free water surface of the
tacts. A characteristic of loess deposits is
zone of seepage.
that they can stand with nearly vertical
linear expansion, L" (D) - the increase in one
slopes.
dimension of a soil mass, expressed as a
logarithmic decrement - the natural logarithm
percentage of that dimension at the shrinkof the ratio of any two successive ampliage limit, when the water content is intudes of like sign, in the decay o( a-,singlecreased from the shrinkage limit to any
frequency oscillation.
given water content.
longitudinal wave, VI (LT~!l.,.;;-wave in which
linear shrinkage, Ls (D)-decrease in one
direction of displa<;em'eijt---a-t ea.cJ-t point of
dimension of a soil mass, expressed as a
medium is n~r~ruirt~" wave front~--)Yith proppercentage of the original dimension, when
agation v_el.9C:ity}:calculated as fb1l9WS:
the water content is reduced from a given
value to the shrinkage Hmit.
VI = V(E1A)[(1 . v)/(I + v)(I
2v)]'"
lineation - the parallel orientation of strucV ("'.""t"'zcc'i<")/-p
tural features that are lines rather than
where:
planes; some examples are parallel orienta>
~ -_~7-__ 'Young'fi,ll0dulus,
tion of the long dimensions of minerals; c:long axes of pebbles; striae _ ~_I1,SIi~~~nsides; '--' p-'-:#~ '~~ss deU!*~
A ari'd')l ~=:=_Lam:~V_$-~eonstants, and
and cleavage-bedding pl~n~::--.Ifft~rsections.
v
__= :P~iSSQll'S iatl~.
(ISRM)
liquefaction (spontaneot.$ iiquefacti~~l:~ the lonl wave (quer wave), W (LT-I)-dispersive
surface wave with one horizontal composudden lar~_~Aecr_ease of the s~e~ring resistnent, generally normal to the direction of
ance _of.a_-_~hesion}~f1~ soi.L-NJs_ catis,~d -~X _,a
propagation, which decreases in propagaconapse of the str~c~ure bys/tock oroW~r,
tion velocity with increase in frequency.
type --)jf-~ strain arid:~;;-i~ assQc,iated with -~ 3
sudden -but tempor-afy--.i~crease_~f the pre- -major principal plane -see principal plane.
fluid p(essure. It involves a 'temporary major principal stress - see stress.
mass unit weight - see unit weight.
transformation of the '-material into a fluid
mathematical model- the representation of a
mass.
_
physical system by mathematical expresliquid limit, LL, L~., WL (D)-(a) the water
sions from which the behavior of the system
content corresponding to the arbitrary limit
can be deduced with known accuracy.
between the liquid and plastic states of
(ISRM)
.
consistency of a soil.
(b) the water content at which a pat of maximum density (maximum unit weight)see unit weight.
soil, cut by a groove of standard dimensions, will flow together for a distance of mechanical analysis -see grain..size analysis.
microseism - seismic pulses of short duration
112 in. (12.7 mm) under the impact of 25
and low amplitude, often occurring preblows in a standard liquid limit apparatus.
vious to failure of a material or structure.
liquidity index (water-plasticity ratio) (rela(ISRM)
tive water conteRt), B, Rw. IL (D)-the
ratio, expressed as a percentage, of: (1) minor principal plane - see principal plane.
the natural water content of a soil minus its minor principal stress - see stress.
modulus of deformation -see modulus of
plastic limit, to (2) its plasticity index.
elasticity.
loam-a mixture of sand, silt, or clay, or a

135

0653
modulus of elasticity (modulus of deformsfield moisture equivalent, FME - the mintion), E. M (FL -2) _ the ratio of stress to
imum -water content expressed as a percentstrain for a material under given loading
age of the weight of the oven-dried soil, at
conditions; numerically equal to the slope
which a drop afwater placed on a smoothed
surface of the soil will not immediately be
of the tangent or the secant of a stressstrain curve. The use of the term modulus
absorbed by the soil but will spread Qut
of elasticity is recommended for materials
over the surface and give it a shiny appearthat deform in accordance with Hooke's
anee.
law; the term modulus of deformation for muck -stone, dirt, debris, or useless material;
materials that deform otherwise.
or an organic soil of very soft consistency.
modulus ofsub grade reaction -see coefficient mud-a mixture of soil and water in a fluid
of subgrade reaction.
or weakly solid state.
modulus 01 volume change - see coefficient of multibench blasting - the blasting of several
'Volume compressibility.
benches (steps) in quarries and open pits,
Mohr circle-a graphical representation of
either simultaneously or with small delays.
the stresses acting on the various planes at
(ISRM)
multiple-row blasting-the-drl1ling. charging,
a given point.
Mohr circle of stress (strain)-a graphical
and firing of several-tow-s. of vertical holes
representation of the components of stress
along a,,_q_~_~~y o-.toperica:sl:face. (ISRM)
mus_k_eg;.J~iel~ practically 'tre~less areas sup(strain) acting across the various planes at
~_t.t,ijj-g- -'dense growth consi~Hng primarily
a given point, drawn with reference to axes
otgtasses.___T~_~_ ~urface ofthe'sQiI is covered
of normal stress (strain) and shear stress
(strain). (ISRM)
with. layer of partially decayed grass and
Mohr envelope - the envelope of a segli~~_ce
gras~:>r()ots 'which is usually' wet and soft
. whe-t(itbt frozen.
of Mohr circles representing stress ~~Jldi~
tions at failure for a giyen,I11aterial. (IS~M) '-'--Inylonit~~-'~~ microscopic breccia with flow
Mohr envelope (rup\urti.envelope) (rIlJit"re.rt~ctur"fermed in fault zones. (ISRM)
IiDe)-the envelope ~of a~etiies ofohrlli!tiirii\freqliency-the frequency at which a
circles represent~g_ stress cQri~,itions at-,aiJ--:'-- body--;' or system vibrates when unconure_ fot a given~_,_rI\at{!_rjat:'-!A:_ccordiri~:>to
strained by external forces. (ISRM)
Mohr's-ruRW_re hypp:tpe,$is;,_ a';~UI1~ure e~ve;.- natural frequency (displacement resonance),
In-frequency for which phase angle is 90
lope is the_:IPc':!s oteplnts thec).iB~r9in'ates
of which iep~~sent--lJi_~_ combiriafions of
deg between the direction of the excited
force (or torque) vector and the direction
normal and shearing sfr~s'S_es that win cause
of the excited excursion vector.
a given material to faiC-,
moisture contenf(water content), w (D)-the neutral stress-see stress.
ratio, expressed as a percentage, of: (1) node-point, line, or surface of standing wave
the_weight of water in a given soil mass, to
system at which the amplitude is zero.
(2) the weight of solid particles.
normal force-a force directed normal to the
moisture content-the percentage by weight
surface element across which it acts.
of water contained in the pore space of a
(ISRM)
rock or soil with respect to the weight of normal stress - see stress.
normally consolidated soil deposit-a soil dethe saUd material. (ISRM)
moisture~densily curve-see compaction
posit that has never been subjected to an
curve.
effective pressure greater than the existing
moisture-density test-see compaction test.
overburden pressure.
moisture equivalent:
open cut-an excavation through rock or soil
centrifuge moisture equivalent, We. CME
made through a hill or other topographic
(D)-the water content of a soil after it has
feature to facilitate the passage of a highway I railroad, or waterway along an alignbeen saturated with water and then subment that varies in topographic relief. An
jected for 1 h to a force equal to 1000
times that of gravity.
open cut can be comprised of single slopes

.<"

136

~m~

D 653

or multiple slopes, or multiple slopes and

of rigid pavements, under the action of
horizontal benches, or both. (ISRM)
traffic.
optimum moisture tontent (optimum water peak sheaf strength-maximum shear strength
content), OMC, w, (D) - the water content
along a failure surface. (ISRM)
at which a soil can be compacted to a peat-a fibrous mass of organic matter in
maximum dry unit weight by a given comvarious stages of decomposition, generally
pactive effort.
dark brown to black in color and of spongy
organic clay - a clay with a high organic cooconsistency.
tent.
penetration-depth of hole cut in rock by a
organic silt - a silt with a high organic content.
drill bit. (ISRM)
organic soil-soil with a high organic content. penetration resistance (standard penetration
In general, organic soils are very compressresistance) (Proctor penetration resistance),
PR, N (FL-2 or Blows L-l)-(a) number of
ible and have poor load~sustaining proper~
ties.
blows of a hammer of spe~f~ed weight
oscillation-the variation, usually with time,
falling a given distance reqllfie:,(t-to produce
a given penetratlon:~Qt()_ S()_ilbf a pile, casing
of the magnitude of a quantity with respect
to a specified reference when the magnitude
or sarnpling},9~e. ~~);;-o~---'---'- ----,_--'-;-:{:
is alternately greater and smaller than the
(b) ,-~(-t~~;14iJ~ required ~t~:::}llaintain const~R~_'l~tl:;ofpenetration into=_~q~_ of a probe
reference.
outcrop - the exposure of the bedrock at the
or~li(~~ffi~ent. _,_;~:o:_
--'_:~;~:'~ 7-:;:
surface of the ground. (ISRM).,,,
(ll~\1jl1H,lg.~d;~equired to pro'~~~e a specoverbreak - the quantity of rock that is. e~~~:-:;_
ified ~-~:ffe~iJiHo-n into soil at '-';{--'specified
vated or breaks out beyond the periril,~iei:_ - rate o{~)~~{)be or instrument. For a Proctor
specified as the finished excavated tu~~:e-l-- :\,~needle,--t.ll,c.t--~pecified penetration is 2112 in"
outline. (ISRM)
.<" ..".,')(l':>:.~ mffiY;;\nd the rate is II, in. (12.7
overburden-the IQo~'$oil'.- san~~,:_silt, or d",Y:-__ ~m~t~-~ -;':~?i::-'
that overlies bedl;"ook. In some-: usages>JF - --p'llet~~ resistance curve (Proctor pene..
refer~_to_--~ll materiaJ:'?ved~(inlr!he poin(cit(/ tration curve)-the curve showing the rela~n.t~t~~f.:~-(t~_nn~l cro)Yn)~:~t,~,_~~J_~_J,;_;t?e t01~r
tionship between: (l) the penetration re~
--'59ve-r-of soiJ.jt~~_ roc_~f;:90yerLyi-i\&;~a~:;:tHlder:':--->
sistance, and (2) the water content.
_~9und exca,'--aUQ_~. (IS~M)
- -- percent compaction-the ratio, expressed as
overbtlrden load~the loa:tJ,;~n a horizontal
a percentage, of: (1) dry unit weight of a
sulface underground duei~to' the column of
soil, to (2) maximum unit weight obtained
in a laboratory compaction test"
material located vertically above it. (ISRM)
overconsOlid8_ted~:soi1 deposit-a soil deposit
percent consolidation -see degree of consolithat ,_ha$'<-bee-n subjected to an effective
dation.
pressure greater than the present overbur- percent saturation (degree of saturation), SrSr
den pressure.
(D) - the ratio, expressed as a percentage,
of: (l) the volume of water in a given soil
parent material- material from which a soil
or rock mass, to (2) the total volume of
has been derived.
particle-size analysis -see grain-size analysis.
intergranular space (voids).
particle-size distrr"bution -see gradation,
perched water table-a water table usually of
grain-size distribution.
limited area maintained above the normal
passive earth pressure - see earth pressure.
free water elevation by the presence of an
passive state a/plastiC equilibrium -see plastic
intervening relatively impervious confining
equilibrium.
stratum.
path of percolation (line of creep)-the path perched watertable-groundwater separated
that water follows along the surface of
from an underlying body of groundwater
by unsaturated soil or rock. Usually located
contact between the foundation soil or rock
at a higher eleyation than the groundwater
and the base of a dam or other structure.
table. (ISRM)
pavement pumping-ejection of soil and water mixtures from joints, cracks, and edges percolation-the movement of gravitational

__

137

0653
water through soil (see seepage).
pi1lars; rib pillars; sm pil1ars; chain pillilTS.
percolation - movement, under hydrostatic
etc. (ISRM)
pressure of water through the smaller inter~
pilot drift (pioneer tunnel) - a drift or tunnel
stices of rock or soil, excluding movement
first excavated as a smaller section than the
dimensions of tbe main tunnel. A pilot drift
through large openings such as caves and
solution channels. (ISRM)
or tunnel is usually used to investigate rock
percussion driUing-a drilling technique that
conditions in advance of the main tunnel,
uses solid <:>T hollow rods for cutting and
to permit installation of bracing before the
crushing the rock by repeated blows.
principal mass of rock is removed, or to
(ISRM)
serve as a drainage tunnel. (ISRM)
period - time interval occupied by one cycle.
piping - the progressive removal of soil partipermafrost-perennially frozen soil.
des from a mass by percolating water,
permanent strain-the strain remaining in a
leading to the development of channels.
pi. - an excavation in the surface of the earth
solid with respect to its initial condition
after the application and removal of stress
from which ore is obtained as in large open
greater than the yield stress (commonly
pit mining or as an excavation made for
test purposes, that is, a testpit.(ISRM)
also called "residual" strain). (ISRM)
permeability-see coefficient of permeability.
plane of weakness-surface -or -narrow zone
permeability - the capacity of a rock to conwith a (shear or --terisile) strength lower
than that Qf_":~,the:~-surr'ounding material.
duct liquid Of gas. It is measured as the
proportionality constant, k, between flow
(ISRM). . ... "
velocity, v, and hydraulic gradient, I; v =
plan~ stri.ss--,(strain) - a state ofsiress (strain)
k ./. (ISRM)
in 8. solid body;n which allst~ess (strain)
pH, pH (D) -an index of the acidity or al~~_corripo_n~-"ls -_noimal to a certairLplane are
linity of a soil in terms of the logaritntijof
zero. (ISRM)
the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion couceri:" _p,an,e wave ~wave in which fronts are parallel
>;'t,()__ plane-tu)(wal to direction of propagation.
tration.
pbase difference - difference- 'bt}.tween ph'ase plasUc defo':'ria~ion - see plastic Dow.
p!~,~tit_:_--eq,uilibrium - state of stress within a
angles of two waves 6f'same- frequency. ~
phase of periodic qoandty-fractional part of
-~-son- ,or rock mass or a portion thereof,
period through wliich:indepen-detlt variable-which has been deformed to such an extent
bas advanced~ measured- from an arbitrary
that its ultimate shearing resistance is rnaorigin.
bilized.
phreatic line - see line of seepage.
active Slate of plastic equilibrium - plastic
phreatic surface :':"'8e6, free-wafer elevation.
equilibrium obtained by an expansion of a
phreatic water-see free wafer.
mass.
piezometer-an instrument for measuring
passive slate of plastic equilibrium -plaspressure_ head.
tic equilibrium obtained by a compression
piezometric:; line (equipotential line)-Iine
ofa mass.
along which water will rise to the same
plastic now (plastic deformation)-the deforelevation in piezometric tubes.
mation of a plastic material beyond the
piezometric snrface - the surface at which wapoint of recovery; accompanied by continter will stand in a series of piezometers.
uing deformation with no further increase
piezometric surface-an imaginary surface
in stress.
that everywhere coincides with the static plasticity - the property of a soil or rock which
level of the water in the aquifer. (ISRM)
allows it to be deformed beyond the point
of recovery without cracking or appreciable
pile - relatively slender structural element
volume change.
which is driven, or otherwise introduced,
into the soil, usually for the purpose of plasticity-property of a material to continue
providing vertical or lateral support.
to deform indefinitely whiJe sustaining a
pDlar-in-situ rock between two or more unconstant stress. (ISRM)
derground openings: crown pillars; barrier plasticity index, lp, PI, Iu' (D)-numerical

138

0653
difference between the liquid limit and the
plastic limit.
plastic limit, w J" PL, P w (D)-(a) the water
content corresponding to an arbitrary limit
between the plastic and the semisolid states
of consistency of a soil.
(b) water content at which a soil will just
begin to crumble when rolled into a thread
approximately 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) in diameter.
plastic soil- a soil that exhibits plasticity.
plastic state (plastic range) - the range of consistency within which a sailor rock exhibits
plastic properties.
pore pressure (pore waler pressure) - see neutra. stress under stress.
porosity, n (D)-the ratio, usually expressed
as a percentage, of: (1) the volume of
voids of a given soil or rock mass, to (2)
the total volume of the sailor rock mass.
porosity,- the ratio of the aggregate volume
of voids or interstices in a rock or soil to its
total volume. (ISRM)
portal- the surface entrance to a tunnel.
(ISRM)
potential drop, MI (L) - the difference in total
head between two equipotential. lines>:' .."
power spectral density-the,:limiting trie~nsquare value (for exampi~., ~f acceieratioii.,
velocity, displa~em,~nt, stre~';:.::or other.r~ndom vari~bl~)perunit bandwidth, ,that is
the liOli~,}-Rf.~.the -- tne~~t:s9uare;:,~.,,~lue in :;.3:;'
given rectangular banCl)\'i~th divl~~ by tile'
bandwidth~' as the bandwi~th aPBt:oaches
zero.
preconsolidatioir pressure - tprestress), PI'
(FL -I!) _ the' --greatest' effective pressure to
which a soil has been subjected.
pressure, p (FL -2)-the load divided by the
area over which it acts.
pressure bulb - the zone in a loaded soil or
rock mass bounded by an arbitrarily selected isobar of stress.
pressure-void ratio curve (compression
curve)-a curve representing the relationship between effective pressure and void
ratio of a soil as obtained from a consolidation test. The curve has a characteristic
shape when plotted on semilog paper with
pressure on the log scale. The various parts
of. the curve and extensions to the parts of
the curve and extensions to 'the parts have
been
designated
as
recompression,
compression, virgin compression, expan-

sion, rebound, and other descriptive names

by various authorities.
primary consolidation (primary compression)
(primary time effect)-see consolidation.
primary lining - the lining first placed inside a
tunnel Of shaft, usually us'ed to support the
excavation. The primary lining may be of
wood or steel sets with steel or wood lagging or rock bolts and shot-crete. (ISRM)
primary state of stress - the stress in a geological formation before it is disturbed by manmade works. (ISRM)
principal plane-each of three mutually perpendicular planes through a point in a soil
mass on which the shearing stress is..?;ero .
intermediate principal plane-.,.th~:~pliine
normal to the direction of the..'lnteril!ediate
principal stress.
.,. ',~.
-,major princi~ahfi.l#~f;"'the plafl(:f.rio~mal
to the dire.ctiQIV;9f- -the major p-rh]~pal
stress.
.. minor pri"~ip~J eJ~!lfHhe plane norm,l!l
to .,.,tlle directiQrt.<ofi' the minor principal'-

stres.

pr,iiicipafsitess - see-:'su~ss.

p~(.ipal 'str~~. (strQ:j_~~,\.the stress (strain)

-np~~al t:?pne':pf thrt1,~,'tnutually perpendicuhlr.::planes Qll;(which the shear stresses
(strains) at a~'point in a body are zero.
(ISR,M)
froctof' compaction curve - see compaction
'curve.
Proctor penetration curve -see penetration
resistance curve.
Proctor penetration resistance -see pene.ra~
tion resistance.
profile-see soil prome.
progressive failure-failure in which the ulti~
mate shearing resistance is progressively
mobilized along t~e failure 'surface.
progressive failure - formation and development of localized fractures which, after
additional stress increase, eventually form
a continuous rupture surface and thus lead
to failure after steady deterioration of the
rock. (ISRM)
protective filter-see filter.
pumping of pavement (pumping)-see pavemenl pumping.
pure shear-a state of strain resulting from
that stress condition most easily described
by a Mohr circle centered at the origin.
(ISRM)

139

0653
quarry-an excavation in the surface pf the
earth from which stone is obtained for
crushed rock or building stone. (ISRM)
Quer-wave (love), W - dispersive surface
wave with one horizontal component, generally normal to the direction of propaga-

remolded soil-soil that has had its natural

structure modified by manipulation.
remolding index, I. (D)-the ratio of: (I)
the modulus of deformation of a soil in the
undisturbed state, to (2) the modulus of
deformation of the soil in the remolded

tion, which decreases in propagation velocity with increase in frequency.

quick condition (quicksand)-condition in

which water is flowing upwards with sufficient velocity to reduce significantly the
bearing capacity of the soil through a decrease in intergranuJar pressure.
quick test- see unconsolidated undrained test.
radius or influence of a well- distance from
the center of the well to the closest point at
which the piezometric surface is not lowered when pumping has produced the maxirnum steady rate of flow.
raise - upwardly constructed shaft; that is, an
opening, like a shaft, made in the roof of
one level to reach a level above. (ISRM)
range (of a deformation-measuring instrn..
ment)-the amount between the maximum
and minimum quantity an instruT?_ept,,-~~an
measure without resetting. In sci~,~;~-Jnstances provision can be made fo(.-inere--_
mental extension of th~_,range.
-:_:,_::-,;~.- - -,
Rayleigh wave, JIll _(LT"-:1)--dispersive -~_~,rface
wave in which _elemenf-ha~- retrogia(jing
elliptic orbit with one major verticaI/illii;l
one ~_ minor hor~zonta] cOIn_ponent both In
plane_--ofp[opag8;~ion-v~loRity:
>,
Vn

(IV,

wiOi 0:91O'-<,,'a;-< 0.995J~l5~~ II < 0.5

reDected (or ~fractedr-""a-ve-components of

wave incident upon second medium and
reflected into first medium (or refracted)
into second medium.
reflection and refraction loss-that part of
transmitted energy lost due to nonuniformity of mediums.
relative consistency, I" C, (D)-ratio of: (I)
the liquid limit minus the natural water
content, to (2) the plasticity index.
relative density, Dd In (D)-the ratio of: (1)
the difference between the void ratio of a
cohesion less soil in the loosest state and
any given void ratio, to (2) the difference
between the void ratios in the loosest and
in the densest states.
relative water content-see liquidity index.

state.
remolding sensitivity (sensitivity ratio), Sf
(D)-the ratio of: (1) the unconfined compressive strength of an undisturbed specimen of soil, to (2) the unconfined compressive strength of a specimen of the same soil
after remolding at unaltered water content.
residual soil- soil derived in place by weathering of the underlying material.
residual strain - the strain in a solid associated
with a state of residual stress. (ISRM)
residual stress-stress ren:ll,i~jng in a solid
under zero external stress::itfier some process that causes~J~l/" dhi'le_,nsions of the various part;s;~:~f the-soli~_:_to_ be incompatible
und.er~~~o-stress, for ~l<.tnple. (I) defor-rnatloif under the action_ of'external stress
\V_h~'n so~~ p~rts of the bodf~uffer perm an~iH:- ~tf~_i~~ror (2) heating {)r",'~ooling of a
bo~ijp---Which the thermal expansion coef_ 'fici~i!l'is not uniform throughout the body.
___ -_-(ISR:fil.'
- --re_~-~"lutio~;_---"(/of a deformationMmeaslIring iOM
:~tn.J:I1ent;r2.the ratio of the smallest divisit)9id increment of the indicating scale to
the sensitivity of the instrument. Interpolation within the increment may be possible,
but is not recommended in specifying resolution.
resonance - the reinforced vibration of a body
exposed to the vibration, at about the frequency, of another body.
resonant frequency-a frequency at which
resonance exists.
response-the motion (or other output) in a
device or system resu1ting from an excitation (stimulus) under specified conditions.
retardation-delay in deformation. (ISRM)
rise time (pulse rise time) - the interval of
time required for the leading edge of a
pulse to rise from some specified small
fraction to some specified larger fraction of
the maximum value.
rock-natural solid mineral matter occurring
in large masses or fragments.
rock - any naturally formed aggregate of mineral matter occurring in large masses or

140

0653
fragments. (ISRM)
sand-particles of rock that will pass the No.
rock anchor- a steel rod or cable installed in
4 (4.75-mm) sieve and be retained on the
a hole in rock; in principle the same as
No. 200 (75-l'm) U. S. standard sieve.
rock bolt, but generally used for rods longer sand boil-the ejection of sand and water
than about four metres. (ISRM)
resulting from piping.
rock bolt - a steel rod placed in a hole drilled saturated unit weight-see unit weight.
in rock used to tie the rock together. One saturation curve - see zero air voids curve.
end of the rod is firmly anchored in the
scattering loss- that part of transmitted enhole by means of a mechanical device or
ergy lost due to roughness of reflecting
grout, or both, and the threaded projecting
surface.
end is equipped with a nut and plate that
schistosity - the variety of foliation that occurs
bears against the rock surface. The rod can
in the coarser-grained metamoJphic rocks
be pretensioned. (ISRM)
and is generally the result of the parallel
rock burst - a sudden and violent expulsion
arrangement of platy and ellipsoidal minerai grains within the rock substance.
of rock from its surroundings that occurs
when a volume of rock is strained beyond
(ISRM)
the elastic limit and the accompanying fail- secant modulus-slope of the line_connecting
the origin and a giyen point on- the stressure is of such a nature that accumulated
energy is released instantaneously.
strain curve. (ISR.M).
rock burst - sudden explosive-like release of secondary ci!~sohllatlon (secondary compressi~n) (seco'ndary time efleet) - see consolienergy due to the failure of a brittle rock
dation.
of high strength. (ISRM)
:_s_econdaty- lining-the second-placed, or perrock flour - see silt.
marieh.t,--~tructifral..lining of a tunnel, which
rock mass - rock as it occurs -in situ, induding
may: -:be/ o{ cori'crete, steel, or masonry.
its structural discontinuities. (ISRM)
(ISRM)
rock mechanics - the _application C!f the
knowled-ge of the mechanical behavior of s_econdary state of stress - the resulting state
of stress in the rock around man-made
rock_ to engineering problern.s -dealing wit~
excavations or structures. (ISRM)
rock. Rock mechanic_s overlaps with strfle;..
seepage - the infiltration or percolation of watural. geology, geophysics, and s?il mechan.ter through rock or soil to or from the
ics.
surface. The term seepage is usually rerock mechanics - theoretical and applied scistricted to the very slow movement of
ence of the mechanical behaviour of rock.
ground water. (ISRM)
(ISRM)
roof - top of. excavation or underground seepage (percolation) - the slow movement of
gravitational water through the soil or rock.
opening, particularly applicable in bedded
rocks where the lOp surface of the opening seepage force - the frictional drag of water
flowing through voids or interstices in rock,
is flat rather than arched. (ISRM)
causing an increase in the intergranular
round - a set of holes drilled and charged in a
pressure, that is, the hydraulic force per
tunnel or quarry that are fired instantaunit volume of rock or soil which results
neously or with short-delay detonators.
from the flow of water and which acts in
(ISRM)
the direction of flow. (ISRM)
rupture - that stage in the development of a
fracture where instability occurs. It is not seepage force, J (F) - the force transmitted to
the soil or rock grains by seepage.
recommended that the term rupture be
used in rock mechanics as a synonym for seepage line - see line of seepage.
seepage velocity, Va, VI (LT-l)-the rate of
fracture. (ISRM)
discharge of seepage water through a po-rupture envelope. (rupture line)-see Mohr
rous medium per unit area of void space
envelope.
perpendicular to the direction of flow.
sagging - usually occurs in sedimentary rock
seismic support-mass (heavy) supported on
formmions as a separation and downward
springs (weak) so that mass remains almost
bending of sedimentary beds in the roof of
at rest when free end of springs is subjected
an undergruund opening. (ISRM)
>

141

D 653

to 5inusoidal motion at operating frequency.

seismic ,-elocity - the velocity of seismic waves
in ge . .,logical formations. (lSRM)
seismometer-instrument to pick up linear
tvertical, horizontal) or rotational displacement, velocity, or acceleration.
sensithity-the effect of remolding on the
consistency of a cohesive soil.
sensith-it,' (of an instrument) - the differential
quotient dQo/dQI' where Qo is the scale
reading and QI is the quantity to be measured.
sensilhit)' (of a transducer)-the differential
qu . ,tient
.
dQo/dQI' where Qo. is the output
and Ql is the input.
shaft - generally a vertical or near vertical
excavation driven downward from the surface as access to tunnels, chambers, or
other underground workings. (ISRM)
shaldng test - a test used to indicate the presence of significant amounts of rock flour,
silt. or very fine sand in a fine-grained soil.
It c. ,nsists
.
of shaking a pat of we!.~_-_soil,
ha\ ing a consistency of thick past.~:;iJh;Jhe
palm of the hand; observing the stiffa~e J?!
a gl . .,SSY or livery appea~ance; then-__sq~ee~",;
ing the pat; and oq~_er:vin_g_ jf a rapid}lppar><
ent drying and subsequent cracking at the
soil occurs.
---, sheadaiIure (foilure by ".plilre) - failUrelri
~'h_i~h _ lD_?vem~li! _;_,~\ls-~d__ -_by she_a,~ng
stresSes_ hi~l SOif-oT_ t~_ck mas~_is_{l~.~uffici~'nt
magnitude :t~_~destfoy -:Qr serioUsl~';-efidanger
a structure ~
gmeral shear failure_---failure in which the
ultimate strength of the soil or rock is
mc,-t'lilized along the entire potential surface
of s.liding before the structure supported by
the soil or rock is impaired by excessive
mcwement.
;llcal shear failure-failure in which the
ul:imate shearing strength of the soil or
rClo:k. is mobilized only locally along the
JX"':ential surface of sliding at the time the
structure supported by the soil or rock is
irr.paired by excessive movement.
shear forte - a force directed parallel to the
seriace element across which it acts.
(ISRM)
shur plane - a plane along which failure of
rr:.lterial occurs by shearing. (ISRM)
she.;" resistance - see internal friction.

shear strain-the change in shape, expressed

by the relative change of the right angles at
the corner of what was in the undeformed
state an infinitesimally small rectangle or
cube. (ISRM)
shear strength, s, T, (FL-2) - the maximum
resistance of a sailor rock to shearing
stresses. See peak shear strength.
shear stress-stress directed parallel to the
surface element across which it acts.
(ISRM)
shear stress (shearing stress) (tangential
stress) - see stress.'
shear wave (rotational, equivoluminal)wave in which medium changes shape without change of volume (shear-plane wave in
isotropic medium is traIlsxer,se wave).
shrinkage index, SI (D)Athe"numerical difference between:--_th'e _'plastic and shrinkage
limits. _____ '
shrink,~gt"mil, SL. w,(D).-the maximum
X~I_~,tt:;:r;:-content at which a-t_eduction in water
~qnYent wi!trot cause a decrease in volume
'oHhe soil;mass.
shriill;llilefllti';, R (D)-the ratio of: (I) a
, giv~I:f--v~lume change. expressed as a perceofage', of the dry volume. to (2) the
corresp~_hp.ing change in water content
A-bove -the': shrinkage limit. expressed as a
::~~reenhlge of the weight of the oven-dried

s6iL
shock pulse - a substantial disturbance characterized by a rise of acceleration from a
constant value and decay of acceleration to
the constant value in a short period of
time.
shock wave - a wave of finite amplitude characterized by a shock front. a surface across
which pressure. density. and internal energy rise almost discontinuously, and which
travels with a speed greater than the normal
speed of sound. (ISRM)
shotcrete - mortar or concrete conveyed
through a hose and pneumatically projected
at high velocity onto a surface. Can be
applied by a "wet" or "dry" mix method.
(ISRM)
silt (inorganic silt) (rock Dour) - material
passing the No. 200 (75-/Lm) U.S. standard
sieve that is nooplastic or very slightly plastic and that exhibits little or no strength
when air-dried.
silt size - that portion of the soil finer than

142

~~I~

D 653

0.02 mm and coarser than 0.002 mm (0.05

to engineering problems dealing with soil
as an engineering material.
mm and 0.005 mm in some cases).
simple shear-shear strain in which displace- soil physits-the organized body of knowlments all lie in one direction and are proedge concerned with the physical characterportional to the normal distances of the
isties of soil and with the methods employed
displaced points from a given reference
in their determinations.
plane. The dilatation is zero. (ISRM)
soil profile (profile) -vertical section of a soil.
single-grained structure - see soil structure.
showing the nature and sequence of the
size effect- influence of specimen size on its
various layers, as developed by deposition
strength or other mechanical parameters.
or weathering, or both.
(ISRM)
soil stabilization - chemical or mechanical
treatment designed to increase or maintain
skin friction, f (FL-2)-the frictional resistance developed between soil and an elethe stability of a mass of soil or otherwise
to improve its engineering proper_ties.
ment of structure.
slabbing - the loosening and breaking away soil structure - the arrangemenfa~a state of
of relatively large flat pieces of rock from
aggregation of soil pa~ti_~Jriil' a soil mass.
the excavated surface, either immediately
flocculent structiife',;;;,'-an arrangement
composed,_g:f.'~ti~ of soil partiCles instead
after or some time after excavation. Often
_-_>,-'_
occurring as tensile breaks which can be
of in~~i~j(J_~~rsdi'j particles.
, recognized by the subconchoidal surfaces
hortf!xc,omb stru,c;.ture -an arraifg~ment of
left on remaining rock surface. (ISRM)
soil pat!i~)eshl\~iljl! a comparati.vely.loose,
slaking - the process of breaking up or slouglJ~->;
stable -slrl;i~t:~~-- t'esembling a ho-neYcomb.
ing when an indurated soil is immersed}tI_- ~
single~gi'aine'd structure - an arrangement
_<!~J~posedj){individual soil particles; charwater.
sliding-relative displacem!nt:_-O~}WO bOd(~_S>
at~_~i,~,tic stru~_t!lre of coarse-grained soils.
along a surface. witboi!f~-loss--'of contaCt~:'- soir-S_U$pe~sion-i'"ighly diffused mixture of
between the bodies. (ISRM)
. soil"aridwllter.'
slope-the excavated rock surface_ that is in,.-_ ,soil'-rextuie-':-':'see gradation.
elined to the! _verticaLpr_ h.orizQntal. or both-, _;-- spacing - the distance between adjacent blasta. il1.anoPene!)t. (ISllMt
I, holes in a direction parallel to the face.
slowlest - see c.....S11lldated'lirainedi.st.;,
(ISRM)
smooth.(.wall) blasling;-a Il)~*odofaecurate .pamng-(l) longitudinal splitting in uniaxial
perimeter blastinlnhat leavest.ge remaining
compression, or (2) breaking-off of platerock-----.. practically _-_undamaged. Narrowly
like pieces from a free rock surface. (ISRM)
spacedandUglttly charged blastholes,
specific gravity:
sometfme-s_Allteinating with empty dummy
specific gravity a/solids, G, G'J S8 (D)holes, IQcated -along the breakline and fired
ratio of: (l) the weight in air of a given
volume of solids at a stated temperature to
simultaneously as the last round of the
excavation. (ISRM)
(2) the weight in air. of an equal volume of
soil (earth)-sediments or other unconsolidistilled water at a stated temperature.
apparent specific gravity, G a, Sa (D)dated accumulations of solid particles produced by the physical and chemical disinteratio of: (l) the weight in air of a given
volume of the impermeable portion of a
gration of rocks, and which mayor may
not contain organic matter.
permeable material (that is, the solid matter
soil binder-see binder.
including its impermeable pores or voids)
at a stated temperature to (2) the weight in
soil-forming factors-factors, such as parent
material, climate, vegetation, topography,
air of an equal volume of distilled water at
a stated temperature.
organisms, and time involved in the transformation of an original geologic deposit
bulk specific gravity (specific mass gravinto a soil profile.
ity), G m, Sm (D)-ratio of: (I) the weight
soil horizon - see horizon.
in air of a given volume of a permeable
soil mechanics - the application of the laws
material (including both permeable and impermeable voids normal t~ the material) at
and principles of mechanics and hydraulics

143

4~1~
a stated temperature to (2) the weight in
air of an equal volume" of distilled water at
a stated temperature.
specific surface (L -I)-the surface area per
unit of volume of soil partic1es.
spherical wave - wave in which wave fronts
are concentric spheres.
spring characteristics, c (FL -1) - ratio of increase in load to increase in deflection:
c ~ lie
where:
C = compliance.
stability - the condition of a structure or a
mass of material when it is able to support
the applied stress for a long time without
suffering any significant deformation or
m,ovement that is not reversed by the
release of stress. (ISRM)
stability factor (stability number), N, (D) - a
pure number used in the analysis of the
stability of a soil embankment, defined by
the following equation:
N, = HcY,,/c

D 653

masses, a period of no relative displacement

between the two masses, a sudden slip, etc.
The oscillations may be regular as in a
direct shear test, or irregular as in a triaxial
test.
sticky limit, Til' (D)-the lowest water content
at which a soil will stick to a metal blade
drawn across the surface of the soil mass.
stiffness-the ratio of change of force (or
torque) to the corresponding change in
translational (or rotational) deflection of
an elastic element.
stiffness-force - displacement ratio. (ISRM)
stone - crushed or naturally angular particles
of rock that wil1 pass a 3-in. (75-mm) sieve
and be retained on a No.4 (4.75-mm)
U. S. standard sieve.
,train, < (D)-the changein,.IW'glh per unit
of length in a given directi6jf~~~":'
,train (linear or norDlal),i (D)-the change
in length pe~ unif-"of,"Jcngth in a given

directi,H9;-'~(:> :::,~

",-i,:-;,";;;"

strai:~",:~Uipj;oid-the repre~~~ation of the

st!,a-i~}n the",~gt;m of an ellipS,()id into which

where:
a -spb:~{~"o,9,r,tffl!l.xadius defor!Jl~,-,'a,nd whose
He
critical height of the sloped ba'l_~~-:-~~,
axe-s~~1tF-,,;:;,the( pri .... cipal axes'_--of strain.
y,
effective unit of weight of th~t~"oi1F
(JSR"NI~E:
and
-~, '~~"~:-~.~ain (si~_s,) rate - rate of change of strain
c
cohesion of thesoil,.I;'{tress)~~ilj.time. (ISRM)
NOTE- Taylor's '~st~bm~i;j~ber" is thtii~,~
strall('J:'fSOr~l~on (strain sensitivity) R,1 (D)ciprocal of Terzaghi's'''stability"factbr.''
- -thih-smalle'st subdivision of the indicating
stabilizatien_,-see ~~~~:_,~~ab~~~,~b":
scaJe" of a deformation-measuring device
standard t(J'?'f~flion:"s~,~ijll'1!ttion test,'{:
divided by the product of the sensitivity of
:s!a6dard pen,~~t~t,~9n r~~JSipitce-4,s~_~~~I~_~eir8the device and the gage length. The defor,Uon resistant"t_,,; - ,~,~:",,;, ',_
-- --: --mation resolution. Rd. divided by the gage
Standing wave"~/~:,J~ave Pt~-~lJced by simultalength.
neo~s trans"1issJon in 'opposite directions
strain (stress) tensor - the second order tensor
of -tw.o simi~ar' _Waves resulting in fixed
whose diagonal elements consist of the norpolrits'of zeto,'iltnplitudes called nodes.
mal strain (stress) components with respect
steady~.;.state Ylb'ration _ vibration in a system
to a given set. of coordinate axes and whose
where: the velocity of each particle is a
off-diagonal elements consist of the correcontinuing periodic quantity.
sponding shear strain (stress) components.
stemming-(1) the material (chippings, or
(ISRM)
sand and clay) used to fill a blasthole after streamline flow -see laminar flow.
the explosive charge has been inserted. Its strength - maximum stress which a material
can resist without failing for any given type
purpose is to prevent the rapid escape of
of loading. (ISRM)
the explosion gases. (2) Ihe act of pushing
and tamping the material in the hole.
stress,u.p, f(FL-2)-the force per unit area
(ISRM)
acting within the soil mass.
effective stress (effective pressure) (interstick-slip - rapid fluctuations in shear force as
one rock mass slides past another, characgranular pressure), cT. f (FL-2)-the average normal force per unit area transmitted
terized by a sudden slip between the rock

144

D 653

from grain to grain of a soil mass. It is the

stress that is effective in mobilizing internal
friction.
neutral stress (pore pressure) (pore water
pressure). u, Uw (FL -2)-stress transmitted
through the pore water (water -filting the
voids of the soil).
normal stress, U', p (FL-2)-the stress
component normal to a given plane.
principal stress, 0" 1> 0"2, 0" 3 (FL -2)_
stresses acting normal to three mutually
perpendicular planes intersecting at a point
in a body, on which the shearing stress is
zero.
major principal stress, 0" I (FL-2) - the
largest (with regard to sign) principal
stress.
minor principal stress, O"a (FL- 2 )-the
smallest (with regard to sign) principal
stress.
intermediate principal stress, 0"2
(FL-2) - the principal stress whose value
is neither the largest nor the smallest
(with regard to sign) of the three.
.
shear stress (shearing stress) (tangentialstress), T, s (FL -2) - the stre-s-s-componerit
tangential to a given plari-e.

IOtal stress, Cf, f(FL-')-thetol111 force

per unit area acting within ama$s'of soil.
It is the sum of the neutral and effective
st.resses.
____ _,____
__,--_~
stresS --~ellipsoid - the tepnise-ritation of- -the
state of stress in the:_ form of _,an ellipsoid
whose_ semi-axes are: proportional to the
magnitudes of the principal stresses and lie
in the principal directions. The coordinates
of a point P on this ellipse are proportional
to the magnitudes of the respective components of the stress across the plane normal
to the direction 0 p, where 0 is the center
of the ellipsoid. (ISRM)
stress (strain) field - the ensemble of stress
(strain) states defined at all points of an
elastic solid. (ISRM)
stress relaxation - stress release due to creep.
(ISRM)
strike - the direction or azimuth of a horizon~
tal line in the plane of an inclined stratum,
joint. fault. cleavage plane. or other planar
feature within a rock mass. (ISRM)
structure - one of the larger features of a rock
mass, like bedding, foliation. jointing.
cleavage. or brecciation; also the sum total

of such features as contrasted with texture.

Also, in a broader sense, it refers to the
structural features of an area such as anticlines or synclines. (ISRM)
structure - see son structure.
subbase - a layer used in a pavement system
between the subgrade and base coarse, or
between the subgrade and portland cement
concrete pavement.
subgrade - the soil prepared and compacted
to support a structure or a pavement system.
subgrade surface - the surface of the earth or
rock prepared to s,:!pport a struc~ure or a
"
pavement system.
submerged unit weight - see unit weig'ht.
subsidence-the downward- displacement of
the overburden;~t<lckor soil, or both) lying
above an: _~,unde,liground excavation Of adjoining a surface excavation. Also"tbe sinking of apart of the earth's crust. (lSRM)
subsoil-{q) soil below a subgrade of'f;.n,
(b) that part of a soil profile occurring
below the "A";,horizon.
slipport-:;:- stru'ctti'i"e or structural feature built
into _ai~;.ul1dergro:und opening for maintaining i!S'Slabllity.(ISRM)
surface force - any force that acts across an
,internal or external surface element in a
material body. not necessarily in a direction
lying in the surface. (ISRM)
surface wave - a wave confined to a thin layer
at the surface of a body. (ISRM)
talus-rock fragments mixed with soil at the
foot of a natural slope from which they
have been separated.
tangential stress - see stress.
tangent modulus-slope of the tangent to the
stress-strain curve at' a given stress value
(generally taken at a stress equal to half
the compressive strength). (ISRM)
tensile strength (unconfined or uniaxial tensile
strength), T. (FL-')-the load per unit area
at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen
will fail in a simple tension (pull) test.
tensile stress- normal stress tending to
lengthen the body in the direction in which
it acts. (ISRM)
texture - the arrangement in space of. tne
components of a rock body "and of the
boundaries between these components.
(ISRM)

145

0653
between rings, is subjected to an axial load
theoretical time curve - see consolidation time
and to shear in torsion. In-place torsion
curve.
shea,r tests may be pcrfonned by pressing a
'hermal spaDing - the breaking of rock under
dentated solid circular or annular plate
stresses induced by extremely high temperagainst the soil and measuring its resistance
ature gradients. H.igh-velocity jet flames
. to rotation under a given axial load .
are used for drilling blast holes _with this
. total stress - see' stress.
.
effect. (ISRM)
toughness index, /1'. Tw :""-th-e ratio of: (l) the
thermo-osmos~s--:-the process by _which water.
plasticity index, to(2) the flow index.
is caused to flow in small openings of a soil
mass due to differences in teI.T1perature traction, SI> 52. S3 (FL-2)-applied stress.
transronned flow net - a flow net whose
within the mass.
boundaries have been properly modified
thickness-the perpendicular distance be(transformed) so that a net consisting of
tween bounding surfaces such as bedding
curvilinear squares can' be constructed'to
or foliation planes of a rock. (ISRM)
represent flow conditions in an anisotropic
thixotropy - the property of a material that
porous medium.
enables it to stiffen in a_ relatively short
time on standing, but upon agitation or transported soil- soil transport~d from the
place of its origin by whid, water'~:or ice.
manipulation to change to a. very soft consistency or to a fluid of high viscosity, the transverse wave, V, (LT-J).,:.;...wave in which
direction of _di~pl~ce~ent .of element of
process being completely reversible.
medium i~_ pa~~lrel to wave front. The prop.
throw - the projection of broken rock during
agation vel~~ity. VI' is calculated as follows:
blasting. (ISRM)
thrust - force appJie<;l to a drill in the direction
v, ~VG/p ~.ViiJi;~ V(E/p)[i/2(l +v))
of penetration. (ISRM)
tight - rock remaining within the minim~m. of a bl.ast,.;
where:
excavation lines after completion
ing record. (ISRM)
G ,- shear modulus,
till- see glacial till.
p
mas_s:"density.
time curve -see consolidation time (urve.
v:;:;: Poisson-'-s ratio, and
time factor, Ttl, T (D)_-dimensionless factoT_; ,
g-: :; -Young"1:s modulus.
utilized in the theory qf consolid_8tion, COO_R :--fransverse'. wave (shear wave)-a wave in
taining the physical con~tants, of a: soil strawhich the displacement at each point of the
medium is parallel to the wave front.
turn influencing its time~ra~e of ,_~onso)jda~
lion. expressed as follows;.
.
(ISRM)
trench - usually 'a long. narrow, neaf vertical
T = k(J + e)tl(tit;yw H2)-=:_(CI , t)fHZ
sided cut in rock or soil such as is made for
where;
utility lines. (ISRM)
k
coefficient of permeability (LT-I).
triaxial compression-compression caused by
e :::e void ratio (dimensionless).
the application of normal stresses in three
t
elapsed time that the stratum' has
perpendicular directions. (ISRM)
been consolidated (1").
triaxial shear test (triaxial compression test)ai'
coeffici~nt of compressibility (L2 F-I).
a test in which a cylindrical specimen of
'Yw
unit weight of water (FL -3).
soil or rock encased in art impervious memH
t~ickness of stratum drained on one
brane is subjected to a confining pressure
side only. If stratum is drained on
and then loaded axially to failure.
both sides, its thickness equals 2H
triaxial state of stress-state of stress in which
(L).
none of the three principal stresses is zero.
c,. = coefficient of consolidation (L'T-')
(ISRM)
topsoil-surface soil. usually cont~ining or- tunnel-a man-made underground passage
ganic matter.
constructed without removing the overlying
rock or soil. Generally nearly horizontal as
torsional shear test - a shear test in which a
opposed to a shaft, which is nearly vertical.
relatively thin test specimen of solid circular
or annular cross-s~ction. usually confined
(ISRM)

146

0653

turbulent flow - that type of flow in which

of soil or rock mass; the saturated unit
any water particle may move in any direcweight minus the unit weight of water.
tion with respect to any other particle. and
unit weight of water, 'Yw (FV')-the
in which the head loss is approximately
weight per unit volume of water; nominally
proportional to the second power of the
equal to 62.4 Ib/ft' or I glcm'.
velocity.
wet unit weight (mass unit weight), 1m.
ultimate bearing capacity, qe, quit (FL -2) - the
'Yw.. (FL-3)-the weight (solids plus water)
per unit of total volume of soil or rock
average load per unit of area required to
produce failure by rupture of a supporting
mass. irrespective of the degree of saturation.
soil or rock mass.
unconfined compress~'ve strength - see ~om..
zero air voids unit weight, Yz, Y, (FL -3)_
pressive strength.
the weight of solids per unit volume of a
saturated soil or rock mass.
unconsolidated-undrained test (quick test)-a
_ __,
soil test in which the water content of the
unloading modulus - slope of thej'all'g"nt to
test specimen remains practically unthe unloading stress-strai_n-'curve at a given
stress value. (ISRl\!I,1 .'
changed during the application of the ('on-'
fining pressure and the additionaJ axial (or uplift-the upward:-~"-ter pressure:on-a struc,
ture.
- -- -,~'
sharing) force.
underconsolidated soil deposit- a deposit that
Unit
Symbol
FL.:.t
,
unit sym!lriI.
~;,:. u
is not fuUy consolidated under the existing
total synibOl
U
For Fl>-J'.'
overburden pressure.
undisturbed sample - a soil sample that has' uplitl-.the hydrostatic force of water exerted
been obtained by methods in which every
or(-:()r--underne_~,U) a structure. tending to
cause a dispblc~~ment of the structure.
precaution has been taken,t.~:~-tfiiiiimjze disturbance to the sample.- __ >:-:-<-~ - -:- __::,_
.Z.(ISRM) ...",,'"
uniaxial (unconfined) - -<t~mpressio"_ ~~om '!I~e"-;$_hear>\.~l-im in-place shear test in
-\vblch a rdd with thin radial vanes at the
pression c~psed_l>y the:3.pHcation;o_t-nor:-e1;1d is forced into the soil and the resistance
mal stress ill a siogle direc!ion.<t~B,)
uniaxiat -state . of skess - state--.of stres,S _ ,_-.:ill
ird rotation of the rod is determined.
which'two of the three prjrtclpal stresSe~" varved clay-alternating thin layers of sj]t (or
fine sand) and Clay formed by variations in
are zero. (IRSM)
'.'
.;,
sedimentation during the various seasons
unit weighl,y (FL -')'-'w~ight pe,,' unit vol,,oJ
of the year. often exhibiting contrasting
urne.
dry unit weight. (unit dry weight),
'Y,
colors when partially dried.
(FL -3) - the weight of soil or rock solids vibration - an oscillation wherein the quantity
is a parameter that defines the motion of a
per unit of total volume of soil or rock
mechanical system (see oscillation).
mass.
effeclive unit weighl. 'Y, (FL -') -that unit virgin compression curve - see compression
curve.
weight of a soil or rock which. when multi..
plied by the height of the overlying column viscoelasticity - property of materials that
strain under stress partly elastically and
of soil or rock. yields the effective pressure
partly viscously, that is, whose strain is
due to the weight of the overburden.
partly dependent on time and magnitude of
maximum unit weight, 'Ymax (FL -3)-the
stress. (ISRM)
dry unit weight defined by the peak of a
compaction curve.
viscous damping - the dissipation of energy
that occurs when a particle in a vibrating
saturated unit weight, 'YG' 'Ysat (FL -3)_
system is resisted by a force that has a
the wet unit weight of a soil mass when
saturated.
magnitude proportional to the magnitude
of the velocity of the particle and direction
submerged unit weight (buoyant unit
opposite to the direction of the particle.
weight). Ym. 'Y~ Ysuh (FL-IJ)-the weight of
the solids in air minus the weight of water viscous flow-see laminar now.
void - space in a soil or rock mass not occudisplaced by the solids per unit of volume

y.,.

147

D 653

whicha propagated disturbance first occurs.

pied by solid mineral matter. This space
wave front - (J) a continuous surface over
may be occupied by air. water. or other
gaseous or liquid material.
.
which the phase of a wave that progresses
in three dimensions is constant, or (2) a
void ratio, e (D)- the ratio of: (J) the volume
continuous line along which the phase of a
of void space, to (2) the volume of solid
surface wave-is constant. (ISRM)
particles in a given soH mass.
wave length - normal distance between two
critical void ratio, ec: (D)-the void ratio
wave fronts with periodic characteristics in
corresponding to the critical density.
which amplitudes have phase difference of
volumetric shrinkage (volumetric change), V~
one complete cycle.
(D)-the decrease in volume. expressed as
weathering - the process of disintegration and
a percentage of the soil mass when dried.
decomposition as a consequence of expoof a soil mass when the water content is
sure to the atmosphere, to chemical action.
reduced from a given percentage to the
and to the action of frost, water, and heat.
shrinkage limit.
(ISRM)
..,
wall friction, f' (FL -2) - frictional resistance
mobilized between a wall and the soil or wet unit weight- see unit welght.
yielding arch-type ohupport of arch shape,
rock in contact with the wal1.
the jdints 01 which deform plastically bewater contenl - see moisture content.
yond a:,.:ertain criticalload'-.Jhat is. continue
waterholding capacity (D) - the smallest
to~"def'O.rrri without increasing, their resistvalue to which the water content of a soil
alIce. (ISRM)
.
or rock can be reduced by gravity drainage.
water-plasticity ratio (relative water content) yield.$tr~s "..thelltress beyondwftich the induced.:' deformation is not fu-Uy annulled
(liquidity index) - see liquidity index. .
after complete destressing. (ISRM)
water table - see free water elevation.
wnvc-- disturbance propagated in medium",iri . ~ro air voids curve (saturation curve) - the
curye showi~g the zero air voids unit weight
such a manner that at, any'po.int in med~tim
as 0funcfiorl of water content.
the amplitude is a furiction',of-- time, while
at any instant the 'displacement at point 'is ~.eih ;tiip voids density (zero air voids unit
weight) - see unit weight.
function of position of point ..
wave froilt'...... moving' surlace',in a medium,',at.

APPENDIX
Xl. ISRM SYMBOLS RELATING TO SOIL AND ROCK MECHANICS

NOTB- These symbols may not correlate with the symbols appearing in the text.
X1.1 Space
fl,,.,
I
b
h
r

A
V

,.,v
g

X1.3 Statics and Dynamics

solid angle
length
width
hei~ht or depth
radIUS
area
volume
time
velocity
angular velocity
gravitational acceleration

m
p

Gm
G,
G.
F

T
W
y
Yd

~r

XI.2 Periodic And Related Phenomena

T

f,.,
A

y,
T
I
W
W

periodic time
frequency
angular frequency
wave length

148

mass
density (mass density)
mass specific gravity
specific gravity of solids
specific gravity of water
force
tangential force
weight
unit weight
dry unit weight
unit weight of water
buoyant unit weight
unit of solids
torque
moment of inertia
work
energy

D 653
X1.4 Applied Mechanics
void ratio
e
porosity
n
water content
w
degree of saturation
S,
pressure
p
pore water pressure
u
normal stress
stress components in rectangular c(}ordinates
principal stresses
0",. 0"2. O"a
applied stresses (and reactions)
5,.5 2,5 3
horizontal stress
<T,
vertical stress
<T,.
shear stress
T
shear stress components in rectanTru' Tu~' Tu:
gular coordinates
strain
strain components in rectangular c(}ordinates
shear strain components in rectan'Y... u' 'Yu~' 'Yzx
gular coordinates
volume strain
e
Young's
modulus; modulus of elasE
ticity
E

= ulE

<P
h

j
k
~

~"
tret
t rel

T,
q

FS
T
{3

temRCrature
_~!ficlent of volume expartsion

XI.6 Electridty"

cohesion

.,'

!_ _

-eietfi~;:chirent

L-':

self.:iy:d~ctance

~ f{

= TI'Y

an$le of friction between solid bod,es

angle of shear resistance (angle of
internal friction)
hydraulic head
hydraulic gradient
seepage force per unit volume or
seepage pressure per unit length
c?effi~ient of permeability
VISCOSity
plasticity (viscosity of Bingham
body)
retardation time
relaxation time
surface tension
quantity rate. of flow; rate of discharge
quantity of flow
safety factor

XI.S Heat

'-:a(; ,

principal strains
shear modulus; modulus of rigidity
G

<P.

et~_t,!Wdiarge
cap'a~tl!nce
rcsisl~!tce,_

:~~'_resistiv~w(

RJ,lFERENCES
(1) Terzaghi~ _-TheQretic_ot.. Soil ~~chari;is, .JQhn
Wiley&Sons, Inc,. New Yor~,N, Y. (1943). ,.
(2) Terzaghi and Peck, -Soil Mechanics in Engi"'_-.;:.
neefitlg.::~Praclice, Jobn_:~WileY--:.i~~i:So"ns, Inc .
Newy"rk, N. Y. (1948)..
(3) Taylot_i':_l);,-_W., Fundat?'!_e~uals of SpirMechan~
ics, John-Vliley & Sgns,-Jnc., New York, N.
Y. (1948).
,', ,"
(4) Krynine, D. P._. SOi(Mechanics. 2nd Edition,
McGraw-HilL Book Co., Inc., New York,
N. Y. (1947).
(5) Plummer and Dore, Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Pitman Publishing Corp., New York,
N. Y. (1940).
(6) Tolman, C. F., Ground Water, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., New York, N. Y. (1937).
(7) Stewart Sharpe, C. F., Land Slides and Related Phenomena, Columbia University Press,
New York, N. Y. (1938).
(8) "Letter Symbols and Glossary for Hr.draulics
with Special Reference to Irngation, ' Special
Committee on Irrigation Hydraulics, Manual
of Engineering Practice, Am. Soc. Civil
Engrs., No. 11 (1935).
(9) "Soil Mechanics Nomenclature," Committee
of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division on Glossary of Terms and Definitions
and on Soil Classification, Manual of Ellgi~
lIeering Practice, Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., No.
22 (1941).
(10) "Pile Foundations and Pile Structures," Joint
Committee on Bearing Value of Pile Foundations of the Waterways Division, Construction

149

- Division, and Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Manual of Engineering Practice, Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., No. 27 (1956).
(11) Webster's New International Dictionary of
the English Language, unabridged, 2nd Edition, G. and C. Merriam Co., Springfield,
Mass. (1941).
(12) Baver, L. D., Soil Physics, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y. (1940).
(13) Longwell, Knopf and FJint, "Physical Geology," Textbook o/Geology, Part I, 2nd Edition, John WiJey & Sons, Inc., New York,
N. Y. (1939).
(14) Runner, D. G., Geology'for Civil Engineers,
Gillette Publishing Co., Chicago, Ill. (1939).
(15) Leggett, R. F., Geology and Engineering,
McGraw-Hili Book Co., Inc., New York,
N. Y. (1939).
(16) Holmes. A., The NomellclaiUre of Petrology,
Thomas Murby and Co., London, England
(1920).
(17) Meinzer, O. E., "Outline of Ground Water
Hydrology with Definitions," U. S. Geologi~
cal Survey Water Supply Paper 494 (1923).
(18) "Reports of the Committee on Sedimentation
of the Division of Geology and Geography of
the National Research Council," Washington,
D. C. (1930-1938).
.
(19) Twenhofel, W. H., A Treatise on Sedimenla~
tion, 2nd Edition, Williams & Wilkins Co.,
Baltimore, Md. (1932).
(20) Hogentogler, C. A., Engineering Properties
of Soils, McGraw-Hili Book Co., Inc., New

~B1~

0 653

York, N. Y. (937).
Harper and Bros" New York, N. Y. (1951).
(21) "Procedures (aTTesting Soi1s," Nomenclature
(35) Ries and Watson, Engineering Geology, John
and Definitions, Standard Methods, SugWiley & Sons,lnc., New York. N. y, (1936).
gested Methods, Am. Soc, Testing Mats.,
(36) Ross and Hendricks, Minerals of the MontPhiladelphia, Pa., September 1944.
morillonite Group, U. S, Geological Survey
(22) "Glossary of Terms and Definitions," PrelimProfessional Paper 205~B (1945).
inary Report of Subcommittee G-3 on No(37) Hartman, R. J., Colloid Chemistry, Houghton
menclature and Definitions of ASTM ComMifflin Co" New York, N. Y. (1947).
mittee 0-18 on Soils for Engineering PUT(38) "Frost Investigations," Corps of Engineers,
poses.
Frost Effects Laboratory. Boston, Mass"
(23) Sowers and Sowers, Introductory Soil MeJune 1951,
chanics and Foundations, The Macmillan Co.,
(39) "Standard Specifications for Highway Mate~
New York, N. Y. (1951).
rials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,"
(24) Lambe, T. William, Soil Testing for EngiParts I and n. adopted by the American
neers, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
Association of State Highway Officials
N. Y. (1951).
(1950).
(40) Coates, D. G., "Rock Mechanics Principles,"
(25) Capper and Cassie, The Mechanics of Engineering Soils, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
rev ed. Mines Br., Dept. Mines and Tech.
New York, N. Y. (1949).
Surv.,
Br. Mon. 874 (1970).
(26) Dunham, C. W" Foundations of Structures,
(41) Gary,
Jr,. and Wolf, C. L.,
(eds.),
American Ge(}McGraw-Hili Book Co., Inc., New York, N.
Y. (1950).
logical
(27) Casagrande, A' I "Notes on Soil Mechanics,"
(42)
Graduate School of Engineering, Harvard
University (1938).
(28) Tschebotarioff, G. P., Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures, McGraw-Hi1I
(43)
Book Co., Inc., New York, N. Y. (1951).
(29) Rice, C. M., "Dictionary of Geological
Terms," Edwarm. Bros., Inc., Ann Arbor,
(44) .
of
Mich. (1940).
(30) Creager, Justin and Hinds, Engineering for
Dams, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
N. Y. (1945)'.~i
(31) Krumbein and Sloss, Stratigraphy and ~~~(~\;~~ >(45)
mentation, W. H. Freeman and Co., ::$.~J'f:~::Francisco, Calif. (1951).
.,.;.-,:;,:;:,. ~;~F',:A John
(32) Pettijohn, F. J., Sedi.'l'Ie~JP'!.t;JJ,ocks. Har,~:r; '-'(46fJjME
(33)

~e~c~~~sP~~~~4~~~~~~\JJ~!~#::~ing prd4~\ ::-;}~]~~~.Wj.Jf.

Produc.!s)~y'niversity (j.n~ew
;,(1lt::litu~~.

esses and
MexIC9.:;:
al., A DzctJonary of
Press, .!\lbuquerqU~'f~' Mex ..q9;45),
~~!';-n:. ,:-.>-.. - Min1ifg, Mineral and Related Terms, U, S.
(34) qa~.eJs~.:.~,. M., --~-\fextp~o~~.~.'-'.t'!f Geolog'f{;~- -'
Bureau of Mines (1968).

150

ng"

8648

RULES AND REGULATIONS

tlrow"'.d with the same protection

r~(lulred for steam lines.
Safety chains, or
shall be provided for
c~lt~~~~n, to prevent the

t.

around in case the

CO'JP~fng

line controls shall COIi/stst

valves, one of
lever

Marine operations and equip-

M"t,,-ial handling operations.

fitting the definition

handling" shall be
conformance with a~~~t:~
of Part 1918, ..
,\e'&>l.n Regulations for'LOnl!l,'r/,olrchapter. The term

a suItable means of
alt"jnst falling from the
First-aid and

Provisions for
medical assistance
acco\,clanlce with Subpart
(1)

~::~~~~~~~

means
the
moving,
materials,
elco~r"~;~~4-'~
into, in. on, or
fixed

of the
water. If

e~~~~':,~~:;y~:rj.~~~~aVailable
furnish

driver

.j

(b)

tn;at,ll1e Is working

Jloau.

driving
pllcable
(c)

Pile

neers and
nals only
men.
(2) All emlpft>yees ,u;;,~~~~kePt clear
when piling
19
Into the
leads.
(3) When
excavated pit,

be sloped to
sheet-plied

"~~~~lr.~:~~

When <
"blown out", enlrltpy,~e;
well beyond the
rlals_ (5) When itt.":Is~,"'~;:;~~~~
(4)

\the tops of

rl

operations
where the c~~~g~tp~~~~~~:e:,
ed at

"Jacob's ladder"-A
of rope or chain with we,od",n
rungs.

(6)

"Rail",

for the
means
;"
as a guard ata the outer edge
ship's deck.
Subpat1 P-Excavations, Trenching,
and Shoring
1.~:~'~~~'

1926.604

(a)

1926.650 General protection requirements.

1926.651 Specific excavation requirements.
1926.652 General trenching requirements.
1926.653 Definitions applicable to this subpart.

J926.650 General
menta.

,
overhead covering
r...,nml. structure shall be of
'A.-inch steel plate or
wire mesh with openiing"
",.".l.P' than 1 inch, or eqlulvale,nt.
in the rear
ca.rJI h~;:~~,::~
s
. shall
be c01lerc,d
ODV

than Y.~inch woven wire

openings no greater than 1
Specific requirements.

:4rv;,dl

over

CO.fnhlB unless there Is a saf'eep"'iS.\Ire.

necessary to stand at
or inboard edge of the ~~;~~:?r
less than 24 inches of i,
coaming, or other D~~r~~t~:~~
all employees shall rn;

proteetion

require-

(a)
WB.!kways,
runways,
and
sidewalks shall be kept clear of excavated material or other obstructions
and no sidewalks shall be undermined
unless shored to carry a minimum live
load of one hundred and twenty-five
(125) pounds per square foot.
. (b) If planks are used for raised
walkways, runways, or sidewalks, they
shall be laid parallel to the length of
the walk and fastened together
against displacement.
(c) Planks shall be uniform in thickness and all exposed ends shall be provided with beveled cleats to prevent
tripping.

fDEaAlIEGIml, VOL 44, NO_ 29-f1IDAY, FEI.IU,UY 9, 1979

8649

RULES AND REGULATIONS

(d) Raised walkways, runways, and

sidewalks shan be provided with plank
steps on strong stringers. Ramps, used
in lieu of steps, shall be provided with
cleats to insure a safe walking surface.
(e) All employees shall be protected
with personal protective equipment
for the protection of the bead. eyes,
respiratory organs, hands. feet, and
other parts of the body as set forth in
Subpart E of this part.
(1) Employees exposed to vehicular
traffic shall be provided with and shall
be instructed to wear Wanling vests
marked with or made of reflectorized
or high visibility material.
(g) Ernploy~es subjected to hazard
ous dusts, gases, fumes, mists, or at
mospheres deficient in oxygen, shall
be protected with approved respira
tory protection as set forth in Subpart
D of this part.
(h) No person shall be permitted
under loads handled by power shovels.
derricks. or hoists. To avoid any spill~
age employees shall be required to
stand a way from any vehicle being
loaded.
(0 Daily inspections of excavations
shall be made by a competent person.
If evidence of possible cave-ins or
slides is apparent. all work In the excavation shall cease until the necessary
precautions have been taken to safe~
guard the employees.
w

(e) The determination of the angle

of repose and design of the-supporting

(m) Special precations shall be taken

in sloping or shoring the sides of cy

system shall be based on careful evalu~

atioD of pertinent factors such as:
Depth or cut: possible variation in
water content of the material while
the excavation is open; anticipated
changes in materials from exposure to
air, sun, water, or freezing; loading 1mposed by structures; equipment, overlying material. or stored material: and
vibration from equipment, blasting,
traffic, or other sources.
(f) Supporting systems; i.e., piling,

vations adjacent to a previously t

filled excavation or a fill, particul.
when the separation is less than the
depth of the excavation. Particular attentlon also shall be paid to joints and
seams of material comprising a face
and the slope of such seams and
jolhts. .
~(n) Except in hard rock. excavations
below the level of the base of footing
of any foundation or retaining wall
shall not be permitted, unless the wall

cribbing. shoring, etc.. shall be designed by a qualified person and meet

accepted engineering requirements.
When tie rods are used to restrain the
top of sheeting or other retaining systellfS, the rods shall be securely anchared well back of the angle of
repose. When tight sheeting or sheet
piling is used. full loading due to
ground water table shall be assumed,

is underpinned and all other precautio05 taken to insure the stability of

unless prevented by weep holes or

drains or other means. Additional
stringers, ties. and bracing shall be
provide(i to allow for any nece&'JarYJ,
temporary removal of individUai,'$ljp2
p o r t s . , ..i>rjir., ,
(g) All slopes shall b~_-,:t:S~~va.ted to
at least the angle of repp~:except_ _fQr
areas where solid rock
fOXi;-jitie
drilling or p:r,~~~_tting. ~"~~_~r':'/!fr:-,,_~?5~~>
(h) The HJ':10~Ief;-'l'epose S~'J~e flattened when-'(a,-ti~~:-!~~vation -'I\~_~-:water
1926.651 Specific excavation requireconditions. sl:i:t~ in&t.i~!a_ls, lOQ~~_::_:boulments.
~fJJ'si-: and ~,whe:r~--;:_~_~osioil(~~_~eep
(a) Prior to opening an excavationr' 'frost-;action, aJl~.sli~e;p~_~es_ appear.
effort shall be made to determllie
(i)el} In exl!!!Jr"tiohSc~C!l employwhether underground installations; ees mIW be reQ.'\l~c:t~to enter, excavati.e .. sewer, telephone,_w.a~. fuel, etec... ed-or-other mate6al shall be effectlve
tric lines, etc., w~})~ _ _ell~1W~I:ed,
~--lf--sto:re9 and retained at least 2 feet or
if so, where su_c:l:(J,uidergi"o'U;li~tJ?sta.r;;-_; -nlore--~r~~Jhe'~dge of the excavation.
lations are loca~-t:li_ When the\~_~~va..;~:~ _'. (2) AS-tUi~it1temative to the clearance
tion approaches th~estimated lclciil.tion '~'Ptescribed in subparagraph (1) of this
of such an installatio~, the exacf;lOca.- ~----piiragraph, the employer may use ef~
tion shall be detel"iilined and when it fecttve barriers or other effective reis Wlcovered, proper SUpports -shan be taming devices in lieu thereof in order
provided for the exlstirigillstallMion. to prevent excavated or other materiUtility companies shiJI.be contacted als from falling into the excavation.
and advised of propos<>4work prior to
(j) Sides, slopes, and faces of all exthe start of actual excavation.
cavations shall meet accepted engi(b) Trees, boulders, and other sur- neering requirements by scaling"
face encumbrances, located so as to benching, barricading, rock bolting,
create a hazard to employees involved wire meshing, or other equally effecin excavation work or in the vicinity tive means. Special attention shall be
thereof at any time during operations. given to slopes which may be adverseshall be removed or made safe before ly affected by weather or moisture
excavating is begun..
content.
(k) Support systems shall be planned
(c) The walls and faces of all excavations in which employees are exposed and designed by a qualified person
to danger from moving ground shall when excavaUon is in excess of 20 feet
be guarded by a shoring system, slop- in depth. adjacent to structures or iming of the ground, or some other provements, or subject to vibration or
equivalent means.
ground water.
(d) Excavations shall be inspected by
()) Materials used for sheeting, sheet
a competent person after every rain- piling, cribbing, bracing. shoring, and
storm or other hazard-increasing o(}o underpinning shall be in good servicecurrence, and the protection against able condition, and timbers shall be
slides and cave~ins shall be increased if sound. free from large or loose knots,
necessary.
and of proper dimensions.

lUl-ows

ap.4

. .

the adjacent walls for the protection

of employees involved in excavation
work or in the vicinity thereof.
(0) If the stability of adjoining buildings or walls is endangered by excava-

tions. shoring, bracing, or underpinning shall. be provided as necessary to

insure their safety. Such shoring,

bracing, </Ir underpinning shiill be in-

spected.Y:dail.--"-y or more often, as condi.t i9XUiwtdTant. by a competent person

\:=~~ protection effectively main

(ptOlversion ditches, dikes, or other
suita1\lIr;means shall be used to prevent surttice water from entering an
excavatlp~>and to provide adequate
drainage\:~f{~he area adjacent to the
excavatiotL--Water shall not be allowed
to accumulate in an excavation.
(q) If it is necessary to place or o'
ate power shovels, derriCks, tn
materials, or other heavy objects 0_
level above and near an excavation,
the side of the excavation shall be
sheet-piled. shored, and braced as nec~
essary to resist the extra pressure due
to such superimposed loads.
(r) Blasting and the use of explosives
shall be performed in accordance with
Subpart U of this part.
(s) When mobile equipment is uti.
lized or allowed adjacent to excavations, substantial stop logs or barri~
cades shall be Installed. If possible, the
grade shonld be away from the excavation.
(t) Adequate barrier physical protection shall be provided at all remotely
located exca.vations. All wells. pits,
shafts. etc .. shall be barricaded or cov~
ered. Upon completion of exploration
and similar operations, temporary
wells, pits. shafts. etc., shall be back
filled.
(u) If possible,' dust conditions shall
be kept to a minimum by the use of
water, salt. calcium chloride. 011. or
other means.
(v) In locations where oxygen deficiency or gaseous conditions are possi~
ble. air in the excavation shall be
tested. Controls, as set forth in Sub
parts D and E of this part, shall be es
tabltshed to assure acceptable atmo<::pheric conditions. When flamm'
gases are present. adequate ventila

fEDERAL IlEGlml., VOL 44, NO. 29-fRIDAY, fEBRUARY 9, 1979.

RULES AND REGULAliONS

8650

shall be provided or sources of ignition

shall be eliminated. Attended emergency rescue equipment, such as
breathing apparatus. a safety harness
and line, basket stretcher, etc., shall
be readily available where adverse atmospheric conditions may exist or develop in an excavation.
(w) Where employees or equipment
are required or permitted to cross over
excavations, walkways or bridges with
standard guardraUs shall be provided.
(x) Where ramps are used for employees or equipment; they shall be
designed and constructed by qualified
persons in accordance with accepted
engineering requirements.
(y) All ladders used on excavation
operations shall be in accordance with
the requirements of Subpart L of this

part.
1926.652 Specific
menta.

trenching

require-

foot horizontal. When the outside diameter of a pipe is greater than 6 feet,
a bench of 4-foot minimum shall be
provided at the toe of the sloped por-

tion.

(d) Materials used for sheeting and

sheet plling, bracing, shoring, and un

derpinning, shall be in good serviceable condition, and timbers used shall

be sound and free from large or loose

knots, and shall be designed- and installed so as to be effective to the
bottom of the excavation.
(e) Additional precautions by way of
shoring and bracing shall be taken to
prevent sUdes or cave-ins when excavations or trenches are made in locations
adjacent to backfilled excavations, or
where excavations are subjected to vibrations froIll... railroad or highway
traffic, the operation of ID8.chinery. or
any other source.
(f)

Employees entering bell-bottom

pier holes shall be protected by tjle in(a) Banks more than 6 feet high stallation of a removable.tl',J>I!";;~1ng
shall be shored, laid back to a stable of sufficient strength to_r~~$llf!ting
slope, or some other equivalent means of the surrounding e~{fi~~~' tempoof protection shall be provided where rary protectlon!lh~,,~'jj~ded for
employees may be exposed to moving the full depth_9{!:$ll,at part of,~h pier
ground or cave-ins. Refer to Table P-l hole whle4i11";\j"Ove the bell. Wlifellne,
as a guide in sloping of banks. Trench- sultab)~j~",mstant rescue a.ria'~ure
es less than 5 feet in depth shall also ly fas*eji to __Q,,$houlder hl!t1iess,
be effectively protected when examh shall be:-)i.i9!:Ilb~t~/!I!b employee'iln1:e r nation of the ground Indicates haza.:P,'i-'-in g the sll)lt:~i~-lifeline shall be'lnaus ground movement may be exp~~r;~~~viduallY'-I~ed and separate from
ed.
W!~~~t;;~~:;}ine us~~,t\O remove materials ex(b) Sides of trenChe~,;"~,,,JJnstable -~:QtL cay_~~_?_ frolf{.~J1~ bell footing.
soft material, 6 feet'_l:Ir'IllQ!"in dePtl1{
(gltl,l:-MirliIf{lipt requirements for
shall be shllred,' .hee~ brace4);trea~",tjn>betlt!g' shall be in accord
sloped, or othe~e supported llir,}~~WfWll1'able P-2.
meanBof sufficleutstrengtjl:to proteCl"":';C,,:(2) Brillil!s and diagonal shores in a
the-'~II1l>loyees wCirklngWlt4ln them,--wood shoring system shall no.t be sub
_,~T..bles'J171, p-2,(foJlo~ para' ,teeted to e~mpressive stress ill excess
ll""i>h (g)' ilt:t~ seCtl9P.).':--,,_ - - of values gIVen by the following for)(e) Sides Of,t:ioenehe!l:1n hard br'"tOm- mula:
S_1300-20L/D
-;':P!lCt soU, W~ljldlnf!;_\!)!llbankments,
-$1Il\ll be shorecl,_ot otheliWfse supported
Maximum ratio L/D=50
when the tre)l(lhiis more than 5 feet in
deptl\an<lU"et or more in length. In Where:
lieu-O{.s~I.I;)rI1\lI, the sides of the trench
L=Length. unsupported. in inches.
D=Least side of the timber in inches.
aboveJlie-S-foot level may be sloped to
S=Allowable stress in pounds per square
precliide collapse, but shall not be
inch of cross-section.
steeper than a l-foot rise to each 1'2-

FEDElAlREGlmR, VOL 44, NO. 29-RIDAY, FEUUAltY 9, \979

RULES AND REGULA nONS

8651

[4510-2&-C)

'I'

Table

APPROXIMATE ANGLE OF REPOSE

FOR SLOPING OF SIDES OF EXCAVATIONS

..

SlIlo, l _ .,
flGA .. No....,..... Soil.

110'1"''' ' .....1.,

eN

w.....

'P'K."

.,. ... Pr~.ot

R......'..
Tre m....

.--

Hot a_

E
u

1,..1...

-'"
: ...

. ...

...

i0<

"l!
0

.1

u ..
Do<

"'.

'"

;:l;

I::!.

.c

'1-,

E.

:i"
0

ED

~'t
D.

.0

....,

'DD

....

..

.~

...-- - ...i.It-
"'-..

..
.....
::-

.....
..
..
..

.0

0"'"

.f

~'"

.~

.:!!!!.c.

OrI,I...,

..

.....
l~

'I ....

.!

I!o

0'"
0

....
...

D
ul;;

.:;

G,_ LI..

',>-i'-:-:-;f:c::~_,: _

Jt

1926.652(g)(2)

p~~i_~';'

nX~~-~OlUN~~;~i.mi~~~~''''1II
Bke and ap&C1na: of mem ben

.......

Depth of

Klnd or 00D4ItI0I1 Of eu1.b -

....

-...
...........
,......

I to 10 lhrd, oompaet _~~~".;-...~~~~.-. f, Or 2

Likely to craek __ ._.~-,:. __

1:'

:_.JJ:" 01'2.'

80ft, IUld7. ortl.lled _.1:4G1'2xl

nydroltatle pressure _ 'x4 at 2.'

10&0 111 Bard._ __ ....1 J[ 4 or 2x'

Ll.tely to cnc1l: . _ __ __ . lx4or 2xl

Soft,

II

...

aand.,.. or ftlfd.. ____ _.1 J[ 4 Of' 2x I

Bydrostatlc prtt&SlU1I __ _. _

to 20 An kinds 01' oondIUOnt __ ___

0 ... 210 AD klnih or oondJUODl ____ ._

6""""

U""P"
~um-

c_

e_

-line

...

........

CI_

CIooo
JheeUnc

IhMUna:

C....

........ ........

Inch.

I .....

_Ina

"...

... ~-..... -...... -.. --.

.,

...
h'
h'

B.I0

e_

... . ......
h.

dlmension

.~-

Ur..!:'

Width

Mlnlrntlm Mulmwn

,.......

Foot

Cru!Jllbncea l

.. s 12

.. I

......
...
...
......

4:1 12

12

Marlmam spednc

ot trencb

....

g to 12

.
,......

12 to 11

""

...... ,.............. ... U.

...... .., ..1 ...
,..
...... ......

.
..

Inehfll

ex ....

I.'

II: 10

I Treneb Jtoeb may be oaed In Ueo 01. 01' In oombtnaUcm wtth. m. btaca
Bhortna Ia not required In lOUd rock, bard ab~, or 1uInI . . ._
Wbere oM1rabJe. lteellheet pllJ.n&: &I:'Id braelna oteqtHJ Itrenth tnay be mbsUtut.ed for wood.

FEDHAL IEGISTH, VOL 44, NO. 29-flIDAY, FE.IUAIlY 9, 1979

JlortwntsJ.

"oot

F...

Bxl0

B xl0

xlO

lOs 10

lOs 12

,61.8

V .......

~OJ:

10

8652

RULES AND REGULATIONS

[451G-26-MJ
'~) When employees are required to
;-t trenches 4 feet deep or more, an
quate means of exit. such as a
ladder or steps, shall be provided and

located so as to require no more than

25 feet of lateral travel.
(1)

Bracing or shoring of trenches

shall he carried along with the excava-

tion.
(j)

Cross braces or trench jacks shall

be placed in true horizontal position,

be spaced vertically. and be secured to

prevent sliding, falling, or kickouts.

(k) Portable trench boxes or sliding
trench shields may be used for the
protection of personnel in lieu of a

shoring system or sloping. Where such

trench boxes or shields are used, they
shall be designed, constructed, and
maintained in a manner which will

provide protection equal to or greater

than the sheeting or shoring required
for the

tren~h.

Backilliing and removal of trench

supports shall progress together from
the bottom of the trench. Jacks or
braces shall be released slowly and, in
unstable soil, ropes shall be used to
pull out the jacks or braces from
above after_ employees have cleared
the trench.
(I)

1926.653 Definitions applicable to this

subpart.
) "Accepted engineering require.:is (or practices)"-Tbose require-

lUents or practices which are compatible with standards required by a regiS~

tered arehitect, a registered profes:'
sional engineer, or other duly licensed
or recognized authority~
__
(b) "Angle of repose.......Th"great$t
angle above the horizontal plane~lit
which a material wilflie without sll\l'~.
tng.
~
(c) "Bank"-A massot soli risillir
above a digging level.
(d) "Belled excavation...:..-A-pat't_-QI-s.
shaft or foottng excavatlQD.;USUally
near the bottom and bell-shaPed; i.e.,
an enlargement of the cross section
above.
(e) "Braces (trench)"-The horizontal members of the shoring system
whose ends bear agatnst the uprights
or stringers.
(0 "Excavation"-Any manmade
cavity or depression in the earth's surface. including its sides, walLs, or faces,
formed by earth removal and productng unsupported earth conditions by
reasons of the excavation. If installed
forms or similar structures reduce the
depth-to-width relationship, an excavation may become a trenCh.
(g) "Faces"-8ee paragraph (k) of
this section.
'h) "Hard compact soiI'-All earth
~rials not classified as running or
able.

(0 "Kickouts"-Accidental release or
(Employees shall not be permitte
failure of a shore or brace.
to
rk above vertically protruding r .
(j) "Sheet pile"-A pile, or sheeting,
ing steel unless it has been pr
that may fonn one of a continuous into eliminate the hazard of
terlocking line, or a row of timber,
ent.
concrete, or steel piles, driven in close
(3)
uying: Reinforcing steel
contact to provide a tight wall to resist walls, iers, columns, and similar v rtithe lateral pressure of water. adjacent cal st ctures shall be guyed and up.earth, or other materiaIs..
ported
prevent collapse.
(k) "Sides", "Walls". or uFa6es"_
(4) W e mesh rolls: Wire mes rolls
The vertical or inclined earth surfaces shall be ecured at each end to p event
formed as a result of excavation work. dangero recoiling action.
(i) "Slope"-The angle with the
(c) B
concrete handling Bulk
horizontal at which a particular earth storage b
,containers. or sil s shall
material will stand indefinitely with- have coni
or tapered botto
with
out movement.
mechani
or pneumatic
ans of
(m) "Stringers' (wales)-The hori- starttng th flow of material.
zontal members of a shoring system
(d) Cone ete placement
whose sides bear against the uprights erete
mix 78.
Concrete
mixers
or earth.
equipped wit I-yard or lar er loading
(n) "Trench"-A narrow exCavation skips shall
equipped
th a memade below the surface of the ground. chanica] devi to clear the skip of maIn general. the depth is greater than terial.
the width. but the width of a trench ts
(2) Guanl,m Mixers
not greater than 15 feet.
paclty or !ll"~a r shall
(0) "Trench jack"-Screw or hydrauwith protective
ardra
lic type jacks used as cross bractng In a each side of the kip.
trench shoring system.
~
BUll /Wa . H dies on bull
(p) "Trench shield"-A shoring ~ floats, used whe e th
may contact
system composed of steel plates and~ - - energized -tHectri I c ductors, shall
bractng. welded or bolted t9i11!ther, be constructed of on nductive mate
which support the walls o('a-"-trench rial, or instilated th nonconductive
from the ground level to tht(~,kencp.- --'sheath whose:-elec
and mechanibottom and whicilcan be movik!~,&JolIg'cal characteristiCS
vide tile equivaas work progress~_.-_~ -:" __
-;";(_ -,_ ,
lent protection---6f a handle construct(q) "Unstable -so,Ut'~~h mRt(u1al,
ed of nonconductive aterial.
other than runnlitk;~tha,l;~~use 9P1;s
(4)
Powered
ncrete
trowe"'.
natJ:l!e-_or the influ~llce -ol_)'~lated'-C~~ Powered and ro t g~type concrete
dltlODB,cannot bedependelfupon~~t.o' troweling machin t t are manually
remain In place without citA-asupport, guided shall be e uip ed with a con
,:-such as -_ -_would be -fUr:riished by a trol switch tha w
automatically
:system of shoring.
shut off the pow r whe ever the oper(r) 'c'Uprtghts"-The vertical mem- ator removes
is h ds from tile
bers or-a- shoring syStem.
equipment han es.
(s) "Wales"-.CSee paragraph (m) of
(5) Concrete
ggies. H
thb.---section.
gies shall n
extend beyond the
(t)"'Walls"-see ~paragraph (k) of wheels on elt r side of t e buggy. Inthis-section.
stallation of
uckle guar on buggy
Subpart Q-,-Concrete, Concrete
handles ts r
mmended.
Forms, and Shoring
(6) Pumpc te S]lstems.
similar sys ms ustng disc
shall be pr vided with pip
designed
r 100 percent
C9mpress
air hose in suc systems
shall be rovided with post ive failsafe Join: connectors to prey t sepa~
ration of ections when pressu ed.
(7) C
rete buckets. (i)
ncrete
buckets equipped with hydra Ic or
tically operated gates shall
have
sitive safety latches or . Oar
safety devices installed to preve t aggrega and loose material from
umula ing on the top and sides 0 the
bue t.
(ll Riding of concrete buckets for
any purpose shall be proillblted.
d
vib tor crews shall be kept out fr m
er concrete buckets suspend d
fr m cranes or cableways.
~
8) Wben discharging on a slope. t
eels of ready-mix trucks shall

,n

APPENDIX d j~/;,~k

ASTM D 15~'~Ct~1. ,,~li~dard

Me.t.hod fo:i,;"~en\\;mE,a ti~W,;"Tes t
AI}dS'pii'ti. J3arr~W Sa,il\p'l!.ing','of Soils"

\~\Y~I~-t;j!:~?'~-'''~-;-,~,,,-!-~

4~J~

Designation: D 1586 - 67 (Reapproved 1974)

Standard Method for

PENETRATION TEST AND SPLIT-BARREL

SAMPLING OF SOILS
This Stan~a.rd js issu~ under, the fixed designation D _1586; the number immediately following the designation indicates the
year of ongmal adophon or, In the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of
last rcapproval.

This ,method has bun approved for use by agencies of lhe Department of Defense and for 14/i1ff'ln. the DoD Index of

Specifications and Standards,

._~ _ ,o_~-"_-:_--;~_-,,

I. Scope
mm) (mini!Dum~'i~,,;i:4~)vent ports and shall
contain,4i:b'aIL check valvc;<1f sizes other than
1.1 This method describes a procedure for
th'\'~Mj;50:8.mml sampl~V~~e permitted, the
using a split-barrel sampler to obtain repre'fii;~liall be qnspicuousIYII,9~d on all pene
sentative samples of soil for identification
tr~\W~ r~r!\.:
ii"~
purposes and other laboratory tests, .a,nd to
2;~:#iNl'Weight AssemblY-The assembly
obtain a measure of the resistance ofthe-.sQiUo
shaljt!!l!~sist of a 140lb (63.5kg) weight, a
penetration of the sampler.
", ,driviri&',~~l!d, and a guide permitting a free fall
2. Apparatus ,<;,< ",> ,
'sllf}O in;;tti;Z6 mI. Special precautions shall be
2.1 Drjl/ing~~l!{pmiln/~AIt)'drilling4uip:"!I!~~'t to;~iis~re that the energy of the falling
ment shall be oI<:<:eJltable that';~"ovidenl,~~~"" Jwellifi('.is 'not reduced by friction between the
sonablydean h1'l~;befo~~,.in~rtion iir;t~e
drivt weight and the guides.
saPlplertl>~n~ure"lfiat\h.P!'!1l:tration tojtis
2.4 Accessory Equipment-Labels, data
___,,_perl'orniei:L~~6,\#_~distQf~d soil;~~a~:t!_*_tpat~--\vil1
sheets, sample jars, paraffin, and other neeessary supplies should accompany the sampling
permit the drivi!lg of th~,mpler til)bDtain the
_s.a.mpte and pe:n~t:ration-;_ ~~l;ord in accordance
equipment.
'with the proced,Ute descrilied in Section 3. To
avoiduwhip$'h~nder the blows of the hammer, 3. Procedure
it is reco!lin\'c,Med that the drill rod have a
3.1 Clear out the hole to sampling elevation
stif(riess__cqual to or greater than the A-rod. An.
using equipment that will ensure that the
'"An -rOO is a hollow driU rod or "steel" having
material to be sampled is not disturbed by the
an outside diameter of IIVs in. (41.2 mm) and
operation. In saturated sands and silts withdraw the drill bit"slowly to prevent loosening of
an inside diameter of 1111 in. (28.5 mm),
through which the rotary motion of drilling is
the soil around the hole. Maintain the water
transferred from the drilling motor to the
level in the hole at or above ground water level.
cutting bit. A stiffer drill rod is suggested for
3.2 In no case shall a bottomdischarge bit
holes deeper than 50 ft (15 mI. The hole shall
be permitted. (Sidedischarge bits are permissi.
ble.) The process of jetting through an open
be limited in diameter to between 2'" and.6 in.
(57.2 and 152 mm).'
tube sampler and then sampling when the
2.2 SplltBarrel Sampler-The sampler
shall be constructed with the ditnensions inI this method is under the jurisdiction or ASTM Committee 0-18 on Soil and Rock ror Engineering Purposes.
dicated in Fig. I. The drive shoe shall be of
Current edition approved Oct. 20, 1961. Originally issued
hardened steel and shall be replaced or reo
1958. Replaces D 1586:'- 64 T .
Hvorslev, M. J' Surface Exploration and Sampling of
paired when it becomes dented or distorted.
Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes, The Engmeering
The coupling head shall have four Y,in. (12.7
Foundation. 345 East 4?th St, New York, N. Y. 10011.

fi,'

283

01586

hermetically seal to prevent evaporation of the

desired depth is reached shall not be permitted.
soii moisture. Affix labels to the jar or make
Where casing is used, it may not be driven
notations on the covers (or both) bearing job
below sampling elevation. Record any loss of
designation,
boring number, sample number,
circulation or excess pressure in drilling nuid
depth penetration record, and length of recov~
during advancing of holes.
cry. Protect samples against extreme tempera~
3.3 With the sampler resting on the bottom
ture changes.
of the hole t drive the sampler with blows from
the 140-lb (63.5-kg) hammer falling 30 in.
4. Report
(0.76 m) until either 18 in. (0.45 m) have been
4.1 Data obtained in borings shall be repenetrated or 100 blows have been applied.
corded
in the' field and shall include the
3.4 Repeat this operation at intervals not
following:
longer than 5 ft (1.5 m) in homogeneous strata
4.1.1 Name and location of job,
and at every ch'ange of strata.
4.1.2 Date of boring-start, finish,
3.5 Record the number of blows required to
4.1.3 Boring number and c.oordinate, if
effect each 6 in. (0.15 m) of penetration or
available,
." .,:.::;?<.-~~.:;~~:.
fractions thereof. The first 6 in. (0.15 m) is
4.1.4 Surface elevation,ira\lailable,
considered to be a seating drive. The number of
4.1.5 SampI9,nufu!li.:.ndjlepth,
blows required for the second and third 6 in.
4.1.6 Mj't\1til.If"pf advancirlg,sampler, pene(0.15 m) of penetration added is temed the
tratiqIJ,~"ct;~~8very lengths~-~-:-'~;,,:,-;'
~ penetration resistance, N. If the sampler is
4;1:7.Type and.size of sampler,
driven less than 18 in. (0.45 m), the penetration
4.1.8J)escril'l'liin,of soil,
,
resistance is that for the last I ft (0.30 m) of
layer,
4.1.9;Whicllitissof
penetration (if less than I ft (0.30 Il!)~;is
4.1.l0~pth to water surface; to loss of
penetrated, the logs shall state the numbCt'---:of:
!>!a~.er; to"a~~sian head; time at which reading
blows and the fraction of I ft (0.30 m) jl!o"": .

trated).
.'<~}".<
3.6 Bring the sampler<til tile surface ailil
open. Describe carefully typical.amplescpf
soils recovered as to'_-'~-omposition~' structuf.e-./
consistcn~y.t-'_~OIor. and.'conditiofi}tbcn put irito
jarswithoutrarniiling. Sealthemwit~w~x or

-wa:~_~-:wade.-".:~,.~.,.:._:_;.

A.JJ'1 Ty,*j.nd make of machine,

'4'.r;f2.'..'Size of casing, depth of cased hole,
4.l.fJ'Number of blows per 6 in. (0.15 m),
4.1.14 Names of crewmen, and
4.1.15 Weather, remarks.

284

~~I~
OR"'N'

i'i L

'HDEl
Ii

0 1586

1---SPLIT BARREL

II

------I

SAMPLER. HEAD

SUITABLE
SEATING

.. VENTS

DlA (minI

~~I~_~t:-:rz"72:2j-=r.l

l '

""JRr7Lzz5~1~ ~~I.~1---,!-'7J~.Z"(.z,.,~~~~
3" (min.I

IS" ! min.)

. I
-----I

LSTEEL BALL f 0.0. PREFERABLY

COATEO WiTH A MATERiAL OF
SHOAf. HARDNESS OF 30 TO 40

1------------ 27" Imln.) (OPEN) ------------1

NOTE I-Split barrel may be ]lh in. inside diameter provided it contains'a liner of l6-gagc ""alPhickncss.
NOTE 2-Corc retainers in the driving shoe 10 prevent loss of sample arc permitted.
- '
NOTE 3-The corners at A may be slightly rounded.
Melric Equiulenls

Y.6{16gage)
!1

~*

I IS

mm

mm

in.

1.5
12.7
19.0

;L?: ~-;, ~!:~

'>f

50,8

76.2
-.: -'52.4

/1:'<
-'21-

457.2
685.8

-----J~.I

The American
Testing aiid.;'oteriab ~iijii;~~;-;i;i;;~'~~;;f~~cling the validity of any patent rights asserted
in connectil!!t with any 1te"(!nMt{an.~dJ,.-.,hjs standa-'!Ji', .Users 0/ this standard are expressly advised that determination
oft~e<~~I!t!!~_lf-:a.ny sucli~I.!-"1 !'i8"H;.fu~d. the risk ik/iri[ringement a/such rights. is entirely their own responsibility.

socielJi;c

-~. _.. ~.T1tj{~t~~d~j.{lii:~bject iii_T1f(jion ~I ~hy_~:i'fM-;"by lhe responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five
- .-~s. and if not r~~~,f/.~, elthe~;-;~proved ortilitlr'drawn. Your comments are invited either for revision of Ihis standard or
/fJrjliJditional stand~ifI(-'lIId sHt!I4.!~;b.e addres.fed to ASTM Headquarters. Your comments will reeel ..e careful consideratioll
of -a .d't!eting of the t~ip({iJsible lec~lilcal committee, which you may attend. If you feel that your comments have not recej~ed
a Iti'l'-~,arlng you sliqtJ(d;make yoril ~iews known to the ASTM Committee on Standards. 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, Po.
J9iOJ.;:.',w/lich wiU.st:~.eJule a further hearing regarding your comments. Failing satisfaction there, you may appeal to the
A STM/l!~~.W- Dif-tCI'JrJ.

285

unified Soil
,.

1.

Test
of Soils
Reconunended
of Soils

AMERICAN NATIONAL ANSI/ASTM D 2487 - 69 (Reapproved 1975)

STANDARD

Standard Test Method for

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR ENGINEERING

PURPOSES
This Standard is issued under the filted desiJ!nation 02487: the number immediately following the designation indicates the
year of original adoption or, in the caSe of revision. the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of
last reappro ... al.

I. Scope

ance with ASTM Method D 1452, for Soil

Investigation and Sampling by Auger Borings,' ASTM Method D 1586, for Penetration
Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils,'
ASTM Method D 1587, for Thin-Walled Tube
Sampling of Soib. 2 or anothc:;r<_standard accepted procedure.
_ -:-~:l:_(!.~:;-:~
3.2 The sample shaU.,~,~refully identified
as to origin by _.,a ~t~il'--'-~~m;~er and' sample
number in_:f_~~:i:~ctron wif~~;_~~;job number, a

1.1 This method describes a system for

classifying mineral and organo-mineral soils
for engineering purposes based on laboratory
determination of particle-size characteristics,

liquid limit, and plasticity index, and shall be

used when preCise classification is required.

NOTE I-This method provide~ qualitative data

only. When qud-ntitative information is required for
detailed designs of important structures, this method
must be supplemented by laboratory tests or other
geolo~!~(!-~_~iJW\tin;t a pedoldgl9;~;:~orizon or a
quantitative data to determine performance characloca~(~ij-~d~scripti~,~ with respeQi)o a perma~
teristics of the soil under expected field conditions.
NOTE 2-This method may also be used as an aid
nent';~,!,_?~Um~,~~_~;-_~!,~~:. grid system ;-?f2 a station
in training personnel in the use of ASTM Req:)fIJ~
mended Practice 0 2488. for Description oCSi)H~-, numbM,'"~l1db:rriret with respectln' a stated
centerliite~ (Visual-Manual Procedure). J
-"-

2. Apparatus

3.3 The.:~li!11pleshould also be described in

~-; -

-"_ccordance----with Recommended Practice D

148&.:.

2.1 Apparatusfor Prepiitpllo",ofSampl'$

See ASTM Meth~_ ;-~.4il, -for~:pty Prepa~~~ _ <rN4t.E:~;~~A -soil "_ :llch is composed primarily of
tion of Soil Samples- '9f_ Partic1e.:Site A naly_$i_s----; . -!lndecayed~"or partially decayed organic matter and
and De. te. Jl1.)~ .atjon -,: o.I. .. Soi.l. -~C
.'-_o. '.-ti.-stants2 -b.'.r.-:' -c-has a fibrous texture. dark brown to black color, and
--_i organic odor should be designated as a highly
ASTM___ f\ift}t-~-Q-~<p 22l!;Jo~}V~~;_-~_r-"p~rati~~
organic soil. PT, and not subjected to the c1assifica~
of_:_Soil Sainpl~s';Jor P~rtlcle-Size~:';Aitalysis tion procedures described herearter.
"
a~d;-_])eterminatio_n-'{)f son ,e:()n&tants;"":"

.-r.

-,1

1..;7.Apparatus/ot,LiqlildJtimit Test-See
ASTMMethod D<tZ3, Test'for Liquid Limit
of Soils,"
2.3 -AppgralUS lor Plastic Limit Test-See
ASTMt.1ethod D 424, Test for Plastic Limit
and Plasticity Index of Soils.'
2.4 Apparatus for Particle Size AnalyslsSee ASTM Method D 422, for Particle-Size
Analysis of Soils,' ASTM Method D 1140,
Test for Amount of Materials in Soils Finer
than the No. 200 (75-ltm) Sieve,' and the
classification chart (Fig. 1).
3. Sampling

3.1 Sampling shall be conducted in accord-

4. Test Sample'
4.1 Test samples shall represent that portion
of the field sample finer than the 3-in. (75-mm)
sieve and shall be obtained as follows:

4,1.1 Air dry the field sample,

4.1.2 Weigh the field sample,
4.1.3 Separate the field sample into two
fractions on a 3-in. (75-mm) sieve, and
4.1.4 Weigh the fraction retained o'n the
3-in. (75-mm) sieve. Compute the percentage
I This method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Commiltee D-18 on Soil and Rock for Engineering Purposes.
Current edition approved Nov, 14. 1969. Originally
issued 1966. Replaces D 2487 - 66 T.
I Annual Book oj ASTM Standards. Part 19.

The American Society Jor Tesling and Materials ,akes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights aJserted
in connection with any item mentioned in Ihis standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the
validity of any such patent rights, and the risk of ItJjringement of such rights. is enlirely their own responsibility.

374

~~I~
of plus 3-in. (75-mm) material in the field
sample, and note this percentage as auxiliary
information.
4.1.5 Thoroughly mix the fraction passing

the 3-in. (75-mm) sieve and select test samples.

5. Preliminary Classification Procedure
5.1 Procedure for the determination of percentage finer than the No; 200 sieve.
5.1.1 From the material passing the 3-in.
(75-mm) sieve select" a test sample and determine the percentage of the test sample finerthan the No. 200 sieve in accordance with

Method D 1140.
. NOTE 4-Step 5,1.1 may be omitted ir the soil
can obviously be classified as fine.grained by visual
inspection (see 5.3).
5.2 Classify the soil as coarse-grained if
more than 50% of the test sample is retained on

0 2487
in which D lOt Du. and D80 are the partic1esize diameters corresponding respectively to
lOt 30, and 60% passing on the cumulative
particle-size distribution curve.
6.5.1 'Classify the sample as well-graded
gravel, OW, or well-graded sand, SW. if C u is
greater than 4 for gravel and 6 for sand, and C~
is between t and 3.
6.5.2 Classify the sample as poorly graded
gravel, OP, or poorly graded sand, SP, if either
the C u or the C~ criteria for well-graded soils
are not satisfied.
6.6 If more than 12% of the tes~_.!sample

passed the No. 200 (75-I'm) sie~'lisdeter-

mined in S.l.1 determint;~}~#:~t~q~~a limit and

the plasticity inde?",J~f a/"ortio_tl::;of the test
sample passin~J~~~:}I~"": 40 sieve i~_~:~c~ordance
with Meth~,~'A2~ and Method D"~2~.
6.6, 1 Cl~~,sIry the .,_s$l,mpie as s;11ji:';:B.,avel,

the No. 200 (75-I'm) sieve and follow SectionGM. or silfJ!i!~l1{/,rfflf,#II~ if the results'), the
'}'Wits tests slil1",JijilFthe fines are silty, that is,
5.3 Classify the soil as fine-grained if 50% 'the/plo!' of th"-"liquid limit versus plasticity

6.

or more of the test sample passes the No. 200

(75-I'm) sieve and follow Secli!>(7,

6. Procedure for classllt.illion ofCjlarseGrained Soils(More tl!;\ri?O% rctiliij~d on
No. 200 (7{)'ILIl1) sieve} ,'.. '.

6. I Select 't~st; ;~~PJes f;QijI','lhel1\ai';tfa;1

passingt,h~ 3-in. (75-min)sievd~t1the dete/In;"

~~:~,n a;NgI~::~~;i~~::~~a~~e{t~~~~~i~~;~
I\STM Mcthi>d D 421~oiMethod D 2217.

6.2 Determine the--_cumulative particle-size

distribution or--the--fraction coarser than the
No. 200 (75-l'm) sieve in accordance with

Method D 422.
6.3 Classify the sample as gravel, G, if 50%
or more of the coarse fraction (plus No. 200

inde~}1;lI,ls helo:w.~-J-he "A" line (see Plasticity

Chari;FJg. I) ortlf~;l\lasticity indo< is less than

'4i;;"c

,/,';6;J!l~Cla~$Ity the sample as clayey gravel.

GC-.'or clayey sand, SC, if the fines are clayey,
Jlj* is, the plot of liquid limit versus plasticity
index falls above the "A" line and the plasticity index is greater than 7.
6.6.3 If the fines are intermediate between

silt and clay, that is, the plot or liquid limit

versus plasticity index falls on or practically on
the "1\" line or falls above the "1\" line but the
plasticity index is in the range of 4 to 7, the soil
should be given a borderline classification,

such as GM-GC or SM-SC.

6.7 If 5 to 12% of the test sample passed the
No. 200 (75-I'm) sieve, the soil should be given
a borderline classification based on both its
gradation and limit test characteristics, (see

(75-l'm) sieve) is retained on the No. 4' (4.75mm) sieve.

6.6) such as GW-GC or SP-SM.

6.4 Classify the sample as sand, S. if more

than 50% of the coarse fraction (plus No. 200
(75-I'm) sieve) passes the No. 4 (4.65-mm)

NOTE 5-ln doubtrul cases, the rule is to ravor the

less plastic classification. Example: a gravel with
10% fines, a C u or 20. a C~ of 2.0, and a plasticity
index of 6 would be classified as GW-GM rather

sieve.

6.5 If less than 5% of the test sample passed

the No. 200 sieve as determined in 5.1.1,
compute the coefficient of uniformity. Cu. and
coefficient of curvature, C~ as given in Eq I
and 2.
Cz

C" ... Du/Dlo

(D,o)'/(D 1o x 0,,)

(I)
(2)

lhan GW-GC.
7. Procedure ror Classification or Fine..Grained

Solis (50% or more passing No. 200 (75I'm) sieve)

.
7.1 From the material passing the 3-in.
(75-mm) sieve, select a test sample for the
375

D 2487

determination of the liquid limit and plasticity

index in accordance with Method D 421 or
Method D 2217.
NOTE 6-1t Is recommended that the method for
wet preparation be used for soils containins organic
matter or irreversible mineral colloids.

7.2 Determine the liquid limit and the plas.

ticity index of a portion of the. test sample
passing the No. 40 (425l'm) sieve in accord.
ance with Method D 423, and Method D 424.
7.3 Classify the soil as inorganic clay, C, if
the plot of liquid limit versus plasticity index
falls above the "A" line and the plasticity
index is greater than 7.
7.3.1 Classify the soil as inorganic clay of
low 10 medium plaslicily, ct, if the liquid Iimil
is less Ihan 50' and Ihe pial of liquid Iimil versus
plasticily index falls above 'Ihe "A "line and
the plasticity index is greater than 7. See area
idenlified as CL on Ihe Plasticity Chari, Fig. I.
7.3.2 Classify Ihe. soil as inorganic clay of
high plaslicily, CH, if Ihe liquid limit is grealer
Ihan 50 and Ihe plot of liquid Iimil
plasticily index falls above the" A
area idenlified as CH on Ihe Plaslicily
Fig. I.
. NOTE 7-ln cases \\'.~.~~f~~l\ll~l(tlimit
100 or the plasticity;:j_p~C:i~~eiceeas~~;Jhe

chart may be exp;f~;_ by maintaJ~bg

scales on both ax.es aiW_~_~~tendin&~Jfi~~~line

.i;~~~\iJt~~~!b~ s~&\t\Vilii~ii$({I,J(.. .. . .

't~~Cplal of Iiqli!~j.\imit'\:cif*,us plastiililY'lndex

ra'I~.h.elow Ihe:t~~r Iin~~~!l,if the plasticity

less thaW;_~_t--:unless_:4flI'S suspected that

org-~iii-~l_matter~:J*:-'p_tesent in sufficient amounts
to inn~~s~J:t,tcf$-9il' properties, then tentatively
c1assifl'Jlije;\~tiil:as organic sill or e/~y, O.
7.4.I"lfthe soil has a dark color and an
organic odor when moist and warm, a second
liquid limit tesl should be performed on a lest
Inde,x;.IS

sample which has been oyen.dried at 110 '" 5

deg C for 24 h.
7.4.2 Classify Ihe soil as organlcsill orelay,
0, if the liquid limit after oven drying is less
than three.fourths of Ihe liquid limit of Ihe
original sample determined before drying. (See
Procedure B of Melhod D 2217). .
7.4.3 Classify the soil as inorga~iesill of
low plasllclty, ML, or as .organic silt pr
slll.e/ay oflow plasllcily, OL, if the liquid limil
is less than 50 and Ihe pial of liquid limit versus
plasticity index falls below Ihe "A "Iine or the
plasticity index is less Ihan 4. See area ,identi.
roed as ML and OL on Ihe Plasticity Char~
Fig. I.
.,'
7.4.4 Classify the ~~H~~flli,.ganlc sill pf
medium 10 high plas(lcI!Jlf'f41H, or as organic
oIJ;;liltJlfltti,"lo high plaslicily,
clay or
OH, if
Iiliiif is nlofothan 50 and the
plol
versus lllllDcily index falls
See ardi!ll.~nlified a5M H
Chll'((.if;ig. I.
indlicate tlKiij'f~porderline
some fin,~-graind:r-soits should
dual symbols.
of liquid limit versus plason or practically on the U A"
"A" line where the plasticity
the range of 4 to 7, the soil should be
given af! appropriate borderline classification
such as CLML Or CHOH.
7.5.2 I f the plot of liquid limit versus plas.
ticity index falls on or practically on the line
liquid limit ~ 50, Ihe soil should be given an
appropriate borderline classification such as
CLCH or MLMH.
NOTE 8-ln doubtful cases, the rule for classifica~
tion is to favor the more plastic classification.
Example: 'a fine~grained soil with a liquid limit of 50
and a plasticity index of 22 would be 'classified as
CHMH rather than CLML.

This standard is subJect to rtvislon lit any time by tht lespons/ble ttchn/cill committee and musl be reviewed evtry fl~
years and if not revised. tither reapproved or withdrawn. Your comments are invited either for re'll/sion of this standard or
for additional standards and should bt addressed to ASTM Headquarters. YoW' comments will rectivt cart/ul considelOtlon
at a muting of the responSible technicil/ committtt, which you may Ilttend If you fetl that your commtnts ha'lle not received
afair hearing you should mob your views known to the ASTM CommJJtee on Standards, 19M Ract St., Philadelphia, Pa.
19103, which will schedule a further hearing regarding your comments. Falling slltlsjaclion there, you may appeal to tilt
ASTM Boord of Directors.

376

~~j)l

D 2487

TYPICAL
NAMES

GROUP
SYMBOLS

MAJOR OIVISIONS

We II-graded gravels and

>

>

0
0-

GW

gravel-sand mixtures,
little or no fines

.....

.- '"-'
"',.
.::t
d~

.- '" c u 0
,.-' g.!:z

'Poorl y graded gravels and

GP

'"

'"~ c0 c0

'"--' o' '" * ouu_ '"-'

'"
!l "'''''''
'" 0
c ~ii:
.. '"
'"
'" .
'"'"w, c
> '"'"
'"
0
"''"
0'"u '"'"
-'"

'" c ... _ :.........

'" ~-~-:i .

gravel-sand mixtures,
little or no fl nes
-.-,

0
0

(\I
OOC
1.1\

..
.

S 11 ty gravel s} grave 1_:.~~~~~

silt mixtures _---::~---:<~-/-;:

GM

C~

> f - '"

Clayey 9r~V"Il"i$,

GC

.'
..
We i J;';'.9r
aded. :.s"n~s

SW

".>

..

.,.

111

U~

o~

sP

~U""

~
~

"0

~,_

.'

j!

"

V>.

Q)

~.4,)

U:IIJ

..

...

.'

....

>
;;

..
0

.ML

Inorganic silts, 'very fine

sand$, rock flour' , si I ty or
(-1 ayey fine sands

CL

Inorgan I c c! ays of low: to

medium pl~sticjty, gravelJ y
clays1 sandy clays, s 11 ty
clays, lean clays

OL

Organic s j I ts and-organic
s 11 ty clays of low plasticity

HH

Inorganl c silts, mi caceous

or diatomaceous fine sands
or s i I ts, elastic s II t s

CH

Inorg'an I c days of h.i gh

plasticity, fat cI ays

OH

Organi c clays of medium

to high plasticity

PT

Peat, muck and other highly

organic 50115

'"

V>

-'

:5 e ''""
V>

u
0

z
0(
~

-!:;
'"

.-~
~
~

1.,

sand-s i I t mixtures

Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures

0
(;-I!

V>

si;

.~ ~VI

->.',;:>

'("

~,<

~~

;a:' .... : ;

d .-e
-'""
.... &

i --' .- '"
Q.

(i ~<~-

01(, .... -

~_Ut

'"'"
'"'"~
'",

...'" "g

..

an'd

"Poorly g-":aded sands and gravelly

-}S'einds, Ilt~l" or no fines

SIL.c I::~>ii'f~i;~ands

.'

V>

-,----c

9rav~Hy-,-!j~!\di'~ "
I ittle'.9('no fines

;:,,-:.;:;>-;'C,

~-$

~--3---:

::

gravel ~'S_~~r;I-

clay mht"tt#"_S'

c,

....

,,~

-' c

Highly Organic Soi 15

Based on the matenal passing the JMIn. (1S-mm) Sieve.

FIG. I Soil aassiOcation Chart.

377

02487

CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA

...

...

o.u

V)V)_.JJ

.,"'x"

c
"''''
c o.uc
~

"

.. _

u '"''"'
"

.~

.. L

4-

">:0 0

0-

'"''"''''

-0

00'- 0
N VI 0-

-0

> > '"c

-- > --c

- 00
OZN

....z

~-

..

Atterberg limits plot below "A" line

or plasticity index less than 4
Atterberg limits plot above 'W' line
and plasticity index greater than 7
Greater than 6

Between 1

0';
u 0.

~~

Not meeting both criteria for GW

/I)

Not meeting both

c ~'~
.soS-

O~
~>:~

oil,)

Visual-Manual Identification. See ASTM Designation 0 2488

FIG. I Continued.

378

Atterberg 1 imits plotting

in hatched area are
border! ine classifications
requir"lng use of
symbols

~~l~

Designation: 02488 - 69!Reapproved 1975)

American National Standard A37.174-1972

Approl/6d June 30. 1972
By American National Stsfldards Institute

Standard Recommended Practice for

DESCRIPTION OF SOILS! (VISUAL-MANUAL

PROCEDURE)
This Standard;s ;j\sued under the fixed designation D 24K!:!: the number immediately following the de~ignati(1n indicates the
}car of origin;.]\ adoption or. in the ca~e of rCl'is;on, the year of iust rcrision. A number in parenlhe~c~ indicates the year of
iast reappro\'al,

I. Scope

1.1 This recommended practice describes a

procedure for the identification and description
of soils for engineering purposes based on
visual examination and simple manual tests.
NOTE I-It does not conflict with other methods
of soil identification or classification and in fact the
user is encouraged to supplement the descriptions
recommended herein with geologic, pedolo$i~_~':ol'
local terms of description. On the other hand:~:\Nhen)
precise classification of soils for engineering:~pur
poses are required ASTM Method D 2487.-,-for
Classification of Soils for Engineering PurpoSes.-2
should be employed.

3.1.1 Small supply of water,,~nl!

3.1.2 Pocket knife or sm~II;$llil.1:Ula.
3.2 UseJul Auxiliary Equiptitent:
3.2.1 Small bottl.'ofdihile hydrochloric
acid,
_,-__ -,--'._,..
,
3.2.2Srii~lIlest tube and stj)p~er,
3.2,3'M unsell soil Color Chart or Rock
ColorC~~rt, " " , < , ' , . '
3.2AStn~llhll'ild lens, and
3.2.5 '~6c~et penetrometer or shear gauge.

'''.'Sampli~~}'

4"IAthe sa~~le shall be considered to be

1.2 This recommended practice: is to 'A;e ->represenfd;live orthe stratum from which it was
used not only for ide-ntificatio l1 .of:;s-oils in t~t;:: ;obtain~d-'by an appropriate accepted or standard procedure.
field_but als_O _i~_ Jhe office_ or hl the l_aborato~y
or_---_r',~erever- _~-()i,! _ :sam-ples-~_:--are in:~~_t~"?,., an,a-NOTE 3-Preferably the sampling procedure
should be identified as having been conducted in
descnbed.,;,>'
";/",,.
with ASTM Method D 1452, for Soil
1_-,l.I The pra~(t4~ has;~p~:~_ticular ~~Iue in accordance
Investigation and Sampling by Auger Borings,l
groupil1g similar:_ s~i-" samrl:le;s:so that .only a
ASTM Method 0 1586, for Penetration Test and
Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils,2 ASTM Method 0
minimum number-~~ laboratory tests need be
15S7 for Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils. ~ etc.
run for ppsitive -st!W classification.
4.2 The sample shall be carefully identified
NoTE 1-~;":fhe ability to identify soils correctly is
learned -h1ore readily under the guidance of ex~
as to origin.
perienced personnel. but it may also be acquired
systematically by comparing numerical laboratory
test results for typical soils of each type with their
visual and manual characteristics while pedorming
the identification procedures.

2. Definitions and Description of Terms

2.1 The definitions of the soil components,
boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand fines (silt and
clay), organic soil, and peat are in accordance
with ASTM Definitions D 653, Terms and
Symbols Relating to Soil and Rock
Mechanics. 2

NOTE 4-The sample identification may take the

form of a boring number and sample number in
conjunction with ajob number, a geologic stratum, a
pedologic horizon or a location desc~iption with
respect to a permanent monument, a grid system or
a station number and offset with respect to a stated
centerline.

5. General Procedure for Identification

5.1 On the basis of an examination of the
I Thb recommt:nded pntctict: is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee DIH on Soil and Rock for Engineering

Purpose~.

3. Equipment

3.1 Required Equipment:

Currt:nt edition approved Dec. 19. 1969. Originally

1966. Rcplace~ 0 2488 66 T.
t Annual Book of.ASTM Standards. Parl 19.

issu~d

330

&
...
2 I. . . . . .

------~. . . .
2. . . . .
s. . . . . . . . . . .

F'

t;i 2488
characteristics of the particles wh ich make up
have differently from typical inorganic soils
a soil sample it is possible to assign it to one of
;,tnd the presence of relatively small amounts of
organic matter should be noted wherever possi~
three primary groups. Although most soils
have components representu,tjo..1! of two or
ble. Any soil which has a dark brown. dark
more group!; it is usually possible to discern the
gray or black color probably contains some
finely divided organic material. The identifica~
most important component and assign the
tion as an organic soil can usually be com~
sample to that group. A most important
ploted by carefully noting the organic odor of
'distinction is made on the busis of size. lndivid~
fresh samples. If the sample Is dry it should be
ual particles visible to the naked eye make up
the coarse fraction and those two small to be
moistened and warmed in the hand which may
help to bring out the distinctive odor.
seen individually make up the fine frat::tion or
the fines. The organic component of soils may
5.1.4 Mixedgralned soils are those inor~
consist of undecayed_ or partially decayed
ganic or partly organic soil$ which contain
twigs. leaves. needll!s. stems. roots. etC. which
ml:!.terials representative of both the coarse and
impart a woody or tibrous tcxturIC to the sailor
fine soil fractions. A high percentage of natural
soils arc rnixed~graiJled. In many of these.
it may also be so finely divided that it can only
be identified by its dark brown. dark gray or
however.
~I';~~~.~.~;;~
extent
thatone
forfr.a~c;t:~lo~in~'.
p
black color and distinctive organic odor.
be identified
S.l.1 Coarse~gralned soils are those in
which more than half (by weight) of the of the other
As nejlrly as
particles are visible to the naked eye. In
l!'aking this estimate. particles coarser than 3
in. (76 mm) in diameter should be excluded.
However. where such very col,trse particles can
be observed in surface soils or in
'
-- "within a gi~V~~t~:~~;::~y,
identifying
the walls of test pits an estimate
Although qualitative
percentage of a large volume; of soil whichiii.f',
so.ne'wh,ut help[ul. positive
occupied by cobbles and
obtained by comparison
made. This
coior chart are even more
independently of
contains layers or patches
rial smaller than 3 '
this should be noted and all
5.1.
re 1,'{;;i'eplre"'"t,'thre colors should be described. If
possible. color should' be descrlbe.d [or moist
samples.
on

~1;;:~~:~::~::Z~~n;~ a

basis of the

signiticant
quantity
of
rganic
soils are
usually
their bright or light colors.
5.1.3 Organic soils are those which contain
significant quantities of organic matter. -Highly
organic soils can readily be recognized by the
presence of decayed roots. leaves. grasses and
other fibrous vegetable matter in various
stages of decuy. When moi~t. they have a dark
brown. very dark gray or black color and a soft
spongy feel. If the samples are fresh. a distinctive odor of rotting organic matter can usually
be noted. Many soils are only partly organic
and are io fact composed predominantly of
inorganic material. Such soils. however, be~

331

NOTE 5-Charts especially prepared for describ~

ing the colors of soil and rock ure available respec~
tively. Such churts give typicul descriptive numes for
the color chips and the correct M unsell color notil~
tion in terms of hue. value and chroma. Example:
Pink (Moderate orange pink). 5 YR 8/4.

5.3 Soils containing'a significant amount of

organic material usually have a distinctive
odor of decaying vegetation-. This is especially
apparent in fresh samples. but if the samples
are dried the odor may often be revived by
heating a moistened sample. If the soil is dark
colored. the odor should be described as organlc, earthy. or none.
5.4 Whenever intact samples are described
an estimate of the moisture condition should
be noted. Dry materials require the addition of

D 2488
considerable moisture to attain optimum. for
wooden stake more -than a few inches; howcompaction. Moist materials are near the
ever, such a stake can easily be driven into
optimum moisture content. Wet soils require
Joose material. Obviously, this simple method
cannot be used to determine the relative density
drying to altain optimum moisture content and
of cemented soils.
saturated (very wet) soils come from below the
water table.
5.7.1 The con.sistency of cohesive soils may
5.5 The structural characteristics of intact
be determined in place or on undisturbed
soil samples provide important clues to their
samples in accordance with the identification,
procedure given in Table I. The quantitative'
performance as foundation materials. Whenever such samples are available or when the
measure of the shear strength _is given as a
.soil profile may be inspected during sampling
basis for correlation with values optained from
from a pit, the structur'al characteristics should
pocket penetrometers or shear gauges, which
be described. Stratified f!laterials consist of
are often used to estimate consistency.
alternating layers oJ varying types (or color). If
5.8 It is often desirable to add an ,estimate
the layers are less than about 1 .. in. (6 mm.)
of the classification of the soil in accordance
thick, it may be described as laminalei (or
with the groups used for engineer,Hlgtc,lassificavarved, if mostly fine-grained). Fissured mation (Fig. I of Method I? 2481') The group
terials break along definite. planes of fracture
symbol ,should be 'pla-~~J_n-~t>~le;:~theses at the
with little resistance to fracturing. If the fracend of the de~~:r~pt;_~n 'in orde-r,.:t.Q}pdicate that
ture planes appear polished or glossy, they
the classJ_r~,~~\~-t1tas been estim~t.~~.
should be described as slickensJded. If. a cohe6. Pr~citl~~ for Coarse-Grained Scill.
sive soil can be easily broken in,o. small
>,,:_c<\ __'!-<:_',"-",'.l,;).'
___ c_ <;~"
angular lumps which resistfurther breakdo",n,
6.1 Select>.a'):epresentative sample-:ort!he soil
the struct.ure may be described as b1ocky;_~A': -material fh~~f(lflan 3 in. (75 mm) sieve, spread
lensed structure is indicated by the inclusion';'or-' {(o'ut for examInation and follow identification
small pockets of different ,)c;*,lure, such a~.: pro.cCdl,lres.
<"'~small lenses of sand s~aJl~rtd~1~'r()\l~ a mass,'
6.1 :.(W()r a-c'c_~l.ate identification, the miniof clay. The presence .."cof -spe.ciaJ-: ~tfucturat
!11,Ufi:i, at1i~~-nts or sample should be in accordcharacteristics such as:c.root holes,;_or,- porous ~--c-ance wjth~i.fhe following schedule:
openings__ ,~~ou_ld also be--_n_oted. If ~9_:-siructural
Nominal Max_imum Diameter Minimun:"I Sample Size
chara~\eristics- are- <ippare_ntt_,dte,:soil,,.rnay be
2-21~in.(5065mm)
8 Ib (3.6 kg)
d~s!;-,ibed as nOn$_'t4tified--:!)f'~omogen+\';/'
I II~in.(25-J8mm)
4lb (1.8 kg)
11 l~in.(6 l.2mm)
I Ib (0.45 kg)
5.6 Some soils show definil~ evideire"e of
less th.m I ~ in. (3 10m)
l.~ Ib (0.11 kg)
cement(1tion in the i!ll~ct state/Where this is
noted. the degree- 'of!. cementation may be
6.2 Estimate the percentage of the coarse
fraction larger than the No.4 sieve (about I ~
described- as weak. Qr' strong. Since calcium
carbonate _is -the most common cementing
in. or 5 mm).
agent a repott-ofits presence on the basis of the
6.2.1 Identify the soil as gravel if 50% or
reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid is impormore is larger.
tant. The intensity of the Hel reaction should
6.2.2 Identify the soil as sand if less than
be described as none, _weak, or strong.
50% is larger.
5.7 The degree of compactness or natural
6.3 Estimate the percentage of fines.
density of cohesionless.soils and the consist().3.1 Identify the soil as clean gravel or
ency of cohesive soils are also important in
clean sand if the fines con1.ent is about 5% or
foundation problems. Whenever undi~turbed
less.
6.3.1.1 Identify lhe soil as well graded if it
materials are examined either in field pits or
from sealed samples. estimates of these proper
has a wide range in grain size and substantial
ties should be noted. Usually the process of
amounts of most intermediate particle sizes.
6.3.1.2 Identify the soil as poorly graded if
sampling disturbs cohesion less soils to such an
extent that the natural density may only be
it consists predominantly of qne size (unidetermined in place. In dense cohesion less soil
formly graded) or has a wide range of sizes
with some intermediate sizes obviously missing
it is difficult to drive a 2 by 2 in. (5 by 5 em)

332

02488

(gap-graded).
6.3,2 Identify the soil as gravel withjines or
sand with fines if the fines content is more than
about 12%.
6.3.2.1 Identify the soil as borderline clean
to with jines if the fines content is between
about 5 and 12%.
6.3.2.2 Describe the fines as silty or cla.vey
in accordance with identification procedures
given under fine-grained soils.
6.4 Describe the grain shape of the sand and
gravel portions of the coarse, fraction as angu~
lar, subangular, subrounded, or rounded, (see
Fig. I).
6.4.1 A ngular particles have sharp edges
and relatively plane sides with unpolished
surfaces.
6.4.2 Subangular particles are similar to
angular but have somewhat rounded edges.
6.4.3 Subrounded particles exhibit nearly
plane sides but have well~rounded corners am!,';
edges.
",'
6.4.4 Rounded particles have smoothly::'
,.'
curved sides and no edges.
6.5 Add appropriate" des~~ilni'yc,'\l1otes re,~':'
garding maximum siz,c;,:size distrib-'ltlpn, per"",
cent cobbles and boulde"fs" mineraio:g.j< color~,
odor, moisUJrc.. "condition", natu"raf density.
structure. ~mertt~Uon, 16satoi geol~gi~",n~me.

.',

",

'

'

".'

,:,~"",."

'

"

:"', NOTE 7 "~:lt~~,joif sample contains'ijry lumps.

',;~t)"',experient#d 'iQperator can determine the dry
:${i'cqJJh witho,uf'~reparing a pat for this particular
p'(iq;O'~"The pr~s5 of molding and drying usually
proiJu.~~,higher~~~itgths than are found in natural
ag~regl1t~T: ~f soiJ.,:;:.The presence of high-strength
wa:f~f~i()lubtc~,cementing materials. such as calcium
:~ar:bOnates~",jiilay cause exceptionally high dry
"$irengths but this can usuany be detected from the
JJ1tensity of the reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid
~ ~
~ ~ ~(see 5.6).
andgrpup symbol. followch"ck list, Tablc,:2.
7.5.1.1 Describe as very low or none if the
NQTE" 6-A compietc:-descrip-ti~bcof a river valley
sampl~,tstimated to cQn~il:jn aboijr'2~~ gravel. 65%
dry sample crumbles with the mere pressure of
sand artd"15% silt coul4 take .the form of this
handling.
example: Silty Sand we~l::graded gravelly. Maximum
7.5.1.2 Describe as low if the dry sample
size. 8 in. (203 mm). ab.out 5% cobbles. About 20%
crumbles to powder with little finger pressure.
subrounded igneous '~igravel, 65% subrounded to
subangular quartz sand. and 15% low plasticity fines.
7.5.1.3 Describe as medium if considerable
Light brown (7.5 YR 6/4). Moist. Dense. Stratified.
finger pressure is required to powder the
No reaction to He!. Alluvial sand (SM).
sample. Usually, when the soil has medium dry
7. Procedure for Fine-Grained and Organic
strength a smear of powder can be easily
rubbed off the smooth surface of the sample.
Soils
7.5.1.4 Describe as high if the sample can7.1 Select a representative sample of the
not
be crushed to powder by finger pressure,
material for examination. See 6.1.1.
even though it may be broken. Usually, when
7.2 Describe the color of the moist soil.
the sample has high dry strength it is not even
7.3 Describe the odor of th.e moist soil
possible to rub off a smear of powder from a
(warming if necessary to intensify the odor).
smooth surface of the dry sample.
7.4 Identify the soil as organic if it has a
7.5.1.5 Describe as very high if the sample
black, dark brown or dark gray color (Munsell
cannot
be broken between the thumb and a
value 4 or less, chroma 3 or less) and a
hard
surface.
distinctive organic odor.
7.5.2 Dilatancy-Add sufficient. water, if
7.4.1 Identify the soil as highly organic if it
necessary,
to the other one of the samples to
has predominantly a woody or fibrous texture
produce a soft, but not sticky, consistency.
resulting from a composition of partially de,

cayed leaves, twigs. needles, stems, roots. etc.

Further identification is unnecessary.
7.4.2 Identify the soil as partl.1.' organic if it
does not have a fibrous texture and appears to
be predominantly mineral in character. Proceed with identification procedure for finegrained soils.
7.5 From the representative sample. select
enough material to provide two cubes approximately I.~ in. (13 mm) in size after the gravel
and coarse sand fraction has been removed.
Use these samples to perform the dry strength.
dilatancy and plasticity tests,
7.5.1 Dry Strength-Mold on~,'bf;the samples until it has the consiste_~oy~_or:pUlty. adding
a small amount ofwatt:(ifnecessary, and form
into a cube or~~IIi"Alfow th6satl!ple to dry
complet~Jjn~,~~;',sun: air or overntta., tempera~
ture nQk"l<ceeding 110 C. Test the strength of
the dry'sliii1~ple by crushing between'tbefingers.

'

,>. V

"

333

Smooth the soil pal in the palm of one hand

with the blade of a knife or small spatula.
shake horizontally, and strike the back of the
hand vigorously against the other hand several
limes. Note reaction. Squeeze the sample by
closing the hand and note reaction.
7.5.2. I Describe the reaction as rapid if
water appears on the surface during shaking
and disappears quickly upon squeezing, The
presence or absence-of the free water can be
noted by the shiny or dull appearance of the

molded into a lump which is coherent and

lough.
7.5.4 Plasticity-On the basis of its dry
strength. dilatancy and toughness describe the
overall plasticity as shown in Table 3.
7.6 Identify the soil as sill or cia}' with

appropriate adjectives. See Table 3.

NOT'.: 8- Th e re'
latlYe percen t age 0 r coarse and

fine-grained material ma~y be estimated by thor.

oughly shaking. a mixture of soil and waler in a lest
tube and then allowing the mixture to settle. The
coarse particles will fall to the bottom and succes
surface.
sively finer particles will be deposited with increasing
time; the sand sizes will fall out of suspension in 20to
7.5.2.2 Describe the reaction as slow if
vigorous tapping is required to bring water to
30 s. The relative proportions can be~e'$limated from
the surface and squeezing causes little change
the relative volume of each sile~"~~i1p::~ate.
in appea ranee.
7.6.1 Sandy silt ha~s8cry:-lo~' dry strength or
7.5.2.3 Describe the reaction as none if the
none, a reactioJl:~O {he'ditafancy. test of rapid, a
test produces no visible change in the sample.
plastic t_hr~_ a_g_~-;-WJlich is weal(~a~d soft, and a
7.5.3 Plastic Thread-Following the com~
signifif!:@l\~;-sand- content which--c~ri-_be noted by
pletion of the dilatancy test the sample is
a gr~!t(Jeel. It,-:_9,a,n be descri~d: ,as having
shaped into an elongated pat and rolled by
slight pl11~tJci,tr;9~-_~none.
____ ',~
hand on a smooth surface or betweeti<~he:
7.6.2 Silt has-very low to low diy-strength, a
palms into a thread about I:~ in. (3 mmY-ir(-c: {eaction t~Jbe dilatancy test of rapid, and a
diameter. (If the sample is too w_et to roll e;isity :plastic thread:which is weak and soft. It can be
it should be spread oULint~(a-Jhin layer ~apd
de~ri:b~d as-;~_~Ning slight plasticity or none.
allowed to lose some: -~ate-r by ev_~porati~-".)
_-7;6_~3_:;{;layey"'-'}i/t has low to medium dry
Fold the sample threads and rej'otl-repeateQlystrerigthi~}a reaction to the dilatancy test of
until the thread crumbles at. -a --diameter ;of - rapid to slow. and a medium stiff plastic
about l'A. --in. (3 mm). The-thread will crumble---:{ thread. It can be described as having slight or
near the plastic-limit. NOIe the prcs'stu:e,
medium plasticity.
quired to roll ounhe threadt~pecially'';ear the
7.6.4 Sandy clay has low to high dry
plastk limit; also -'note thc:':$trength of the
strength, a reaction to the dilatancy test of
thread. After the th,tead crumbles, the pieces
slow to none, and a medium stiff plastic thread
shOUld-be lumped t~gether and kneaded until
which may break prematurely because of the
the lump crulllbles. Note the toughness of the
presence of sand grains. It can be described as
material during kneading.
having slight or mediu'm plasticity.
7.5.3.1 Describe the thread as weak and soft
7.6.5 Silty clay has medium to high dry
if. near the plastic limit, only slight pressure is
strength. a reaction to the dilatancy test of very
required to roll it, the thread has little or no
slow to none, and a medium stiff plastic
strength and after crumbling the thread pieces
thread. It can be described as having slight or
cannot be formed into a coherent mass.
medium plasticity.
7.6.6 Clay has a high to very high dry
7.5.3.2 Describe the thread as medium stiff
if. near the plastic limit, medium pressure is
strength, no reaction to the dilatancy test and a
required to roll it, the thread will support its
very stiff plastic thread. It can be described as
own weight when a few inches long, and after
having high plasticity.
crumbling the thread pieces can be molded into
7.6.7 Organic -silt has low to medium dry"
a lump which crumbles with slight kneading.
strength. a slow reaction to dilatancy test, and
7.5.3.3 Describe the thread as ver)-' stiff if,
a weak and soft plastic thread. It can be
near the plastic limit. considerable pressure is
described as having slight plasticity.
required to roll it, the thread will easily support
7.6.8 Organic c/o)' has medium to very high
its own weight when several inches long. and
dry strength, a reaction to the dilatancy test of
after crumbling the thread pieces can be
very slow to none, and a medium stiff plastic

ie-

334

02488
thread. It can be described as having medium
or high plasticity.
7.7 Add appropriate descriptive notes re~
garding maximum size. size distribution, per
cent cobbles and boulders. plasticity of fines.
color, odor. moisture condition. consistency,
structure, cementation, local or geologic name
and group symbol. Follow check list, Table 4.

TABLE I

H,rn

Identineation or Consistency or Fine-Grllined Soils From Manual Tests

Shear Strength, tons/ftor kg/cm 1

Identification Procedure

Consistency

Sort
Firm (medium)
Stiff
Very stiff

NOTE 9~A complete description of an undisturbed sample of a windblown silt could take the
form of this example: Clayey silt. some fine sand ..
Maximum size about 0.1 mm. About 10% fine sand,
90% slightly plastic fines. Yellowish brown (10 YR
S/6dry). Dry. Firm. Nonstratificd. but with numer
ous vertical root hotes. Strong reaction to He!.
Loess (ML).

Easily penetrated several inches by thumb

Penetrated several inches by thumb with moderate effort
Readily indented by thumb, but penetrated only with great effort
Readily indented by thumb nail
Indented with difficulty by thumbnail

TABLE 2

less than 0.25

0.25 t~,Qi;~:
O).~.t~H.:.:<i9.-.;

,~ .."iJlOtol.00

, .<~iltt-'2.00

Check Lisl For Description orco.~~~S~ils

Boulders
Cobbles
Gravel
Sand
",~j .~:.,
Add descriptive adjectives ror minor constituents. .' ....
'-;"Y!'~"'~" i-"o.;;,/\~:-;o
2. Gradation
'Well gr:lded
Poorly graded
,~'::~iyniformly gradaf:~t:\~~lrliHed)
,
Describe mnge of particle sizes or predominant si~.~~~.r':s!~.as coarse.--m.tiIJlfm. or fine sand or gravel.
3. Maximum Panjcle Size
Note percent boulders ap~~~lib~b.,
'<.~,.-,\~_
4 Siu Distrihuti(Jn
~ppraximate percent gravel. syi:dl;'an!t;~fjn!~~)n frac~'i~ij:~;"Jler than 3 in. (16 mm). Indicate
I. Typical Name

Groi!I~~!~~Y fin~~~:~;r1:~:)'ifihti~i~~~_.

Su'ij:~~~ded "'<:j:'i~09ndedU~:}~

5.
of
_.
6. Mineralogy
Rock tY,~--Jqt-,'gravel. prti1~~~:inant mi~,~r.~s iJl.~sltn4,.~"~};:.~:"~h
'i'
Note especially preseticc.of mica nakcis.-'5~aly particlCS?~"4 _ j)fgal1ic m-;a:tclial.
1. Color
USt:.Munsell ootillion. ifpo~.$ib.le:'
'
8. Odor _ ., ...f'.I~ne,~--,,~.. Eartby-~_
Orgatlil{
.td~f.~ negtC:C;!.ettt}~cepl (Of da;rk,.:~lottcf$Qil~:
9. l!I~OI~!t. content
' :."Dry
..' .Moist
"',Wet)'!!.
'Saturated
10. Nii'JtraJ D~nsj()'
. '~~e
' :~:-::-~nse
' .~;:~"
II. Si11fcYI.te.
. Stratifitd'
Le.~:~,
Nonstratified
12. Cem~!f(tl~on
Weit.k: i'.. ': Stro~~'~L
N'~i~f,~action with..':HCI.as nonei.weak or strong.

:< ...

13. Local lih--.(J,bJlogic NoJiJi"', '

14. Group

S'-!JM{

'~eliHmate if desired. See Classification Chari, Fig. I. ASTM Method D 2487.

TABLE 3

Idenllfication or Fine-Grained Soil Fractions From Manual Tesls

Typical Name

Dry Strength

Sandy sUt
Silt
Clayey silt
Sandy clay
Silty clay
Clay
Organic silt
Organic clay

none-very low
very low-low
low-medium
low-high
medium-high
high-very high
low-medium
medium-very high

Dilatancy
Reaction

Toughness of
Plastic Thread

rapid
rapid
rapid-slOW
slow-none
slow-none
none
slow
none

~ The term low may be substituted for slight in the description of plasticity.

335

weak-sofi
weak-sofi
medium stiff
medium stiff
medium stiff
very stiff
weak-soft
medium stiff

Plasticity~

Description
none-slight
none-slight
slight-medium
slight-medium
slight-medium
high
slight
medium-high

'.

q~l~
TABLE..

0 2488

Check List For Description of Fine-Grained And Partly-Organic Soils

Sandy Clay
Sandy Silt
Silt
Clayey Silt
Organic Clay
Silty Clay
Clay
Organic Silt
Maximum' Particle Siu
Note percentage of boulders and cobbles.
Siu Distribwtion
Approximate percent gravel. sand and lines in fraction finer than 3 in. (76 mm)
Dr,r Strength
None
Very Low
Low
Medium
High
Very Hi~h
Dilatanc,r
None
Slow
Rapid
Pla,Hic Thread
Weak and Soft
Mediutn Stiff
Very Stiff
Plasticity 0/ Fines
None
Slight (low)
Medium
High
Color
Use Munsell notation. if possible. Note presence of mottling or banding.
Odor
None
Earthy
Organic
May be neglected except for dark-colored soils.
Moisture COn/ent
Dry
Moist
Wet
Saturated
Consistency
Soft
Firm (Medium)
Stiff
Very Stifr
Structure
Stratilied
Laminated (ValVed)
Fissured
Slickensided
Blocky
Lensed
Homogeneous (Nonstratified)
Cementation
Weak
Strong
Note reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid as none. weak or stron,g.
Local or Ge%gic Name
Spllbo/
Estimate if desired. See Classification Chart. Fig. I, ASTM

I. Typical Name

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
II.
12

13.
14.
IS.

H,w

,- '

.~

(b)Angular
Id) Subangular

(3) Rounded
(el Subrounded

FIG. 1 Typical Shapes of Bulky Grains.

The American Society for Tesl;nR and Maleria/.f takes no position rl!SpeclinR the validity of any parent rights asserted
in connection with an), item mt'ntioned in this standard. Users of this standard are expreniy advised thai determination
a/the _validity of any such palt?nt right,f. and the risk of infringement of such righls. is enll'rel)' their own responsibility.

336