THE IMPORTANCE OF TENTMAKING IN FULFILLING

THE GREAT COMMISSION

MIDAMERICA BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE

SUBMITTED TO DR. KIRK KILPATRICK

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
NEW TESTAMENT SURVEY

BY
JASON M. FISHER
DECEMBER 16, 2013 (UPDATED JULY 12, 2014)

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THESIS STATEMENT
The purpose of this paper is to provide biblical support for the scale of Pauls tentmaking
enterprise and highlight the importance of tentmaking in fulfilling the Great Commission to take
the Gospel to the ends of the earth.

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CONTENTS

A MISSIONAL INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
BIBLICAL MODELS FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BACKGROUND ON PAUL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PAUL TENTMAKING IN ATHENS AND CORINTH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

THE SCALE OF PAULS TENTMAKING BUSINESS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
THE EXECUTIVE OF A LARGE SCALE TENTMAKING ENTERPRISE . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

HISTORICAL MODELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
A CONTEMPORARY MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
CHALLENGES FOR TENTMAKERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

A MISSIONAL INTRODUCTION
A healthy church is a missional church. Missional churches actively fulfill the Great
Commission to make disciples of every people. Planting new churches furthers this mission. It's
apparent in the Great Commission that we are to make disciples through the avenue of
churches, says Scott Thomas, the whole Book of Acts offers that model. C. Peter Wagner
asserts, The single most effective evangelistic methodology under heaven is planting new
churches.1
A healthy church plant will be indigenous to the people in that community. According to
Peter Beyerhaus, To be indigenous means that a church, in obedience to the apostolic message
that has been entrusted to it and to the living guidance of the Holy Spirit, is able in its own
particular historical situation, to make the gospel intelligible and relevant in word and deed to the
eyes and ears of men.2 Western churches and missionaries must seek the motifs and themes that
connect their communities with the truth of the Gospel, just as Paul used the motif of the
unknown God to preach to the Athenians on Mars Hill (Acts 17:16-34).
Although each church will vary in the specifics of fulfilling the Great Commission, there
are only a few ways that missionaries are sent and supported. First, when most people think of
missions, they think of career missionaries. Career missionaries have surrendered to Gods call
on their lives to go and live in a place where few or no churches exist. They receive direct
financial support by their church or through a mission agency. Second, short-term missionaries
travel to a mission location for a brief time, often to support career missionaries or new churches.

1

C. Peter Wagner, Church Planting for a Greater Harvest (Ventura, CA.: Regal Books,
1990), 11.
2
Peter Beyerhaus, Indigenous Churches, in Concise Dictionary of Christian World
Mission, (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1971), 278.

Because the trips are short, these missionaries generally raise their own financial support.
Third, self-supported or tentmaker missionaries, like career missionaries, have
surrendered to Gods call on their lives to go and live in a place where few or no churches
exist. However, as missionaries, tentmakers financially support themselves through a
business or profession.
The term tentmaker harkens back to Paul working as a tentmaker to support
himself and his ministry. Luke records in Acts:
After this Paul left Athens and went to Corinth. And he found a Jew named Aquila, a
native of Pontus, recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had
commanded all the Jews to leave Rome. And he went to see them, and because he was of
the same trade he stayed with them and worked, for they were tentmakers by trade. And
he reasoned in the synagogue every Sabbath, and tried to persuade Jews and Greeks.
(Acts 18:1-4)
The title of tentmaker is often misunderstood and many times is used too broadly. Ruth
Siemens writes that tentmakers are missions-committed Christians who support themselves
abroad, and make Jesus Christ known on the job and in their free time.3 She further states,
They are in full-time ministry even when they have full-time jobs, because they integrate work
and witness. They follow Pauls model of tentmaking.4 Unfortunately, Siemens definition for
tentmaking does not describe Pauls ministry and is so broad that it in fact describes what every
Christian is called to be a witness for Christ at church, at home, and at work.

3

Ruth E. Siemens, The Vital Role of Tentmaking in Pauls Mission Strategy,

International Journal of Frontier Missions 14:3 (July 1997), 121.
4
Ibid.

Stated simply, a tentmaker supports himself financially as a minister or missionary.

More concise and precise than what Siemens offered, this definition does not include all
Christians, but only those who are called to be a missionary or minister to a church.

BIBLICAL MODELS FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT

There are only two financial support models for ministers and missionaries: selfsupported and supported by others. Both models are biblical. Jesus was a carpenter by trade. His
disciples had their own professions as well. However, when Jesus left his work and began public
ministry, he asked his disciples to do the same. Throughout their ministry, the disciples
supported themselves through a common fund and the good will of others who took them into
their homes and provided for their needs. In his gospel, Luke recorded Jesus instructions when
he sent out the twelve. They were instructed to take nothing for the journey no staff, no bag,
no bread, no money, no extra shirt (and) whatever house (they) entered, to stay there until (they)
left that town (Luke 9:3-4). Paul affirmed the example of Jesus in 1 Corinthians 9, where he
wrote, the Lord commanded that those who proclaim the gospel should get their living by the
gospel (1 Cor. 9:14). In his writings, Paul noted that at times he received gifts from a few
churches. In one case, he wrote to the church in Philippi that they should know that in the
beginning of the gospel, when [he] left Macedonia, no church entered into partnership with (him)
in giving and receiving, except [them] only (Phil. 4:14-15).
In general however, Paul chose not to follow the Lords example and command to be
financially supported through his ministry. His writings indicated that although he received some
funds from churches, in general his tentmaking business supported himself and his ministry. Paul
wrote to the church in Corinth that he made no use of his right as an apostle to receive support

from the common funds of the church. In fact, he wrote that for him, receiving financial
support for preaching the gospel would put an obstacle in the way of the gospel of
Christ (1 Cor. 9:12). In his second letter to the church, Paul wrote, we put no stumbling
block in anyones path, so that our ministry will not be discredited (2 Cor. 6:3). Paul
emphasized in both of his letters that for his ministry, being self-supported as a tentmaker
was not just preferable; it removed barriers to the Gospel.

PRACTICAL GUIDELINES AND BENEFITS

Rolland Allens book, Missionary Methods: St. Pauls or Ours, is a classic about
Pauls missionary methodology. Allen noted three financial guidelines that shaped Pauls
ministry. First, Paul did not seek financial help. In Pauls day, there were many teachers
of philosophy and religion that wandered as a trade. He wanted nothing to do with these
people or to be compared to them.5 Second, Allen wrote, Paul not only did not receive
financial aid from his converts, (but) he did not take financial support to his converts.6
Paul saw each church as autonomous and self-supported. On this point, Allen wrote quite
a bit on how churches in the West gave money to churches around the world which
became dependent on those funds for their ministry. Thirdly, he wrote that Paul
observed the rule that every church should administer its own funds.7
Many practical benefits arise from tentmaking. Starting with the obvious, as
missionaries transition to being self-supported, financial resources can be redirected from
these missionaries to support missionaries working with more remote people groups.

5

Roland Allen, Missionary Methods: St. Pauls or Ours? (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans
Publishing, 1962), 49-50.
6
Ibid, 51.

Tentmaking is often not a good model for missionaries working with unreached people groups
living in very remote places.
Another benefit is that tentmakers generally interact with leaders in their country. This
does not have to necessarily be the political leaders. Often the real leaders of a country are the
business leaders. As a member of the business community and a representative from the West,
the tentmaker has an audience that is generally not available to other missionaries.

Furthermore, tentmaking provides credibility for the missionary to be in the country.

Often, in countries that are hostile to Christianity, people become suspicious as to why a person
is in their community when they have no financial reason for being there.

BACKGROUND ON PAUL
Paul was a Dispersion Jew born in Tarsus with the coveted title civis Romanus or citizen
of Rome. Merely being born in a Roman city did not convey citizenship. A theory by Sir
William Ramsay might account for this familys privileged standing in Tarsus. Ramsay wrote,
it is probable, but not certain, that the family had been planted in Tarsus with full rights as part
of a colony settled there by one of the Seleucid kings in order to strengthen their hold on the
city.8 The Seleucid kings had a preference for Jewish colonists who would have been given a
large measure of responsibility for the affairs of the city. If Paul was born into one of these
original Jewish families of Tarsus, it would explain his citizenship. Regardless, citizens of
Rome were granted specic rights, among which were the following: the right to vote (ius

7

Ibid, 59.

suffragii); the right to make legal contracts, and to hold property (ius commercii); the
right to sue in the courts; the right to appeal from the decisions of magistrates; the right to
appear before a proper court and to defend oneself; the right not to be subjected to torture
or scourging; and the right of immunity from some taxes and other legal obligations,
especially local rules and regulations.9 Only a privileged few were named citizens; the
general population, including most of the working and poorer classes, did not have that
standing. The citizens of a city were responsible for its government, which was especially
important in a city like Tarsus that was libera civitas, or a free city.10 This standing
allowed Tarsus to govern itself apart from the provincial government and provided
exemption from Roman taxes including duty on trade.
Because Pauls trade was tentmaking and he was born a Roman citizen, it is
probable that his father owned a tentmaking business. In Tarsus, tentmaking craftsmen
worked both in leather and in cilicium, a cloth woven from the hair of the large, longhaired black goats that were raised on the slopes around Taurus. These special tents were
known throughout the world as the black tents of Tarsus and were used by caravans,
nomads, and armies all over Asia Minor and Syria.11

8

William Mitchell Ramsay, St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (London:
Hodder & Stoughton, 1907), 32.
9

Peter Garnsey, The Lex Iulia and Appeal Under the Empire, Journal of Roman
Studies 56 (1966): 16789; Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New
Testament, 6370; Kirsopp Lake and Henry J. Cadbury, The Beginnings of Christianity: Part
I:The Acts of the Apostles, Vol 5 Additional Notes to the Commentary (London: Macmillan,
1935), 31118.
10
Robert E. Picirilli, Paul the Apostle (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 1986), Kindle
Locations 146-150.
11
John Pollock, The Apostle: The Life of Paul (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook,
2012), 17.

Although his family was from Tarsus, Paul received his education in Jerusalem at the feet
of Gamaliel, one of only seven Jewish scholars who have been honored with the title Rabban
or our master.12 Gamaliel was the grandson of Hillel and his school was the most influential of
its day. When Peter and the other apostles were brought before the Jewish council in Jerusalem,
Gamaliel, a member of the Sanhedrin, spoke cautionary advice to the council which saved the
lives of the apostles (Acts 5:2740).
Paul, like his father, had been a Pharisee (Acts 23:6), but Paul was not simply numbered
among the Pharisees. When Paul made his legal defense before Agrippa, he stated that I not
only locked up many of the saints in prison after receiving authority from the chief priests, but
when they were put to death I cast my vote against them (Acts 26:10). The phrase I cast
my vote comes from two Greek words and . According to Strongs
Dictionary, means to cast against and when used with , a small, worn,
smooth stone, a pebble, it means to give ones vote against.13 Thayer wrote that in the
ancient courts of justice the accused were condemned by black pebbles and acquitted by
white.14 Thus presupposing the Bible is inerrant, Paul not only was a Pharisee he was a voting
member of the Sanhedrin or the Court of Seventy-One. The Sanhedrin was made of seventy
members plus the ruling high priest. This was a small and select group of ruling Jewish elders
who traced their origin to Moses and his council of seventy (Num. 11:16). They were the only

12

Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids,
MI: Baker Book House, 1988), 838.
13
James Strong, A Concise Dictionary of the Words in the Greek Testament and The
Hebrew Bible (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2009), 41.
14
Joseph Henry Thayer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Being Grimms
Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti (New York: Harper & Brothers., 1889), 676.

Jewish rulers in the first century, although their power to govern was limited by the
Roman provincial government.
The first mention of Paul (Saul) is in connection with the martyrdom of Stephen.
Luke recorded that the stoning the witnesses laid down their garments at the feet of a
young man named Saul (Acts 7:58). But Paul did not simply show up at Stephens
execution. Paul was probably among those from Cilicia and Asia who had disputed
with Stephen at the synagogue of the Freedmen (Acts 6:9). Tarsus was the provincial
capital of Cilicia and the synagogue of the Freedmen in Jerusalem was for Jews who
had Roman citizenship. Following the debate, Stephen was brought before the council, or
Sanhedrin. As he later testified, Paul cast his vote against Stephen as a member of the
Sanhedrin (Acts 26:10). Paul would also later testify that he was standing by and
approving and watching over the garments of those who killed [Stephen] (Acts 22:20).
The laying down of the garments designated that Paul was the one in authority at
Stephens execution. Paul was so well-known that after his conversion, Ananias knew
him by name when the Lord told him to go and heal Saul of Tarsus. Later when Paul
returned to Jerusalem, the disciples were also afraid of him.
After Paul became a follower of Christ, he boldly preached in Jerusalem until
some church leaders helped him flee by ship to Tarsus. In Tarsus, there is no record of a
church at that time that would have supported Paul, so it is only logical that he would
have worked in the family tentmaking business until Barnabas arrived, perhaps ten years
later, to bring him to Antioch (Acts 11:25-26). At Antioch, Pauls missionary call was
reaffirmed and he was commissioned to take the gospel to the Roman world (Acts 9:15,

13:1-3). There is no reason to think during any of this time that Paul was supported by funds
from the church.

PAUL TENTMAKING IN ATHENS AND CORINTH

On Pauls second missionary journey, he spent time in Athens where he reasoned not
only in the synagogue, but also in the marketplace every day. Some of the philosophers were
impressed with Pauls teachings and brought him to speak in the Areopagus, where Paul gave his
famous sermon at Mars Hill. It is not likely that these philosophers heard Paul at the synagogue,
but in the marketplace where he could be found daily (Acts 17:17). Paul was in the
marketplace because that is where men were during the week. Although the synagogue would
have been open each day for the rabbi to teach Jewish children, men would not generally have
gone to the synagogue unless it was the Sabbath or a holiday. After the sermon at Mars Hill,
some believed in Christ and then Paul left for nearby Corinth (Acts 17:32-18:1). No reason was
given by Luke for Paul leaving Athens. Just as he arrived in Athens on his own, he left on his
own. Perhaps it was for business purposes that he left the others behind and traveled to Corinth.
When Paul arrived in Corinth, Luke noted that he found a Jew named Aquila. The
word translated found in Greek is which generally means to find after a search.15
Also a Greek word that is omitted from most translations, but included in the King James
Version, is the word or certain. Perhaps a more accurate translation of this text would
be: After these things, he [Paul] departed Athens and went to Corinth. And he searched and
found a certain Jew by name Aquila, by nationality of Pontus, who had recently arrived from

15

Gerhard Kittel, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Gerhard Friedrich, eds., Theological

Dictionary of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1964), 769.

10

Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had commanded all the Jews to leave
Rome. And he went to see them, and because he was of the same trade he stayed with
them and worked, for they were tentmakers by trade. And he reasoned in the synagogue
every Sabbath, and tried to persuade Jews and Greeks (Acts 18:1-4). It seems from a
simple reading of the passage, that Paul searched for a certain Jew that he knew by name
in a major city and found him. But not only did Paul find him, he lived and worked with
Aquila and his wife, Priscilla for over eighteen months (Acts 18:11, 18). It is logical to
suppose that Paul left Athens to find and spend time with this couple that he had known
beforehand through his tentmaking business.
Aquila was a Jew who originally came from Pontus and had recently arrived from
Italy with his wife, because Claudius had ordered all Jews to leave Rome (Acts 18:2).
If the edict of Claudius is dated between January 25 of A.D. 49 and January 24 of A.D. 50,
it is plausible to assume that Aquila and Priscilla arrived in Corinth in the fall of A.D. 49,
before the closing of navigation with the onset of winter.16 If this dating is correct, it
would mean the couple would have lived in Corinth less than a year before Paul arrived.
Luke recorded that Aquila and Priscilla were Jews and made no indication that
they were already believers. Some scholars speculate that they were already believers. If
this was the case, they must have become believers before being exiled from Rome and
upon arriving in Corinth, failed to share the Gospel, since Paul later wrote to the church
in Corinth that we were the first to come all the way to you with the gospel of Christ (2
Cor 10:14). In his first letter to Corinth, Paul referred to himself as the one who planted

16

Eckhard J. Schnabel, Early Christian Mission & 2, vol. 1 (Downers Grove, IL;
Leicester, England: InterVarsity Press; Apollos, 2004), 1187.

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the church What then is Apollos? What is Paul? Servants through whom you believed, as the
Lord assigned to each. I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth (1 Cor 3:5-6).
Based on Lukes account and Pauls letters, it is more likely that when Paul arrived in Corinth,
Aquila and Priscilla were Jews and had not yet become believers. Therefore the likely historical
conclusion is that the couple became Christians as a result of their working relationship with
Paul and this has application today for tentmaking and missions.
Regarding Aquila and Priscillas business in Corinth, Schnabel supposes that they either
owned in Corinth a branch of their artisan business in Rome, where they worked as tentmakers
(tabernacularii) or they possessed the means to open a new workshop soon after their arrival in
Corinth in which they employed other people.17 In the ancient world, it was common for
business owners to have their home and workshop together. Not only did Paul work with Aquila
and Priscilla, but he lived with them. The verb stayed in Greek is which means to
remain in the same place over a period of time. This would also be convenient because the
space needed to manufacture tents would have allowed plenty of room for church gatherings.
After Paul found and began working with the couple, Luke recorded that Paul reasoned
in the synagogue every Sabbath, and tried to persuade Jews and Greeks (Acts 18:4). Here it is
clear that Paul did not preach the Gospel everyday as a missionary in Corinth, but he worked
during the week in his business. This verse also brings clarity to the verse describing Pauls
ministry earlier in Athens where Luke wrote that Paul reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews
and the devout persons, and in the marketplace every day with those who happened to be there
(Acts 17:17). The same weekly pattern can be seen in Athens and Corinth. Paul was not in both

17

Ibid.

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the synagogue and the marketplace every day sharing the Gospel. The only place he could be
found every day sharing the gospel was in the marketplace.
Many believe that Paul was exclusively devoted to preaching and teaching in Corinth
after the arrival of his companions, Silas and Timothy (Acts 18:5). This view, however, is
inconsistent with the text. In this verse, the Greek word translated was occupied is
in the imperfect tense so Luke recorded an action that was occurring in the past with no
assessment of the actions completion.18 The Greek word or testifying is in
the present tense. Taken as a whole, the text (18:1-6) records that Paul was working and sharing
his faith daily with Jews and Greeks in the marketplace and on the Sabbath at the synagogue.
When Silas and Timothy arrived, they found that Paul was and had been occupied with
expounding the Word (logos) and testifying of Jesus. The Jews rejected the message, so Paul
dusted off his garments and said their blood was on their own heads.
After working with and discipling Aquila and Priscilla for eighteen months in Corinth,
Paul departed with the couple and his companions for Ephesus. After arriving, he left his friends
and business associates to return to Antioch.
After this, Paul stayed many days longer and then took leave of the brothers and set sail
for Syria, and with him Priscilla and Aquila. At Cenchreae he had cut his hair, for he was
under a vow. And they came to Ephesus, and he left them there, but he himself went into
the synagogue and reasoned with the Jews. When they asked him to stay for a longer
period, he declined. But on taking leave of them he said, I will return to you if God
wills, and he set sail from Ephesus (Acts 18:18-21).
After Paul left Ephesus, the fruit of eighteen months of Pauls daily tentmaking ministry
in Corinth could be seen through the ministry of Aquila and Priscilla. Shortly after Paul left,
Priscilla and Aquila heard Apollos teaching and recognized it was in error. Paul had obviously

13

instructed the couple in the importance of sound doctrine. They confronted Apollos in such a
way that he received their teaching and just as importantly their authority. After correcting his
doctrine, they encouraged the believers in Corinth to receive him.
Now a Jew named Apollos, a native of Alexandria, came to Ephesus. He was an
eloquent man, competent in the Scriptures. He had been instructed in the way of the Lord.
And being fervent in spirit, he spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus,
though he knew only the baptism of John. He began to speak boldly in the synagogue,
but when Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the
way of God more accurately. And when he wished to cross to Achaia, the brothers
encouraged him and wrote to the disciples to welcome him. When he arrived, he greatly
helped those who through grace had believed, for he powerfully refuted the Jews in
public, showing by the Scriptures that the Christ was Jesus (Acts 18:24-28).
Following the model of Jesus ministry, Paul had lived, worked, and taught the couple
daily in Corinth. As Paul would later encourage the church in Corinth to be imitators of me, as I
am of Christ, the couple saw Paul model the Christian life every day. Not only would they have
seen Paul interact with other believers, but they would have seen Paul deal with customers and
vendors as well. They obviously followed his example because he found them faithful in Corinth
and brought them along to help advance the Gospel in Ephesus.
Paul did not separate his work (secular) and his ministry (spiritual). For Paul, everything
was for Christ as he writes: Whatever you do, work heartily, as for the Lord and not for men,
knowing that from the Lord you will receive the inheritance as your reward. You are serving the
Lord Christ (Col 3:23-24). Christians are called to serve God in their profession not outside it.

THE SCALE OF PAULS TENTMAKING BUSINESS

Paul did not limit his tentmaking to the time he spent in Athens and Corinth. Near the end
of his third missionary journey, he called the elders of Ephesus to meet him before he returned to

18

Michael S. Heiser, Glossary of Morpho-Syntactic Database Terminology (Logos Bible

14

Jerusalem. When he addressed the elders, he suggested that they follow his practice of
being financially self-supported. Luke recorded in Acts:
You yourselves know that these hands of mine have supplied my own needs and the
needs of my companions. In everything I did, I showed you that by this kind of hard work
we must help the weak, remembering the words the Lord Jesus himself said: It is more
blessed to give than to receive (Acts 20:34-35).
This passage notes that Paul had a tentmaking business in at least a third city, Ephesus. In the
passage, the Greek word that is often translated needs or necessities is . Strongs
dictionary, however, defines the word to mean employment, i.e. an affair19 The word is only
found once in the Greek text. A better translation given the context of Paul discussing his hard
work would be would be, You yourselves know that these hands have supplied my own
employment and of those with me. The end of that statement includes another interesting fact of
Pauls tentmaking business and of those with me. Pauls tentmaking business not only
provided for his employment, but it provided for those who travelled with him. This is an
astonishing piece of information that the Holy Spirit inspired Luke to record. Luke wrote very
little about Pauls finances, but this brief statement gives us some insight into the scale of Pauls
tentmaking endeavors. Luke included this statement in the discourse because it was the finances
from these hands of mine that were a testimony to the elders that it is more blessed to give
than receive.
Luke did not provide the complete number of Pauls travelling companions, but
Schnabel wrote that of the approximately one hundred names that are connected with
Paul in the book of Acts and in the Pauline letters, thirty-eight people are coworkers of

Software, 2005).
19
James Strong, A Concise Dictionary of the Words in the Greek Testament and the
Hebrew Bible (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2009), 78.

15

the apostle.20 Not all of Pauls coworkers were constant companions, but at least thirteen are
known to have been in Ephesus and could be included in the list of companions supported by
Pauls tentmaking: Silas (Acts 15:40, 17:1-13); Timothy (Acts 18:5); Luke, as evidenced by the
we passages in Acts (16:10-16, 20:5-16, 21:1-18, 27:1-28:16); Aquila and Priscilla, fellow
tentmakers; Tychicus, sent by Paul to Ephesus (2 Tim 4:12); Gaius and Aristarchus, Pauls
travelling companions involved in the riot at Ephesus (Acts 19:29); Erastus, Pauls helper who
travelled with Timothy from Ephesus to Macedonia; Sosthenes, known to the Corinthians and
with Paul in Ephesus (1 Cor 1:1); and Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (1 Cor 16:17).
Luke recorded in Acts that Paul had a tentmaking business in Athens, Corinth, and
Ephesus. Paul also wrote about his tentmaking business in his letters. Although Luke never
recorded that Paul worked at his business in Thessalonica, Paul wrote to the church in
Thessalonica to remember, brothers, our labor and toil: we worked night and day, that we might
not be a burden to any of you, while we proclaimed to you the gospel of God (1 Th 2:9). This
account is similar to the account of Pauls work in Ephesus and is an example of another city in
which he and his companions supported themselves. In the case of Thessalonica, it is clear that
Paul was not the only person working, but his companions labored as well.
Another fact to consider in the scale of Pauls tentmaking business is the cost of Pauls
missionary travels. Stanford University has built a geospatial network model of the ancient
Roman World called ORBIS. The website model consists of 751 ancient locations and covers
close to 4 million square miles of terrestrial and maritime space plus 268 sea ports. The road
network encompasses 52,587 miles of road or desert tracks, complemented by 17,567 miles of

20

Eckhard J. Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, Volumes 1 & 2 (Downers Grove, IL;
Leicester, England: InterVarsity Press; Apollos, 2004), 1425.

16

navigable rivers and canals.21 The website uses ancient data from around 200 A.D. to
calculate ancient travel costs like a modern travel website. The travel costs on ORBIS are
calculated in denarii, the most common silver coin in the Roman World.
Paul routinely travelled by ship on his missionary journeys. Table 1 shows the costs of
Pauls third missionary journey based on the ORBIS data.
Table 1
From

To

Antioch
Antioch
Pisidia
Ephesus

Reference

Mode

Time
(days)

Distance
(km)

Cost
(denarii)

Known
Travelers

Total
(denarii)

Antioch
Pisidia

Acts 19:1

Road

27.7

796

Ephesus

Acts 19:1

Road

9.2

277

Philippi

Acts 20:1

Ship

5.3

687

142

427

Philippi

Corinthus

Acts 20:2

Ship

6.1

785

163

488

Corinthus

Philippi

Acts 20:5

Road

Philippi

Troas

Acts 20:6

Ship

3.2

367

89

804

Troas

Mytilene

Acts 20:14

Ship

1.0

170

26

230

Mitylene

Chios

Acts 20:15

Ship

0.7

109

17

153

Chios

Samos

Acts 20:15

Ship

0.8

135

20

180

Samos

Kos

Acts 21:1

Ship

0.8

110

20

178

Kos

Rhodus

Acts 21:1

Ship

0.7

120

17

152

Rhodos

Patara

Acts 21:1

Ship

0.6

107

15

139

Patara

Tyrus
AkePtolemais

Acts 21:2-3

Ship

5.0

801

125

1,127

Acts 21:7

Ship

0.4

55

11

96

Caesarea

Acts 21:8

Ship

0.5

65

13

113

Jerusalem

Acts 21:15

Road

3.5

106

Tyre
AkePtolemais
Caesarea

4,088

For maritime charges, ORBIS used a benchmark rate of 1 denarius per modius
kastrensis (about 12.9 liters) per day, based on section XXXVA.25-6 of the Aphrodisias copy of
the maritime price edict. Using these numbers, the cost of transporting a passenger by sea

21

Introducing ORBIS, Stanford University. http://orbis.stanford.edu/#introducing

17

yields a simulation rate of 25.2 denarii per passenger per day which seems unduly low even for
a passenger in steerage, given that the allowance of 323 liters creates just about enough space for
a person standing up straight. As already noted before (Duncan-Jones 1982: 386), the edict
appears to understate the cost of passenger travel relative to that of goods. Not only is the daily
cost of 25.2 denarii per passenger low in the table, but the known travelers are conservative as
well and include only the named travelers found in Acts. Early in the third missionary journey,
Paul, Timothy, and Erastus are the only travelers named in Acts 19:22. Later in the journey,
Luke, Sopater the Berean, Aristarchus, Secundus, Gaius of Derbe, Timothy, Tychicus, and
Trophimus are named in Acts 20:4.
In the parable of the vineyard laborers, the master agreed to pay each man a denarius for
a days wage (Mt 20:2). The Good Samaritan paid the innkeeper two denarii to take of the
injured man (Luke 10:35). At the feeding of five thousand, Phillip told Jesus that two hundred
denarii worth of bread would not be enough for each of them to get a little [food] (Jn 7:35). The
denarius was the largest Roman silver coin, and in the first century, the denarius was a days
wage for a manual laborer or soldier. According to Salary.com, the U.S. national average in 2014
for a general laborer is $29,055.22 Using these salary numbers to convert 4,088 denarii, a
conservative estimate for the cost of Pauls third missionary journey would be $490,000. Not
only was this an expensive mission trip, but Paul could have reduced the cost at times by
travelling by road and not by sea. For example, Paul and his companions return trip from Troas
to Patara could have been made by road through Asia. Although this would have added 19 days
of travel, it would have conservatively saved at least 1,032 denarii or $124,000. Luke recorded

(accessed May 8, 2014).

18

that this was a travel option and why Paul decided to make the trip by sea, For Paul had decided
to sail past Ephesus, so that he might not have to spend time in Asia, for he was hastening to be
at Jerusalem, if possible, on the day of Pentecost (Acts 20:16). Paul was willing to pay the extra
travel costs because he was in a hurry to get back to Jerusalem. This sort of spending would
make most ministers and missionaries supported by others very uncomfortable. However, at least
in this case for Paul, time was more important than money.
It is clear that Paul did not live in poverty, but how should his wealth be
categorized? Meggitt describes Roman society in strictly binary terms of wide-scale
destitution for 99% of the population and a super-wealthy elite.23 Based on this model,
Paul would be categorized among the wealthy elite. Friesen, however, proposes seven
categories for thinking about poverty in the Roman Empire.
Poverty Scale 1 (PS1)
Poverty Scale 2 (PS2)
Poverty Scale 3 (PS3)
Poverty Scale 4 (PS4)
Poverty Scale 5 (PS5)
Poverty Scale 6 (PS6)
Poverty Scale 7 (PS7)

Imperial elites
Regional elites
Municipal elites
Moderate surplus
Stable near subsistence
At subsistence
Below subsistence

0.04%
1.00%
1.76%
7%
22%
40%
28%

According to Friesen, the vast majority of people (90%) lived near the subsistence level (PS5 7), with subsistence level defined as the resources needed to procure enough calories in food
to maintain the human body.24 Paul certainly lived well above the subsistence level to be able to
financially support himself and his companions and therefore would have been in the top 10%
economically of his day. Furthermore, Pauls priority of his time over the cost of traveling by

22

General Laborer, Salary.com. http://swz.salary.com/SalaryWizard/General-LaborerSalary-Details.aspx (accessed May 8, 2014).

23
Justin J. Meggitt, Paul, Poverty and Survival (SNTW Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998).
24
Steven J. Friesen, Poverty in Pauline Studies (JSNT 26, 2004), 347.

19

ship to Jerusalem is an indication that he probably was among the financial elite (PS1 3) or top
3%.

THE EXECUTIVE OF A LARGE SCALE TENTMAKING ENTERPRISE

Paul was born in Tarsus, a city known for its black tents which were used by caravans
and armies throughout the Roman world. Because he was born a Roman citizen, he was among a
select and privileged class of people. Pauls education at the feet of one of the most influential
teachers of his day, Gamaliel, further indicates that his father had wealth and was a person of
influence. Paul rose to the position of ruling Jerusalem alongside Gamaliel as one of the Council
of Seventy-one, or Sanhedrin. As a member of the Sanhedrin, Paul was perhaps the most
influential leader of the opposition against the church throughout Judea.
Because of his education and position on the Council, Paul was in all likelihood the eldest
son. After Pauls conversion, he fled to Tarsus where he probably continued to work in the
family business for about ten years. There is no indication that Pauls family ever disowned him.
By the time Paul was summoned to Antioch, his father would have been at least sixty-five, if he
hadnt already passed away. It is likely that by the time Paul left Tarsus for Antioch, he would
have inherited the family business.
Luke and Pauls letters indicate that he had a market presence at the very least in Tarsus,
Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, and Thessalonica. As a member of the Sanhedrin, it is almost certain
that Paul was involved in some aspects of the tentmaking business in Jerusalem as well. Given
the geographical size of the tentmaking business, Paul would have had much in common with a
modern chief executive officer of a global corporation. While his position among the Jewish
leadership in Jerusalem was severed as a result of his conversion, Pauls position as a Roman

20

businessman would have remained unchanged, at least until Christians became an enemy
of Rome. As noted by the amount of financial resources used during Pauls third
missionary journey and his prioritizing time over the cost of travel, it is logical that Pauls
finances endured throughout his missionary journeys.
These facts reveal a portrait of Paul that seems to be counter-intuitive to how
many Christians view Paul. But it is not hard to see that the facts portray Paul as a very
affluent, self-supported missionary. Paul was a tremendous leader who modeled what it
meant to be a Christian businessman.

HISTORICAL MODELS
When it comes to the integration of church, business, and missions, perhaps no other
Protestant group has such a rich history as the Moravian Church. In 1722, a small group of
Protestant Christians that traced their heritage back to John Huss fled Moravia to escape
persecution. Count Nicholas von Zinzendorf allowed the refugees to establish a village called
Hernhut in Saxony.25 In 1732, the first two Moravian missionaries, David Nitschmann and
Leonhard Dober, went to St. Thomas and St. Croix to establish a mission to African slaves.
Nitschmann was a carpenter by trade and Dober was a potter. When they got to Denmark, they
were asked how they would support themselves and their ministry, Nitschmann replied, We
shall work as slaves among slaves. When the official said that was impossible, he replied, Very
well, I am a carpenter, and will ply my trade.26 Other Moravians followed their example and

25

Katherine Engel, Religion and Profit: Moravians in Early America (Philadelphia, PA:
University of Pennsylvania, 2009), 17.
26
J. E. Hutton, The History of the Moravian Church (1909), 164.

21

established churches throughout the West Indies. Before other missionaries arrived, the
Moravian tentmakers had baptized 13,000 believers.27
William Carey, the father of the modern missionary movement, was himself a tentmaker.
In his manifesto on missions, Carey wrote about what he thought it would take to bring the
Gospel to India:
It might be necessary, however, for two, at least, to go together, and in general I should
think it best that they should be married men, and to prevent their time from being
employed in procuring necessaries, two, or more, other persons, with their wives and
families, might also accompany them, who should be wholly employed in providing for
them. In most countries it would be necessary for them to cultivate a little spot of ground
just for their support, which would be a resource to them, whenever their supplies failed.
Not to mention the advantages they would reap from each others company Indeed a
variety of methods may be thought of, and when once the work is undertaken, many
things will suggest themselves to us, of which we at present can form no idea.28
In his journal, Carey recorded that once he had arrived and constructed his house, he
found work at an indigo factory as a manager.29 During the six years that he managed the
factory, he completed his Bengali translation of the New Testament. Leaving his employment at
the factory, Carey, with the help of his friends, started a printing house and established forty-five
schools in and around Calcutta.30

A CONTEMPORARY MODEL
In the 1980s, Warren Creighton owned a successful bond company in Memphis. By
1989, the Lord, however, had other plans for him. Soon after the fall of Communism in

27

Ibid.
William Carey, An Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians to Use Means for the
Conversion of the Heathens. (Leicester, England: Ann Ireland, 1792), 73-74.
29
Eustace Carey, Memoir of William Cary, D.D. (London: Jackson and Walford, 1836),
155-156.
30
David Douglas, Life & Work: A Parish Magazine. (Edinburgh: General Supervision of
the Church of Scotland, 1882), 155.
28

22

Romania, Warren made plans to move his family to Bucharest. Using business as a platform for
ministry, Warren soon began to connect church leaders in Romania with pastors in other parts of
the world. To quickly and inexpensively build church buildings, he acquired a license to sell
light gauge steel buildings in Romania so mission teams could come and erect a church building
in a week. Over time, new businesses and consulting projects were started to fund the growing
ministries that included church plants, Bible studies in the Peoples Palace, and Romanias
annual National Prayer Dinner.31

CHALLENGES FOR TENTMAKERS

Preparation for being on the mission field is often the first challenge that tentmaker
missionaries face. Currently there are no degree programs that cover the range of subjects which
would benefit a tentmaker. Business subjects such as entrepreneurship, accounting, management,
and sales should be balanced with religious subjects such missions and theology.
However, as important as classroom knowledge is, real-world knowledge and practical
experience are much more important to prepare for the mission field. Don Hamilton in
Tentmakers Speak surveyed 400 tentmakers, noted that the challenges facing tentmaker
missionaries are the same as other missionaries. The main difference is that all too often
tentmakers head to the field with little to no experience and training in missions and theology
compared to other missionaries. The same characteristics that marked highly rated tentmakers in
the study could be said of other highly rated missionaries:

They had led an evangelistic Bible study before going overseas.

Their main reason for going overseas was to share the Gospel of Christ.

31

Firsthand accounts and personal conversations with Warren Creighton.

23

They believed God called them to be missionaries.

They had experience actively sharing their faith at home.

They had strong relationships with their local home church.

They recruited others to be missionaries.32

CONCLUSION
In Corinth, Paul worked and lived with Aquila and Priscilla. Their workplace was their
place of ministry. Paul oversaw a large scale business and in that place of business, he
proclaimed the gospel to his employees, customers, and vendors. Running a business was not a
hindrance to Pauls mission work it was how God had equipped him for his missional call. Not
only was he taking the gospel to the unreached, but the unreached were visiting him in his place
of work. Even today in the Middle East and Central Asia, it is common after a business
transaction for merchants to have tea and talk politics and religion. Imagine the apostle Paul, the
student of the famous Gamaliel and well educated in rhetoric, visiting and sharing his faith
through his place of business. Then imagine the discipleship that would have taken place with
Aquila and Priscilla as they worked with Paul over the year and a half in Corinth (Acts 18:11). It
is no wonder these two new believers were equipped to correct Apollos doctrine in Ephesus. It
is likely that this was the pattern for Pauls missionary work in each city. Paul would share the
Gospel in his place of work and on the Sabbath he would teach in the local synagogue. The
Pharisees oversaw the synagogues of the Diaspora, therefore Pauls credentials as a former

32

Don Hamilton, Tentmakers Speak: Practical Advice From Over 400 Missionary
Tentmakers. (Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 2005), 98.

24

member of the Sanhedrin and his education at the feet of Gamaliel would have surpassed every
synagogue rabbi. Paul would have had many opportunities to teach in the synagogues.
Although this was Pauls financial support model and much of the advance of the
Gospel has been accomplished through the faithfulness of tentmakers, there is still
biblical precedence and support for career missionaries. Neither approach to missions has
greater importance over the other.
Many of the most unreached and unengaged people in the world live in countries
where missionaries are not welcome. However, today the world is more globalized than
ever before and the opportunity for churches to equip and send tentmakers has never been
greater. Since the fall of Communism, virtually every country is moving towards a free
market economy. English is now the international language for business. The tentmaking
opportunities around the world are limitless.
Lastly, as noted in Hamiltons survey of tentmakers, the local sending church
plays a critically important role in ensuring that tentmakers are discipled and equipped in
much the same way as career missionaries before going to their place of ministry. While
the tentmaker is away, it is even more important in the absence of a mission agency
providing support that the church provides prayer and encouragement to the tentmaker
while they are away.

25

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books on Tentmaking
Allen, Roland. The Case for Voluntary Clergy. London, United Kingdom: Eyre & Sotiswade,
1930.
Allen, Roland. Missionary Methods; St. Pauls or Ours? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1962.
Allen, Roland. The Spontaneous Expansion of the Church: And the Causes Which Hinder It.
Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1962.
Anonymous. Embracing Obscurity: Becoming Nothing in Light of Gods Everything. Nashville:
B&H, 2012.
Baer, Michael R. Business as Mission: The Power of Business in the Kingdom of God. YWAM
Publishing, 2006.
Banks, Robert, and Paul Stevens, eds. The Complete Book of Everyday Christianity. Downers
Grove, IL: Intervarisy, 1997.
Banister, Doug. Were All in the Family Business. Kingston, TN: TFB Publishing, 2004.
Befus, David R. Kingdom Business: The Ministry of Promoting Economic Activity. Miami, FL:
Latin American Mission, 2002.
Befus, David R. Where There Are No Jobs. Miami, FL: Latin American Mission, 2005.
Bennett, Shane, and Kim Felder. Exploring the Land: Discovering Ways for Unreached People
to Follow Christ. Littleton, CO: Caleb Project, 1995.
Benson, Ian E. Tentmaking Missionaries: Principles for Business and Employment for Our Lord
Jesus Christ. Shropshire, United Kingdom: The Missionary Training Service, 1998.
Blackaby, Henry and Richard Blackaby. God in the Marketplace. Nashville, TN: B & H
Publishing, 2008.
Braun, Neil. Laity Mobilized. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1971.
Bruce, Frederick F. Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1977.
Bruce, Frederick F. The Pauline Circle. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1985.

26

Boxtel, Henry. Tentmaker Resources Binder. Canadian Tentmaker Network, Richmond Hill,
Ontario, Canada , n.d.
Buford, Robert P. Halftime. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994.
Carey, William. An Inquiry Into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversions
of Heathens. London: Carey Kingsgate Press, 1961.
Catherwood, Fred. On the Job: The Christian 9-5. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1983.
Chan, Kim-kwong, and Tetsunao Yamamori. Holistic Entrepreneurs in China. Pasadena, CA:
William Carey International University Press, 2002.
Chewning, Richard C. Biblical Principles & Business: The Practice. Colorado Springs, CO:
NavPress, 1990.
Chewning, Richard C. Biblical Principles & Business: The Foundations. Colorado Springs, CO:
NavPress, 1989.
Cole, Neil. Cultivating a Life for God. Carol Stream, IL: ChurchSmart Resources, 1999.
Claro, Robert [Robert J. Clark]. A High Purpose for Your Overseas Job. Makati, Philippines:
CrossOver Books, 2003.
Danker, William. Profit for the Lord. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing, 1971.
Eldred, Kenneth A. God is at Work: Transforming People and Nations Through Business. Regal
Books, 2005.
Engel, Katherine C. Religion and Profit: Moravians in Early America. Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
Evans, Chris. Fruit at Work: Mixing Christian Virtues with Business. Wake Forest: Lanphier
Press, 2012.
Fleming, Jerry. Profit at Any Cost? Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2003.
Francis, James M. and Leslie J. Perspectives on Self-Supporting Ministry: Tentmaking.
Leominster, UK: Fowler Wright Books, 1998.
Gately, Ian, and Jean Gately. My Reasonable Service. Durham, Great Britain: Pentland Press,
1995.
Gibson, Dan. Avoiding the Tentmaker Trap. Bucks, United Kingdom: WEC International, 1997.

27

Green, Michael. Evangelism in the Early Church. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1970.
Griffiths, Michael. A Task Unfinished. Essex, Great Britain: Monarch, 1996.
Grubb, Sir Kenneth. The Need for Non-Professional Missionaries. London: World Dominion
Press, 1931.
Grudem, Wayne. Business for the Glory of God: The Bibles Teaching on the Moral Goodness of
Business. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2003.
Guthrie, Stan. Missions in the Third Millennium: 21 Key Trends for the 21st Century.
Waynesboro, GA: Paternoster Publishing, 2000.
Hale, Thomas. On Being a Missionary. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1995.
Harley, David. Preparing to Serve: Training for Cross-cultural Mission. Pasadena, CA: William
Carey Library, 1995.
Hamilton, Don. Tentmakers Speak: Practical Advice from Over 400 Missionary Tentmakers.
Duarte, CA: TMQ Research, 1987.
Hampton, Vinita, and Carol Plueddemann, eds. World Shapers: A Treasury of QAuotes From
Great Missionaries. Wheaton, IL: Harold Shaw Publishers, 1991.
Hock, Ronald F. The Social Context of Pauls Ministry: Tentmaking and Apostleship.
Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1980.
Hybels, Bill. Christians in the Marketplace. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1986.
Hybles, Bill, and Mark Mittelberg. Becoming a Contagious Christian. Mandaluyong City,
Philippines: OMF Literature, 2001.
International Mission Board. Something New Under the Sun: New Directions at the International
Mission Board. Richmond, VA: International Mission Board, 1999.
Johnson, C. Neal. Business as Mission. InterVarsity Press, 2010.
Johnstone, Patrick, and Jason Mandryk, eds. Operation World:21st Century Edition.
Waynesboro, GA: Paternoster USA, 2001.
Kelly, Balmer H., ed. The Laymens Commentary. Vol. 21. Richmond, VA: John Knox Press,
1961.
Klingaman, Patrick. Thank God, Its Monday: Making Business Your Ministry. Wheaton, IL:
Tyndale, 1970.

28

Lewis, Jonathan, ed. The Condensed World Mission Course Reader. 2d. ed. Butuan City,
Philippines: Living Springs International, 2000.
Lewis, Jonathan, ed. Working Your Way to the Notions: A Guide to Effective Tentmaking.
Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1993.
Little, Jeri. Merchant to Romania: Business as Missions in Post-Communist Eastern Europe.
Leominster, United Kingdom: Day One Publications, 2009.
Livingstone, Greg. Planting Churches in Muslim Cities: A Team Approach. Grand Rapids, MI:
Baker Book House, 1993.
Lowery, J. L., ed. Case Histories of Tentmakers. Wilton, CT: Morehouse-Barlow, 1976.
MacArthur, John. The Book on Leadership. Nelson Books, 2004.
Mason, J.C. The Moravian Church and the Missionary Awakening in England. Suffolk, UK:
The Boydell Press, 2001.
Neill, Stephen. The Layman in Christian History. Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1963.
Nelson, Tom. Work Matters: Connecting Sunday Worship to Monday Work. Wheaton, IL:
Crossway, 2011.
Novak, Michael. Business as a Calling: Work and the Examined Life. New York, NY: The Free
Press, 1996.
ODonnell, Kelly, ed. Doing Member Care Well: Perspectives and Practices from Around the
World. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2002.
Otis, Geroge Jr. The Last of the Giants: Lifting the Veil on Islam and the End Times. Grand
Rapids, MI: Chosen Books, 1991.
Patrick, Darrin. Church Planter: The Man, the Message, the Mission. Wheaton, IL: Crossway,
2010.
Patton, Cornelius H. The Business of Missions. New York, NY: Macmillan Company, 1924.
Peck, G. and Hoffman J. S., eds. The Laity in Ministry: The Whole People of God for the Whole
World. Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1904.
Piper, John. Let the Nations Be Glad.: The Supremacy of God in Missions. Grand Rapids: Baker
Books, 2000.

29

Richardson, Don. Eternity in Their Hearts. Ventura, CA:Regal Books, 2005.

Rundle, Steve and Tom Steffen. Great Commission Companies. InterVarsity Press, 2011.
Rush, Myron. Management: A Biblical Approach. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1983.
Russell, Mark L. The Missional Entrepreneur: Principles and Practices for Business as
Missions. Birmingham, AL: New Hope Publishers, 2010.
Russell, Mark L. Our Souls at Work: How Great Leaders Live Their Faith in the Global
Marketplace. Boise: Russell Media, 2010.
Seebeck, Doug and Timothy Stoner. My Business, My Mission: Fighting Poverty Through
Partnerships. CRC Publications, 2009.
St. Kilda, Martin. Near the Far Bamboo: An Insightful Look at Cross-Cultural Clashes Through
the Eyes of a Tentmaking Missionary. Camp Hill, PA: Christian Publications, 1993.
Sugden, Chris. Fair Trade as Christian Missions. Cambridge, MA: Grove Books, 1999.
Suter, Heinz and Marco Gmur. Business Power for Gods Purpose. Greng-Murten, Switzerland:
VkG, 1997.
Swarr, Sharon B., and Dwight Nordstrom. Transform the World: Biblical Vision and Purpose for
Business. Richmond, VA: Center for Entrepreneurship and Economic Development,
1999.
Tsukahira, Peter. My Fathers Business: Guidelines for Ministry in the Marketplace. Singapore:
One Stone Books, 2000.
Van Duzer, Jeff. Why Business Matters to God. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2010.
Whelchel, Hugh. How Then Should We Work? Rediscovering the Biblical Doctrine of Work.
Bloomington,IN: WestBow Press, 2012.
Wilson, J. Christy Jr. Todays Tentmakers; Self-support: An Alternative Model for Worldwide
Witness. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale, 1979.
Wong, Kenman L. and Scott B. Rae. Business for the Common Good: A Christian Vision for the
Marketplace. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2011.
Yamamori, Tetsunao. Gods New Envoys: A Bold Strategy for Penetrating Closed Countries.
Portland, OR: Multnomah Press, 1987.

30

Yamamori, Tetsunao. On Kingdom Business: Transforming Missions Through Entrepreneurial

Strategies. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2003.
Yamamori, Tetsunao. Penetrating Missions Final Frontier: A New Strategy for Unreached
Peoples. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity, 1993.
Books on Theology
Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1938.
Boyce, James P. Abstract of Systematic Theology, 1887.
Grudem, Wayne. Bible Doctrine. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1999.
Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology, Volume 1, Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems,
1997.
Luther, Martin. The Bondage of the Will, trans. J. I. Packer and O. R. Johnston. Westwood, NJ:
Revell, 1957.
Strong, Augustus Hopkins. Systematic Theology. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication
Society, 1907.
Journals on Tentmaking
Alford, Deann. "Coffee Sales Perk Up Ministry Support." Christianity Today 44, no. 1 (January
10, 2000): 27.
Blair, C F. "Tentmaking : a contextualized approach to Islam." Missiology 11, no. 2 (April 1,
1983): 219-227.
Carver, Gary L. "The Tentmaker's Word." Preaching 12, no. 1 (July 1, 1996): 72-76.
Christensen, Derek. "Training : Endurance Food For Serious Tentmakers." International Journal
of Frontier Missions 14, (July 1, 1997): 133-138.
Crossman, Meg. "Minority groups in China: can Han Christians reach them?." Missions from the
Majority World, 283-295. Pasadena, Calif: William Carey Library, 2009.
Engle, John H. "Twentieth Century Tentmaker." Brethren In Christ History & Life 9, no. 3
(December 1, 1986): 314-315.

31

Fulton, Charles Darby. "Are we going out of [the missionary] business." Christianity Today 6,
no. 13 (March 30, 1962): 8-9.
Gibson, Daniel. Avoiding the tentmaker trap. Hamilton, Ont: WEC Pubns, 1997.
Guthrie, Stan. "Tentmaking Putting Down Stakes in Missions Movement." Christianity Today
39, no. 13 (November 13, 1995): 80-81.
Holland, Grace. "Avoiding the tentmaker trap." Ashland Theological Journal 31, (January 1,
1999): 194-195.
Johnson, C Neal, and Steven L. Rundle. "Distinctives and challenges of business as mission."
Business as Mission, 19-36. Pasadena, Calif: William Carey Library, 2006.
Knell, Bryan. "Tentmaking--unlocking closed lands: is tentmaking the answer?." Evangel 17, no.
2 (June 1, 1999): 1-4.
Kloster, Berit Helgoy. "The Tentmaker's Vision." International Journal of Frontier Missions 14,
(July 1, 1997): 119-120.
Lai, Patrick. "Tentmaking uncovered." Business as Mission, 79-100. Pasadena, Calif: William
Carey Library, 2006.
McCarty, V. K. "Prisca - Fellow Tent-maker and Fellow Missionary of Paul: Acts 18.2-3, 18, 26;
Romans 16.3-4; 1 Corinthians 16.19; 2 Timothy 4.19." International Congregational
Journal 11, no. 2 (Winter2012 2012): 45-60.
Moll, Rob. "Earning Commissions on 'The Great Commission.'." Wall Street Journal - Eastern
Edition, November 13, 2009.
Moreau, A. Scott. "A Current Snapshot of North American Protestant Missions." International
Bulletin Of Missionary Research 35, no. 1 (January 2011): 12-16.
Morris, Robert D. "Shrewd Yet Innocent: Thoughts on Tentmaker Integrity." International
Journal of Frontier Missions 15, (January 1, 1998): 5-8.
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. "Prisca and Aquila: traveling tentmakers and church builders." BR
(Washington, D.C.) 8, no. 6 (December 1, 1992): 40-51.
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. "Paul, a Worker." Bible Today 47, no. 4 (July 2009): 239-244.
Niles, Nathan. "Professional tentmakers open doors for ministry." Evangelical Missions
Quarterly 36, no. 3 (July 1, 2000): 302-304.

32

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