Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District Community Wildfire Protection Plan

Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District Community Wildfire Protection Plan
ALBERNICLAYOQUOT
REGIONALDISTRICT
COMMUNITYWILDFIRE
PROTECTIONPLAN
ConsiderationsforWildlandUrbanInterfaceManagementfor
theAlberniClayoquotRegionalDistrict,BritishColumbia
Submittedby:
B.A.BlackwellandAssociatesLtd.
3087HoskinsRoad
NorthVancouver,B.C.
V7J3B5
Submittedto:
LaurieLHeureux
EmergencyPlanningCoordinator
AlberniClayoquotRegionalDistrict
30085thAvenue
PortAlberni,BritishColumbia
CanadaV9Y2E3
RPF PRINTED NAME
Bruce A. Blackwell
Registered Professional Foresters

Signature and Seal
RPF 2073
DATE SIGNED
I certify that I have reviewed this document and I have determined

that this work has been done to standards acceptable of a
Registered Professional Forester.
B.A. Blackwell & Associates Ltd.
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July 2010
TableofContents
1.0
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1
2.0
ALBERNI-CLAYOQUOT REGIONAL DISTRICT.........................................................................2
2.1
OVERVIEW....................................................................................................................................................2
2.2
TOPOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................................................4
2.3
POPULATION................................................................................................................................................4
2.3.1 Alberni Valley..........................................................................................................................................5
2.3.2 Franklin River Road................................................................................................................................6
2.3.3 Sarita.......................................................................................................................................................6
2.3.4 Bamfield...................................................................................................................................................6
2.4
INFRASTRUCTURE........................................................................................................................................7
2.4.1 Alberni Valley..........................................................................................................................................7
2.4.2 Franklin River Road................................................................................................................................8
2.4.3 Sarita.......................................................................................................................................................8
2.4.4 Bamfield...................................................................................................................................................8
2.5
ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES..........................................................................................................................9
3.0
FIRE ENVIRONMENT.....................................................................................................................11
3.1
FIRE WEATHER..........................................................................................................................................11
3.1.1 Alberni Valley and Franklin River Road...............................................................................................12
3.1.2 Sarita.....................................................................................................................................................14
3.1.3 Bamfield.................................................................................................................................................16
3.2
FUELS.........................................................................................................................................................17
3.2.1 Fuel Type Summary..............................................................................................................................18
3.3
HISTORIC IGNITIONS.................................................................................................................................20
3.3.1 Alberni Valley and Franklin River Road...............................................................................................20
3.3.2 Sarita and Bamfield...............................................................................................................................21
4.0
4.1
THE WILDLAND URBAN INTERFACE........................................................................................24

VULNERABILITY OF THE WILDLAND URBAN INTERFACE TO FIRE...........................................................24
5.0
COMMUNITY RISK PROFILE........................................................................................................29
6.0
COMMUNITY WILDFIRE PROTECTION PLANNING PROCESS............................................31
7.0
ACTION PLAN..................................................................................................................................32
7.1
COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION........................................................................................................32
7.1.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................................32
7.1.2 Issues.....................................................................................................................................................32
7.1.3 Recommendations Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District...................................................................33
7.2
STRUCTURE PROTECTION..........................................................................................................................34
7.2.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................................34
7.2.2 Issues.....................................................................................................................................................34
7.3
EMERGENCY RESPONSE.............................................................................................................................39
7.3.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................................39
7.3.2 Issues.....................................................................................................................................................39
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7.4
TRAINING/EQUIPMENT............................................................................................................................41
7.4.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................................41
7.4.2 Issues.....................................................................................................................................................42
7.5
VEGETATION (FUEL) MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................43
7.5.1 Objectives..............................................................................................................................................43
7.5.2 Issues.....................................................................................................................................................43
8.0
COMMUNITY WILDFIRE PROTECTION PLANNING BACKGROUND.................................50
8.1
COMMUNICATION AND EDUCATION........................................................................................................50
8.1.1 Target Audiences...................................................................................................................................51
8.1.2 Pilot Projects..........................................................................................................................................52
8.1.3 Website..................................................................................................................................................52
8.1.4 Media Contacts, Use and Coordination.................................................................................................52
8.1.5 Other Methods.......................................................................................................................................53
8.1.6 General Messages..................................................................................................................................53
8.2
STRUCTURE PROTECTION..........................................................................................................................54
8.2.1 FireSmart...............................................................................................................................................54
8.2.2 Planning and Bylaws............................................................................................................................55
8.2.3 Sprinklers...............................................................................................................................................57
8.2.4 Joint Municipality Cooperation.............................................................................................................57
8.2.5 Structured FireSmart Assessments of High Risk Areas........................................................................57
8.3
EMERGENCY RESPONSE.............................................................................................................................57
8.3.1 Access and Evacuation..........................................................................................................................58
8.3.2 Fire Response.........................................................................................................................................58
8.3.3 Water Supply.........................................................................................................................................59
8.4
TRAINING NEEDS.......................................................................................................................................59
8.5
VEGETATION (FUEL) MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................60
8.5.1 Principles of Fuel Management.............................................................................................................60
8.5.2 Maintenance..........................................................................................................................................68
9.0
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................70
APPENDIX 1 FUEL TYPE DESCRIPTIONS.............................................................................................72

APPENDIX 2 PRINCIPLES OF FUEL BREAK DESIGN.........................................................................80
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ListofFigures
Figure 1. Topographic relief representative of the Alberni Valley (left) and Sarita (right). The
view of the Alberni Valley is looking northwest from southern Alberni
Valley. The view of Sarita is looking northwest (Image Source: Google
EarthPro, 2010). .............................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 2. Coulson Flying Tankers base on Sproat Lake. During the fire season planes are
stationed on the lake or contracted out elsewhere in firefighting efforts. .............................. 8
Figure 3. Yearly variation in Drought Code seasonal (May-August) average and maximum
values within the Alberni Valley and Franklin River Road study area
polygons, as described by the regional climate of the CWHxm subzone (1900
2003). ........................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 4. Summary of seasonal (May-August) Danger Class IV and V and total Danger Class
days for the CWHxm subzone (1900 2003). ........................................................................... 14
Figure 5. Yearly variation in Drought Code seasonal (May-August) average and maximum
values within the Sarita area, as described by the regional climate of the
CWHvm subzone (1909 2003). ................................................................................................ 15
days Sarita, as represented by the CWHvm subzone (1909 2003). ..................................... 16
Figure 7. Historical average and maximum Drought Code values for the CWHvh subzone
(1887 2002). ................................................................................................................................. 16
days for the CWHvh subzone (1887 2002). ............................................................................ 17
Figure 9. Graphical example showing variation in the definition of interface................................................. 24
Figure 10. Firebrand caused ignitions: burning embers are carried ahead of the fire front and
alight on vulnerable building surfaces. ..................................................................................... 25
Figure 11. Radiant heat and flame contact allows fire to spread from vegetation to structure
or from structure to structure. .................................................................................................... 25
Figure 12. Wildland urban interface continuum. ................................................................................................. 26
Figure 13. Illustration of the sub-components and components used to calculate the final
probability and consequence ratings within the Wildfire Risk Management
Structure for the Alberni - Clayoquot Regional District. ........................................................ 29
Figure 14. The planning structure that translates the community risk profile into actions to
reduce the risk faced by a community through elements of the Community
Wildfire Protection Plan. ............................................................................................................. 31
Figure 15. Photograph showing a home within the study area with flammable shake roofing
material and poor defensible space. .......................................................................................... 35
Figure 16. Example of a home within the study area with shake siding and little setback from
forested edges. .............................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 17. Example of aluminum roofing, but with an open deck and little setback to
vegetation. ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 18. An example of two roofing materials; the structure on the left has asphalt and the
structure on the right has flammable shake. ............................................................................ 37
Figure 19. Example of good FireSmart planning; 10m defensible space, non-flammable
roofing and sideing, woodpile at least 10m from structure. In this case the
propane tank would be better located at least 10m form the structure. ............................... 37
Figure 20. Photo of hazardous C4 fuel type in the study area............................................................................ 45
Figure 21. Example of a typical subdivision adjacent to hazardous C3 fuel type. .......................................... 46
Figure 22. Example of municipal website providing fire education information
(http://www.chilliwack.com/main/page.cfm?id=627). ....................................................... 51
Figure 23. High surface fuel loading under a forest canopy............................................................................... 62
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July 2010
Figure 24. Comparisons showing stand level differences in the height to live crown. ................................... 63
Figure 25. Comparisons showing stand level differences in crown closure..................................................... 64
Figure 26. Comparisons showing stand level differences in density and mortality. ...................................... 64
Figure 27. Schematic showing the principles of thinning to reduce stand level hazard................................. 66
Figure 28. Conceptual diagram of a shaded fuelbreak pre treatment and post treatment. ............................ 67
Figure 29. Example of evenly stocked, moderate density second growth stand classified as a
C3 fuel type. .................................................................................................................................. 72
Figure 30. Example of a high-density second growth stand of Douglas-fir classified as a C4
fuel type. ........................................................................................................................................ 73
Figure 31. Example of mature forest of western hemlock and western red cedar classified as
a C5 fuel type ................................................................................................................................ 74
Figure 32. Example of an open Douglas-fir and western redcedar forest classified as a C7
fuel type. ........................................................................................................................................ 75
Figure 33. Moist rich site dominated by red alder classified as a D1 fuel type. ............................................ 76
Figure 34. Mixed fir/cedar/sword fern site with a deciduous component of red alder and big
leaf maple classified as an M2 fuel type. ................................................................................ 77
Figure 35. young regenerating coniferous plantation classified as M2R. ...................................................... 78
Figure 36. Low volatility Shrub/Herb dominated fuel type classified as O1a. ............................................ 79
ListofMaps
Map 1. Shows the Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District study area, divided into four separate
study area polygons. Each polygon includes the community/development
with a 2km buffer. .......................................................................................................................... 3
Map 2. Shows the BEC units occurring within the four study area polygons. ................................................ 10
Map 3. A comparison of original MOFR fuel typing (left) and updated fuel typing (right) for
the study area. .............................................................................................................................. 19
Map 4. Historic ignitions by cause within the study area. .................................................................................. 23
Map 5. Map showing settlement density expressed as Consequence rating classes....................................... 28
Map 6. Final overlay of probability and consequence from the Wildfire Risk Management
System. ........................................................................................................................................... 30
Map 7. Map showing ownership status (note: there are some errors in the available
ownership data)............................................................................................................................ 44
Map 8. Hazardous fuel types in relationship to land ownership within the project area. Note
that there are errors in the source ownership data .................................................................. 47
Map 9. Existing fuel breaks where deciduous, non fuels, water, or shrubby O1a occurs. ............................. 48
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ListofTables
Table 1. ACRD CWPP study area by community polygon. ................................................................................. 2
Table 2. Study area TRIM mapsheets by polygon. ................................................................................................. 2
Table 3. Summary of employment by industry type, as of 2006, for the ACRD. ............................................... 5
Table 4. Study area by BEC subzone/ variant. ....................................................................................................... 9
Table 5. Area summary of fuel types. .................................................................................................................... 18
Table 6. Historic fire ignition data by decade in the Alberni Valley and Franklin River Road
polygons ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Table 7. Fire size by decade in the Alberni Valley and Franklin polygons....................................................... 21
Table 8. Ignition source by fire size in the Alberni Valley and Franklin polygons. ........................................ 21
Table 9. Summary of fire ignition cause by decade in the Sarita and Bamfield polygons.............................. 22
Table 10. Fire size summary by decade in the Sarita and Bamfield area (1950 2003). .................................. 22
Table 11. Fire size summary by general ignition source for the Sarita and Bamfield area (1950
2003). ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Table 12. Land ownership within the study area. ................................................................................................ 43
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1.0
Introduction
In2009B.A.BlackwellandAssociatesLtd.wereretainedtoassisttheAlberniClayoquot
RegionalDistrict(hereinafterreferredtoasACRDortheRegionalDistrict)indevelopinga
CommunityWildfireProtectionPlan(CWPP)fordesignatedareaswithintheRegionalDistrict,
includingCommunityAssessmentAreas,UnincorporatedRuralAssessmentAreas(Fire
ProtectionServiceAreasandUnincorporatedRuralCommunities),FirstNationsLands,and
otherremoteurbaninterfaceareas.Thisdocumentconsistsofplansandresourceinformationto
addresscommunitywildfireprotectionissuesspecifictothosecommunitiesidentifiedwithin
theACRDashighpriorityareas.FireSmartProtectingYourCommunityfromWildfire
(PartnersinProtection2004)wasusedtoguidetheprotectionplanningprocess.Withinthe
RegionalDistrict,theassessmentconsideredimportantelementsofcommunitywildfire
protectionthatincludedcommunicationandeducation,structureprotection,training,
emergencyresponse,andvegetationmanagement.
Thesocial,economicandenvironmentallossesassociatedwiththe2003and2009fireseasons
emphasizedtheneedforgreaterconsiderationandduediligenceinregardtofireriskinthe
wildlandurbaninterface(WUI).InconsideringwildfireriskintheWUI,itisimportantto
understandthespecificriskprofileofagivencommunity,whichcanbedefinedbythe
probabilityandtheassociatedconsequenceofwildfirewithinthatcommunity.Whilethe
probabilityoffireincoastalcommunitiesissubstantiallylowerwhencomparedtotheinterior
ofBritishColumbia,theconsequencesofalargefirearelikelytobeverysignificantin
communitiesgivenvaluesatriskandenvironmentalconsiderations.
TheCWPPwillprovidetheACRDwithaframeworkthatcanbeusedtoreviewandassess
areasofidentifiedhighfirerisk.Additionally,theinformationcontainedinthisreportshould
helptoguidethedevelopmentofemergencyplans,emergencyresponse,communicationand
educationprograms,bylawdevelopmentinareasoffirerisk,andthemanagementofforest
landsadjacenttothecommunity.
Thescopeofthisprojectincludedthreedistinctphasesofwork:
PhaseIAssessmentoffireriskanddevelopmentofaWildfireRiskManagementSystem
(WRMS)tospatiallyquantifytheprobabilityandconsequenceoffire.
PhaseIIIdentificationofhazardousfueltypes.
PhaseIIIDevelopmentofthePlan,whichoutlinesmeasurestomitigatetheidentifiedrisk
throughstructureprotection,emergencyresponse,training,communication,andeducation.
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2.0
AlberniClayoquotRegionalDistrict
2.1
Overview
TheAlberniClayoquotRegionalDistrictislocatedonwestcentralVancouverIsland.The
RegionalDistrictencompassestheTofinoareainthenorth,theAlberniValleyinthemiddle,
andtheBamfieldareainthesouth.TheRegionalDistrictis6,913.9squarekilometersinsize.
TheACRDislargelyrural;only0.6%ofthetotalareaismadeupofthethreelargest
communitiesofPortAlberni,TofinoandUcluelet.Theremainingareaiscomprisedof
numeroussmallercoastalcommunitiessuchasBamfield,andthecommunitiessurrounding
PortAlberni;undevelopedland;windingroadswithscatteredhousing;andboatonlyaccess
homesandcabins.
ThescopeofthisdocumentislimitedtofourareaswithintheACRDthatencompassthehigh
prioritycommunitiesidentifiedbytheACRD:AlberniValley,FranklinRiverRoad,Sarita,and
Bamfield.Thesefourareastogethermakeuptheentirestudyarea,andareidentifiedas
separatepolygonsinsubsequentmaps(Map1).
Thetotalstudyareais31,261ha;thelargestpolygoninthestudyarea,bothinareaand
population,istheAlberniValley,whichcomprises68%ofthetotalstudyarea(Table1).
FranklinRiverRoad,SaritaandBamfieldcompriseapproximately5%,15%and12%ofthe
studyarea,respectively.
Table1.ACRDCWPPstudyareabycommunity
polygon.
Table2.StudyareaTRIM 1 mapsheetsby
polygon.
Bamfield
Sarita
Franklin
River
Road
92C.075
92C.085
92C.085
92C.086
92C.095
92C.096
92F.006
92F.007
92F.016
92F.017
ACRDStudyArea
Polygon
AlberniValley
FranklinRiverRoad
Sarita
Bamfield
Total
Area(ha)
21,393
1,361
4,607
3,900
31,261
Alberni
Valley
92F.016
92F.017
92F.025
92F.026
92F.027
92F.036
92F.037
92F.046
Provincialstandardbasemappingunit
Page 2
July 2010
Map1.ShowstheAlberniClayoquotRegionalDistrictstudyarea,dividedintofourseparatestudy
areapolygons.Eachpolygonincludesthecommunity/developmentwitha2kmbuffer.
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2.2
Topography
TheAlberniClayoquotRegionalDistrictistopographicallydiverse,extendingfromsealevelto
alpinemountainpeaksexceeding1,600m(Figure1).Thestudyareaislimitedtolowtomid
mountainelevations.
Figure1.TopographicreliefrepresentativeoftheAlberniValley(left)andSarita(right).Theviewof
theAlberniValleyislookingnorthwestfromsouthernAlberniValley.TheviewofSaritaislooking
northwest(ImageSource:GoogleEarthPro,2010).
2.3
Population
AccordingtoBCStatsRegionalDistrictProfile,ACRDspopulationwasestimatedat31,280 2 .
Thepopulationhasbeenfairlystableoflate,increasingby0.6%since2006anddecreasingby
0.3%overthelasttenyearscomparedwith1.7%increaseand1.0%increaseprovinciallyforthe
sametimeperiods.ThemajorityofthepopulationoftheDistrictresidesinPortAlberniandthe
outlyingcommunities.
Asof2006,therewere12,870occupiedprivatedwellingsthroughouttheentireDistrict,the
majorityofwhichareconcentratedinPortAlberni.OutsidethemunicipalityofPortAlberni,
manydwellingsarelocatedonsmallacreagesorscatteredthroughrelativelyisolatedareas.
Since2002,propertyvalueshavebeenrisingapproximatelyonpacewiththeprovincial
average.
Theeconomyisdrivenlargely(63.9%oftheworkforce)intheprovisionofservices,although
thetopsingleindustryasof2006ismanufacturing,whichemploys14.3%ofthetotallabour
BCStatsRegionalDistrict23StatisticalProfile2008
Page 4
July 2010
force(Table3).Retailtradeandresourcebasedindustries,suchasforestryaddcomma
agriculture,hunting,andfishingalsoprovideasignificantportionoftheRegionalDistricts
employment(Table3).Althoughthereisarichhistoryinforestryandrelatedmanufacturingin
theACRD,therehavebeenrecenteffortstodiversifytheeconomywithtourism,marine
industries,fishprocessing,andthearts 3 .Thenaturalenvironment,itsrelatedvalues,andthe
resultanttourismnowformthebasisforasignificantportionoftheACRDseconomy.
Table3.Summaryofemploymentbyindustrytype,asof2006,fortheACRD 4 .
ACRD
BC
TotalLabourForce
15,070 100.0% 2,193,115
OtherServices
3,810
25.3%
451,905
Manufacturing
2,155
14.3%
189,120
Retailtrade
1,740
11.5%
248,950
Businessservices
Agriculture,forestry,andotherresourcebased
industries
1,715
11.4%
436,665
1,475
9.8%
107,760
Healthcareandsocialservices
1,445
9.6%
213,085
Construction
1,160
7.7%
166,100
Educationalservices
925
6.1%
152,565
Financeandrealestate
500
3.3%
134,940
Wholesaletrade
150
1.0%
92,020
Thenational,provincialandregionalparksintheACRDreceivethousandsofvisitorsannually.
ThemostpopularoftheparksareMountArrowsmithRegionalPark,SproatLake,andStamp
FallsProvincialParks,aswellasPacificRimNationalPark.
2.3.1
Alberni Valley
TheAlberniValleyhasthegreatestpopulationofthefourstudyareapolygons.TheCityofPort
Albernispopulationis17,548,asof2006 5 ,whichmakesupmorethanhalfofthetotal
populationoftheACRD.TheAlberniValleypolygonincludesapproximately300membersof
theHupacasathFirstNationandapproximately900membersoftheTseshahtFirstNation.
TherearefourFirstNationsreservesintheAlberniValleyarea:AlberniIR2(PollysPoint) 6 ,
AhahswinisIR1,KlehkootIR2,andTsahahehIR1.
http://www.portalberni.ca/files/CityClerk_pdfs/CPA_2008_Annual_Report.pdf
http://www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/data/cen01/profiles/59023000.pdf
5http://www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/data/pop/pop/mun/mun1921_2006.asp
6PersonalcommunicationwithJaneJones,OfficeServicesAdministrator,TseshahtFirstNation,July14,2010
3
4
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2.3.2
Franklin River Road
TheFranklinRiverRoadpolygonencompassesthegeographicalareaoftheFranklinRiver
Estuaryandhasanoperatingsmallmillandlogdump.
2.3.3
Sarita
TheSaritastudyareaiscomprisedofthesmallcommunityofSaritaandtwoFirstNations
reserves,NumukamisIR1andDochsuppleIR3.
2.3.4
Bamfield
BamfieldislocatedintheheartofthePacificRimNationalParkontheBarkleySound.The
townisrenownedforitsnaturalbeautyandoutdoorrecreationalopportunities,suchassport
fishing,backpacking,andkayaking.ItisthenorthernterminusoftheWestCoastTrailandhas
apopulationofapproximately250persons 7 .TherearethreeFirstNationscommunitieswithin
theBamfieldstudyarea:AnaclaIR12,KeeshanIR9,andSachsaIR4.
http://www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/data/cen06/dpl2006.asp
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2.4
2.4.1
Infrastructure
Alberni Valley
TheAlberniValleyRegionalAirportservicestheregionstourism,fishing,andforestry
industries,aswellasrecreationalaviationandhelicoptercompanies.Theairportalsoservesas
theMinistryofForestsandRange(MOFR)WildfireManagementBranchPortAlbernifirebase,
whichisstaffedduringfireseasonbyoneunitcrewof20wildlandfirefighters,the
Thunderbirds.MartinMarsconvertedwaterbombersareownedandoperatedbyCoulson
FlyingTankers,usedinprovincial,national,andinternationalfirefightingefforts,andarebased
atSproatLake 8 (Figure2).
AttheheadoftheAlberniinletistheCityofPortAlberni.PortAlberniistheeconomiccenter
fortheAlberniValleyandwestcoast.PortAlberniisthehostcommunitytotheWestCoast
GeneralHospitalandtheofficesoftheAlberniClayoquotRegionalDistrict.Amajorityofthe
developedlandsintheAlberniValleyareprotectedbyoneoffourAlberniValleyfire
departments.ThePortAlberniFireDepartment(PAFD)providesfireprotectionwithintheCity
ofPortAlberniandseveralcontractareasoutsideoftheCity.Somedevelopedareasandmuch
oftheundevelopedlandsinandaroundtheAlberniValleyarenotprovidedwithlocal
governmentfireprotection.
http://www.martinmars.com/firefighting.htm
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July 2010
Figure2.CoulsonFlyingTankersbaseonSproatLake.Duringthefireseasonplanesare
stationedonthelakeorcontractedoutelsewhereinfirefightingefforts.
TheCityofPortAlberniobtainsitswaterfromChinaCreekandBainbridgeLake,butalsohasa
waterintakeontheSomassRiverthatcanbeactivatedduringpeakwaterusedemands.Within
thecity,thereare5pumpstations,3chlorinationstations,aswellas5coveredreservoirs,allof
whicharevitaltointerfacefirefightingefforts 9 .Thecitywaterdistributionsystemisnow
entirelygravityfed.Backuppumpsareavailableduringperiodsofhighpressuredemand.In
theeventofpowerfailure,dieselpoweredpumpsautomaticallybeginoperatingtoprovide
continuousflow.
TheSproatLakeVolunteerFireDepartmentreliesontankersforwaterdelivery.Ithasreceived
SuperiorTankerShuttleAccreditationbytheCGIFireUnderwriters.
BeaverCreekandCherryCreekFireDepartmentsutilizehydrantsthroughoutmostoftheirfire
responseareas.Bothhaveareasthatarenotprotectedbyhydrants.
Firedepartments,hospital,water,andpowerinfrastructurearefundamentaltoemergency
responseinPortAlberni,theAlberniValley,andinneighbouringcommunitiesthatdependon
PortAlberniforincidentsupportandemergencyresponse.
2.4.2
Franklin River Road
TheinfrastructureintheFranklinRiverRoadpolygonislimitedtoanoperationalsawmilland
logdump.
2.4.3
Sarita
TheSaritapolygonhasthePoettNookMarinaandCampground,aswellashomesand
structuresscatteredthroughoutthearea.
2.4.4
Bamfield
TheBamfieldFireHall,firetruck,fireboat,andfireequipmentareintegraltocommunity
firefightingefforts.Bamfieldhasaprivateairstripandhelicopterpad,ownedandoperatedby
theHawkeyeMarineGroup 10 .AnoutposthospitalprovidesacutecareservicesforBamfield
andthesurroundingcommunities.
CityofPortAlberniEngineeringDepartment(http://www.portalberni.ca/files/u3/WaterInfrastructureInv.pdf)
http://www.hawkeyemarinegroup.com/bamfield_airstrip.shtml
10
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ThecommunitiesofBamfieldandAnacla(HuuayahtFirstNations)arewithinthestudyarea,
asistheirnewHuuayahtHouse 11 .
TheBamfieldWaterSystemiscomprisedofawatersourceandintakestructure,anunderwater
transmissionlinetothechlorinationandpumphouse,twosteelstoragereservoirs,water
meters,andhydrants 12 .TheSystemprovideswatertotheresidentsofEastandWestBamfield
andthesurroundingcommunities,FirstNationsreserves,andfishhatcheries.Previous
rupturesandleaksinwaterlinesandpoweroutageshavecausedmajordisruptionstothe
provisionofpotablewatertotheresidents.
2.5
EnvironmentalValues
Environmentalvaluesarehighthroughouttheentirestudyarea,aswellasthroughoutthe
AlberniClayoquotRegionalDistrict.ThereareProvincialredandbluelistedspeciesand
ecologicalcommunities.
ThemajorityofthestudyareaisencompassedbytheCoastalWesternHemlock(CWH)
biogeoclimatic(BEC)zone,withanegligibleamountofareaintheMountainHemlockZone.
Withinthestudyarea,therearefiveuniquesubzones(Table4).Thevastmajority(99.5%)ofthe
studyareaisdefinedbyjustthreesubzonesoftheCWHZone:VeryWetMaritime(vm),Very
WetHypermaritime(vh),andtheVeryDryMaritime(xm)(Map2).
Table4.StudyareabyBECsubzone/variant.
BECSubzoneand
Area(ha) %ofStudyArea
Variant
CWHvm1
3,681
11.8
CWHvh1
4,898
15.7
CWHxm1
6,370
20.5
CWHxm2
16,003
51.4
CWHmm2
136
0.4
CWHvm2
6
0.1
MHmm1
15
0.1
Total
31,109
100.0
http://huuayaht.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=section&id=4&Itemid=56
http://www.acrd.bc.ca/cms/wpattachments/wpID78atID558.pdf
11
12
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Map2.ShowstheBECunitsoccurringwithinthefourstudyareapolygons.
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July 2010
CWHvh
TheCWHvhoccursinlowelevations(0200m)onVancouverIsland.Theproximitytothe
PacificOceancreatesaclimateofmoderatetemperaturesandrelativelyhighlevelsof
precipitation,ofwhichverylittlefallsintheformofsnow.Fog,cloudsandlightrainoccur
oftenthroughouttheyear 13 .
CWHvm
TheCWHvmoccursinlowtomoderateelevationsandischaracterizedbyawet,humidclimate
withhighlevelsofprecipitationrarelyfallingassnowexceptathigherelevations.Growing
seasonsarelongandgrowingseasonmoisturedeficitsarerare 14 .
CWHxm
TheCWHxm1occursonVancouverIslandatlowerelevations(0700m)andischaracterized
bywarm,drysummersandmoist,mildwinterswithrelativelylittleprecipitationfallingas
snow.Growingseasonsarelongandgrowingseasonmoisturedeficitsoccur(GreenandKrajina
1994).
3.0
FireEnvironment
3.1
FireWeather
TheCanadianForestFireDangerRatingSystem(CFFDRS),developedbytheCanadian
ForestryService,isusedtoassessfiredangerandpotentialfirebehaviour.TheMinistryof
ForestsandRangemaintainsanetworkoffireweatherstationsduringthefireseasonthatis
usedtodeterminefiredangeronforestlandswithinthecommunity.Theinformationis
commonlyusedbymunicipalitiesandregionaldistrictstomonitorfireweatherinformation
providedbytheMOFRWildfireManagementBranchtodeterminehazardratingsand
associatedfirebansandclosureswithintheirrespectivemunicipalities.Keyfireweather
parameterssummarizedaspartoftheanalysisinclude:
Drought Code (DC): The Drought Code represents the moisture in deep, compact
organicmatterwithanominaldepthofabout18cmandadryfuelloadof25kg/m 2.Itis
ameasureoflongtermdroughtasitrelatestofirebehaviour.
DaysaboveDangerClassRatingIVandV:TheDangerClassRatingisderivedfromfire
weatherindicesandhas5classes:1)VeryLowDanger;2)LowDanger;3)Moderate
Danger;4)HighDanger;and5)ExtremeDanger.
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/becweb/Downloads/Downloads_SubzoneReports/CWHvh1.pdf
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hre/becweb/Downloads/Downloads_SubzoneReports/CWHvm1.pdf
13
14
Page 11
July 2010
Itisimportanttounderstandthelikelihoodofexposuretoperiodsofhighfiredanger,defined
asDangerClassIV(high)andV(extreme),inordertodetermineappropriateprevention
programs,levelsofresponse,andmanagementstrategies.ADroughtCodethatexceeds350is
consideredhighandisassociatedwithhighfirebehaviour.ADroughtCodeexceeding500is
consideredextremeandfiresburningundersuchconditionsoftenexhibitextremefire
behaviour.Firedangerwithinthestudyareavarieschieflyduetoclimaticfactors.
ThepolygonscanbeclearlyclassifiedbyBECsubzone,forthepurposeoffireweather
behaviourandfiredangeranalysis:
AlberniValleyCWHxm
FranklinRiverRoadCWHxm
SaritaCWHvm
BamfieldCWHvh
3.1.1
Alberni Valley and Franklin River Road
Figure3isacompilationofavailableweatherstationdatawithintheCWHxm(representativeof
theAlberniValleyandFranklinRiverRoadportionsofthestudyarea).Thedatasetdatesback
to1900andprovidesasummaryofaverageandmaximumDroughtCodesfromMaythrough
toAugustofeachyear.TheaverageseasonalDCovertheperiodofdatais252,althoughduring
highfireseason(typicallylateJulythroughAugust),DroughtCodevaluescommonlyexceed
500.Duringthisperiodfiredangerinthestudyareahastypicallybeenhighorextreme.Every
yearexceptone,theCWHxmexperiencedDCmaximumswellabove350,mostofwhich
reachedorexceeded500.
Page 12
July 2010
CWHxm
1000
AvgOf DC
MaxOf DC
900
800
Drought Code (DC)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
20
00
19
90
19
80
19
70
19
60
19
50
19
40
19
30
19
20
19
10
19
00
Figure3.YearlyvariationinDroughtCodeseasonal(MayAugust)averageandmaximumvalues
withintheAlberniValleyandFranklinRiverRoadstudyareapolygons,asdescribedbytheregional
climateoftheCWHxmsubzone(19002003).
AsummaryofDangerClassdaysprovidesasimilarcomparisontoDroughtCodeanalysis
(Figure4).Onaverage,therewere58DangerClassIVorVdaysperfireseason(Maythrough
August).ThemostDangerClassdaysoccurredin1931,whentherewere91.In2003,therewere
only9DangerClassdaysduringthefireseason.Firedangerwithinthestudyareacanvary
considerablyfromseasontoseason.
Page 13
July 2010
CWHxm
100
IV
90
Danger Class Days
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
19
00
19
04
19
08
19
12
19
16
19
20
19
24
19
28
19
32
19
36
19
40
19
44
19
48
19
52
19
56
19
60
19
64
19
68
19
72
19
76
19
80
19
84
19
88
19
92
19
96
20
00
Year
Figure4.Summaryofseasonal(MayAugust)DangerClassIVandVandtotalDangerClassdaysfor
theCWHxmsubzone(19002003).
3.1.2
Sarita
TheCWHvmgenerallyexperiencesfiredangerintermediatetothoseinthedrierCWHxmand
thewetterCWHvh.ThedatasetfortheCWHvmdatesto1909,overwhichtimetheaverageDC
is136(Figure5).ThehighestDCoccurred1988,whenthemaximumreached762.Theseasonal
averagewashighestin1958at266.
TheaveragenumberofDangerClassdaysperfireseasonoverthedataperiodis26days
(Figure6).ThemostDangerClassdaysfortheCWHvmBECsubzoneoccurredin1922,when
therewere66,28ofwhichwereDangerClassV.
Page 14
July 2010
CWHvm
900
AvgOf DC
MaxOf DC
800
700
Drought Code (DC)
600
500
400
300
200
100
20
05
19
95
19
85
19
75
19
65
19
55
19
45
19
35
19
25
19
15
19
05
Figure5.YearlyvariationinDroughtCodeseasonal(MayAugust)averageandmaximumvalues
withintheSaritaarea,asdescribedbytheregionalclimateoftheCWHvmsubzone(19092003).
CWHvm
70
IV
Danger Class Days
60
50
40
30
20
10
19
09
19
13
19
17
19
21
19
25
19
29
19
33
19
37
19
41
19
45
19
49
19
53
19
57
19
61
19
65
19
69
19
73
19
77
19
81
19
85
19
89
19
93
19
97
20
01
Year
Page 15
July 2010
Figure6.Summaryofseasonal(MayAugust)DangerClassIVandVandtotalDangerClassdays
Sarita,asrepresentedbytheCWHvmsubzone(19092003).
Bamfield
3.1.3
TheCWHvhexperienceslessextremefireweatherthanboththeCWHxmandtheCWHvm,as
showninFigure7andFigure8.ThehistoricaverageseasonalDCis117andonly32seasonsin
thepast115yearshavehadmaximumseasonalDroughtCodesthatexceed500(Figure7).
TherehavebeennoyearsinthehistoricalrecordwhentheaverageseasonalDCexceeds350.
ThehistoricaveragenumberofDangerClassIVandVdaysis15(Figure8).Therehavebeen
veryfewyearswithmorethanfourDangerClassVdaysinoneseason.
CWHvh
800
AvgOf DC
MaxOf DC
700
Drought Code (DC)
600
500
400
300
200
100
20
05
19
85
19
65
19
45
19
25
19
05
18
85
Figure7.HistoricalaverageandmaximumDroughtCodevaluesfortheCWHvhsubzone(18872002).
Page 16
July 2010
CWHvh
50
IV
45
Danger Class Days
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
18
87
18
93
18
97
19
01
19
05
19
09
19
13
19
17
19
21
19
25
19
29
19
33
19
37
19
41
19
45
19
49
19
53
19
57
19
61
19
65
19
69
19
73
19
77
19
81
19
85
19
89
19
93
19
97
20
01
Year
Figure8.Summaryofseasonal(MayAugust)DangerClassIVandVandtotalDangerClassdaysfor
theCWHvhsubzone(18872002).
3.2
Fuels
FuelclassificationwasbasedontheCFFDRS,VegetationResourceInventory(VRI)forestcover
data,WesternForestProductsforestcoverdata 15 ,IslandTimberlandsforestcoverdata 16 ,aerial
orthophotographs,andfueltypeattributescollectedinthefield(Table5,Map3).Toconfirm
forestcoverderivedfueltypingandaidinpolygondelineation,standandfuelsdatawas
collectedduringfieldwork.Fieldcheckswerelocatedinthefourcorestudyareas.Atotalof256
fieldcheckswerecompleted.Thisdatawasincorporatedintoexistingfueltypingfortheregion.
Foreachfueltypeidentifiedinthefield,abestapproximationoftheCFFDRSclassificationwas
assignedandwassupportedwithasummaryofdetailedattributes.TheMinistryofForestsand
Rangefueltypingwasimproveduponandadjustedtoincorporatelocalvariation(Map3).
DescriptionsofthemainCFFDRSfueltypesusedinthisanalysisareprovidedinAppendix1
FuelTypeDescriptions.
ProvidedbyP.Bryant,WesternForestProductsLtd.
ProvidedbyS.Mjaaland,IslandTimberlandsLP
15
16
Page 17
July 2010
Fuel Type Summary
3.2.1
Table5summarizesthefueltypesandareas.Adescriptionofeachfueltypeshowninthestudy
areaisprovidedinAppendix1.
Table5.Areasummaryoffueltypes.
Fuel
Type
No 01a
data
C7
D1
M2
M2R
Non
Fuel
Total
Area
(ha)
2,437 8,784 2,274 4,079 406
958
4,052 1,969
6,318
31,284
%Total
0.03
7.8
3.1
13.0
20.2
100
C3
28.1
C4
7.3
C5
13.0
1.3
6.3
Page 18
July 2010
Map3.AcomparisonoforiginalMOFRfueltyping(left)andupdatedfueltyping(right)forthestudyarea.
Page 19
July 2010
3.3
HistoricIgnitions
TheMOFRfirereportingsystemwasusedtocompileadatabaseoffiresbackto1950inthe
studyarea.Map4showstheignitionlocationsfortheentirestudyareaandhighlightsvisibly
thedifferenceinfirehistorybetweenthemorepopulatedanddrierareasintheAlberniValley
asopposedtomoreruralareasandmoisterclimatesdowntheinlet.
Alberni Valley and Franklin River Road
3.3.1
Table6summarizesthefires,bysizeandcausethathaveoccurredbetween1950and2008inthe
AlberniValleyandFranklinRiverRoadareas.Themostprevalentsourcesofignitionwere
miscellaneoushumanignitions(23%),smokers(22%),andindustrialfireuse(16.5%).Thetotal
numberoffiresduringthisperiodwas591,ofwhich97%weretheresultofhumanignition
(Table8).Theremaining3%offireswereignitedbylightning.Themostfiresonrecordper
decadeoccurredduringthe1950s(23%),followedcloselyby2000s(21%).The1980shadthe
fewestfiresperdecade,withonly67ignitions.Theaveragenumberoffiresperyearbydecade
isasfollows:19505913.6;1960699.0;19707910;1980896.7;199019997.7;200008
13.7.Ninetyeightpercentofallfiresthatburnedbetween1950and2008weresmallerthanfour
hectaresand112(or19%ofthetotal)ofthoseignitionswerelessthan0.01hainsize(Table7).
Therehavebeen7fireswithintheAlberniValleyandFranklinRiverRoadpolygonsthat
burnedanareagreaterthan4ha,allofwhichwerehumancaused.
Table6.HistoricfireignitiondatabydecadeintheAlberniValleyandFranklinRiverRoadpolygons
Decade
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Total
Campfire
EquipmentUse
2
3
4
2
10
0
5
6
9
2
21
9
51
22
FireUse
21
14
44
98
Incendiary
11
10
35
JuvenileFireSetter
11
16
26
18
84
Lightning
12
Miscellaneous
30
41
13
21
24
138
Railroads
12
Smoker
60
17
37
13
132
Unknown
Total
136
89
99
67
77
123
591
Page 20
July 2010
Table7.FiresizebydecadeintheAlberniValleyandFranklinpolygons.
Decade
<0.01ha
0.014
ha
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Total
0
0
0
4
30
78
112
131
88
99
62
47
45
472
410ha
10 25
ha
>25
4
1
0
0
0
0
5
1
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Table8.IgnitionsourcebyfiresizeintheAlberniValleyandFranklinpolygons.
Size
Class
(ha)
Human
<0.01
0.01to4
4to10
10to25
>25
Total
103
462
5
2
0
572
%
Human Lightning
17.4
78.2
0.8
0.3
0.0
96.8
%
Lightning
Unknown
%
Unknown
Total
0.3
1.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.0
7
0
0
0
0
7
1.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.2
112
472
5
2
0
591
2
10
0
0
0
12
3.3.2
Sarita and Bamfield
Since1950,theSaritaandBamfieldareashavehad10ignitions,farfewerthanAlberniValley
andFranklinRiverRoadareas.Fiftypercentoftheignitionswereindustrialignitions(fireuse
andequipmentuse)and30%werelightningstarts(Table9).Twentypercentofthefireswere
causedbysmokersandmiscellaneoushumanignitionsources.The1980shad6fires,the
highestnumberoffiresbydecade.Therehavenotbeenanyrecordedfiresinthesepolygons
since1997(Table10).Ninetypercentoftheignitionswerebetween0.1haand4hainsize(Table
10).Thelargestfirewas36hainsize,whichignitedin1985fromindustrialfireuse(Table11).
Page 21
July 2010
Table9.SummaryoffireignitioncausebydecadeintheSaritaandBamfieldpolygons.
Decade
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Total
Campfire
EquipmentUse
FireUse
Incendiary
JuvenileFireSetter
0
0
Lightning
Miscellaneous
Railroads
Smoker
Unknown
Total
10
Table10.FiresizesummarybydecadeintheSaritaandBamfieldarea(19502003).
Decade
<0.01ha
0.014ha
410ha
10 25ha
>25
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Total
1
1
6
1
Table11.FiresizesummarybygeneralignitionsourcefortheSaritaandBamfieldarea(19502003).
SizeClass
(ha)
Human
<0.01
0.01to4
4to10
10to25
>25
Total
1
7
%
Human Lightning
0.0
60.0
0.0
0.0
10.0
70.0
%
Lightning
Unknown
%
Unknown
Total
0.0
30.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
30.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
9
0
0
1
10
Page 22
July 2010
Map4.Historicignitionsbycausewithinthestudyarea.
Page 23
July 2010
4.0
TheWildlandUrbanInterface
Theclassicdefinitionofwildlandurbaninterface(WUI)istheplacewheretheforestmeetsthe
community.OtherconfigurationsoftheWUIcanbedescribedasintermixed.Intermixedareas
includesmaller,moreisolateddevelopmentsthatareembeddedwithintheforest.Anexample
ofanintermixedinterfaceisshowninFigure9.
Ineachofthesecases,firehastheabilitytospreadfromtheforestintothecommunityorfrom
thecommunityoutintotheforest.Althoughthesetwoscenariosarequitedifferent,theyareof
equalimportancewhenconsideringinterfacefirerisk.WithintheRegionalDistrict,the
probabilityofafiremovingoutofthecommunityandintotheforestisequalorgreatertothe
probabilityoffiremovingfromtheforestintothecommunity.Regardlessofwhichscenario
occurs,therewillbeconsequencesfortheRegionalDistrictandthiswillhaveanimpactonthe
wayinwhichthecommunityplansandpreparesforinterfacefires.
Intermix
Interface
Figure9.Graphicalexampleshowingvariationinthedefinitionofinterface.
4.1
VulnerabilityoftheWildlandUrbanInterfacetoFire
FiresspreadingintotheWUIfromtheforestcanimpacthomesintwodistinctways:1)by
sparksorburningemberscarriedbythewindorconvectionthatstartnewfiresbeyondthe
zoneofdirectignition(mainadvancingfirefront)andalightonvulnerableconstruction
materials(i.e.roofing,siding,decksetc.)(Figure10);2)throughdirectflamecontact,convective
heating,conductiveheatingorradiantheatingalongtheedgeofaburningfirefront(burning
Page 24
July 2010
forest)orthroughstructuretostructurecontact.Firecanigniteavulnerablestructurewhenthe
structureisincloseproximity(within10metersoftheflame)ofeithertheforestedgeora
burninghouse(Figure11).
Figure10.Firebrandcausedignitions:burningembersarecarriedaheadofthefirefrontandalighton
vulnerablebuildingsurfaces.
Figure11.Radiantheatandflamecontactallowsfiretospreadfromvegetationtostructureorfrom
structuretostructure.
Thewildlandurbaninterfacecontinuum(Figure12)summarizesthemainoptionsavailablefor
addressingWUIfireriskintheCommunityWildfireProtectionPlanningprocess.
Page 25
July 2010
Figure12.Wildlandurbaninterfacecontinuum.
Theappropriatemanagementresponsetoagivenwildfireriskprofileisbasedonthe
combinationandlevelofemphasisofseveralkeyelements:
Communicationandeducation
Emergencyresponse
Training
Structureprotection
Vegetationmanagement
Forexample,inaninterfaceareawithahighriskprofile,equalweightmaybegiventoall
elements.Alternatively,inthissamehighriskexample,activeinterventionthroughvegetation
managementmaybegivenahigheremphasis.Thischangeinemphasisisbasedonthevalues
atrisk(consequence)andthelevelofdesiredprotectionrequired.Inalowrisksituationthe
emphasismaybeoncommunicationandeducationcombinedwithemergencyresponseand
training.Inotherwords,avarietyofmanagementresponsesisappropriatewithinagiven
communityandthesecanbedeterminedbasedontheCommunityRiskProfileaspresentedin
Section5.0.
Page 26
July 2010
Map5showstheprimaryinterfaceinthestudyarea.TheintermixareasoftheACRD,where
developmentisembeddedinforestareofconsiderableconcernassafetyissuessuchas
adequacyofaccessandevacuationrouteshavenotbeenaddressed,andFireSmartprinciples
arenotcurrentlyincorporated.
Page 27
July 2010
Map5.MapshowingsettlementdensityexpressedasConsequenceratingclasses.
Page 28
July 2010
5.0
CommunityRiskProfile
TheWildfireRiskManagementSystem(WRMS)developedinsupportofthisplanidentified
thattheRegionalDistricthasamoderatetohighprobabilityofwildfire(Map6)withmoderate
tohighconsequences.Theareasofhighestprobabilityandconsequencearelocatedwhere
interfacedensityishigherandthewildlandurbaninterfaceoccurs.Publicsafety,aswellas
importantvalues,facilitiesandstructures,maybeseverelyimpactedbyamajorfireinthearea.
Areaswithmoderatetohighprobabilityandconsequenceareprimarilylocatedinthemost
heavilysettledareasnearhazardousfueltypes.
TheWRMSsystemisbasedonaspatialmodeldevelopedinaGeographicInformationSystem
(GIS)format.Individualpolygonsareweightedforeachsubcomponent(Figure13).Using
algorithms,thesubcomponentsarecombinedtoproducecomponentweightingswhicharethen
furtherprocessedtoderiveprobabilityandconsequenceratings.
Figure13.Illustrationofthesubcomponentsandcomponentsusedtocalculatethefinalprobability
andconsequenceratingswithintheWildfireRiskManagementStructurefortheAlberniClayoquot
RegionalDistrict.
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July 2010
Map6.FinaloverlayofprobabilityandconsequencefromtheWildfireRiskManagementSystem.
Page 30
July 2010
6.0
CommunityWildfireProtectionPlanningProcess
Figure14demonstrateshowthedevelopmentofacommunityriskprofileisaddressedbythe
individualelementsoftheCWPPplanningprocess.Theendresultistheimplementationof
recommendationsusingthevariousplanningtoolstolowerwildfireriskfacedbycommunity.
Figure14.Theplanningstructurethattranslatesthecommunityriskprofileintoactionstoreducethe
riskfacedbyacommunitythroughelementsoftheCommunityWildfireProtectionPlan.
Page 31
July 2010
7.0
ActionPlan
TheActionPlanconsistsofthekeyelementsoftheCommunityWildfireProtectionPlanand
providesrecommendationstoaddresseachelement.Eachoftheseelementsisfurtherexplained
inSection8.0CommunityWildfireProtectionPlanningBackground,whichprovides
backgroundinformationtosupporttheActionPlan.Section8.0isintendedtoprovidegeneral
informationabouteachelementconsideredincommunitywildfireprotectionplanning;itisnot
intendedtoprovideinformationspecifictothecommunity.
7.1
CommunicationandEducation
7.1.1
Objectives
Toeducateresidentsandbusinessesonactionstheycantaketoreducefireriskonprivate
propertyandonpublicproperty.
Toestablishasenseofhomeownerandvisitorresponsibilityforreducingfirehazards.
Toraisetheawarenessofelectedofficialsastotheresourcesrequiredandtheriskthat
wildfireposestocommunities.
Tomakeresidentsandbusinessesawarethattheircommunitiesareinterfacecommunities
andtoeducatethemabouttheassociatedrisks.
ToincreaseawarenessofthelimitationofDistrictandprovincialfirefightingresourcesto
encourageproactiveandselfreliantattitudes.
Toworkdiligentlytoreduceignitionsduringperiodsofhighfiredanger.
Todevelopacommunityeducationprograminthenexttwoyears.
ToestablishaFireSmartpilotprojectinthenextfiveyears.
ToenhancetheRegionalDistrictswebsitetobettercommunicatewildfireprotection
planningtothecommunityinthenexttwoyears.
Toimprovefiredangerandevacuationsignageinthenexttwoyears.
7.1.2
Issues
CurrentlythereisminimalinformationontheRegionalDistrictswebsite.
Thereiscurrentlyalackofsignageonmajorroutesthroughthecommunity.
FireSmartprincipleshavebeenrecentlyintroducedatlocalfallfairsandfiredepartment
openhouses,howevertherearelimitedpersonnelwiththebackgroundtodeliverFireSmart
information.
Page 32
July 2010
7.1.3
Recommendations Alberni-Clayoquot Regional District
Recommendation1: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderworkingwiththeMOFRto
enhanceeducationandcommunication.Publiceducationprogramscouldbeenhancedby:
1)integratingaunitofFireSmartandwildfiresafetyintotheelementaryschool
curriculumforlocalchildren,inconjunctionwithoradditiontothecurrentcurriculum
provided(FireSafetyHouseandFirePreventionWeek);2)creatingaFireSmartsticker
programwhereFireDepartmentmembersattendresidencesandcertifythemasmeeting
FireSmartguidelines.
Recommendation2: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderdevelopingacommunication
plantooutlinethepurpose,methodsanddesiredresultsofcommunicationandeducation
inthecommunity.Educationalinformationandcommunicationtoolsneedtobe
stakeholderspecific.Toestablisheffectivecommunicationwithintargetgroups,theplan
shouldidentifyspokespersonswhocanbestestablishcommunicationtieswithtarget
audiencesandprovidetheeducationalinformationrequired.
Recommendation3: TheRegionalDistrictshouldinvestigatethepotentialforworking
withlocaldeveloperstoconstructaFireSmartshowhomeorpublicbuildingwithFireSmart
landscapingasatooltoeducateandcommunicatetheprinciplesofFireSmarttothepublic.
ThePortAlberniFireDepartmenthasexpressedinterestinsettingupaFireSmartpilot
projectattheMcLeanMillsite.Thisshouldbesupported.
Recommendation4: Thestandardforwebsiteinformationaboutfireshouldincludean
outlineofcommunityfirerisksandfiredanger.Informationshouldincludefirebylaws,
campfirebansandwildfirehazardratings,aswellasFireSmartinformation
Recommendation5: TheRegionalDistrictusesradioandlocalprintmediato
communicatefiredangernewstothecommunityviathePortAlberniFireDepartment.
Theyshouldcontinuetousethisandotherlocalmediasuchaspamphletmailoutstodeliver
FireSmarteducationalmaterialsandtocommunicateinformationonfiredangerduring
periodsofhighandextremefiredanger.
Recommendation6: Signageconsistingofcurrentfiredanger,campfirebansandgeneral
warningsregardingfiresafetyshouldbepostedalongmainroutesthroughouttheRegional
District.
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July 2010
Recommendation7: TheRegionalDistrictandFireDepartmentshouldtrainadditional
personneltodeliverFireSmartinformationtothepublic.
Recommendation8: TheBamfield,PortAlberni,andotherlocalFireDepartmentsshould
workwiththeACRD,BCParksandtheChamberofCommercetoeducatethelocal
businesscommunity,particularlybusinessesthatdependonforestuse(i.e.,tourismand
recreation)onFireSmartpreparationandplanning.
7.2
StructureProtection
7.2.1
Objectives
ToadoptaFireSmartapproachtositeandstructurehazardassessmentandstructure
protection.
TodeveloppolicytoolstoadoptFireSmartstandardsoverthenextfiveyears.
7.2.2
Issues
ManyhomesdonotmeettheFireSmartstructurehazardstandardsforinterfacefiresafety.
CurrentlythereisnofirevulnerabilitystandardforroofingmaterialsusedintheRegional
District.Manynewhomesareconstructedwithratedroofingmaterials;howeverolder
homesoftenhaveunratedroofsthatarevulnerabletospotfires.Inadditiontothe
vulnerabilityofroofingmaterialswithinthecommunity,adjacentvegetationisoftenin
closeproximitytoroofs,roofsurfacesareoftencoveredwithlitterfallandleavesfrom
nearbytrees,andopendecksarecommon.SeeexamplesinFigure15,Figure16,Figure17,
andFigure18.
Unratedroofingmaterialscontributesignificantlytofirerisk.Intheshortterm,aresolution
tothisissueisdifficultgiventhesignificantcosttohomeowners.However,overthelong
term,alteringthebuildingcodeorbylawstoencourageachangeinroofingmaterialswhen
roofreplacementofindividualresidencesisrequiredmaybeasolution.
GiventhatspottingfromcrownfiresburninginsurroundingsecondgrowthDouglasfir
standsisoneofthebiggestthreatstothePortAlberniarea,emphasisshouldbeplacedon
fireratedroofing.
Combustiblematerialsstoredwithin10mofresidencesarealsoconsideredasignificant
issue.Woodpilesorotherflammablematerialsadjacenttothehomeprovidefueland
ignitablesurfacesforembers.
Structuresetbacksfromforestedgesarelimitedinmanyareas,whichfacilitatesfire
transmissiontoorfromresidences(Figure15,Figure16,Figure17).
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July 2010
Figure15.Photographshowingahomewithinthestudyareawithflammableshakeroofingmaterial
andpoordefensiblespace.
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Figure16.Exampleofahomewithinthestudyareawithshakesidingandlittlesetbackfromforested
edges.
Figure17.Exampleofaluminumroofing,butwithanopendeckandlittlesetbacktovegetation.
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Figure18.Anexampleoftworoofingmaterials;thestructureonthelefthasasphaltandthestructure
ontherighthasflammableshake.
Figure19.ExampleofgoodFireSmartplanning;10mdefensiblespace,nonflammableroofingand
siding,woodpileatleast10mfromstructure.Inthiscasethepropanetankwouldbebetterlocatedat
least10mfromthestructure.
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7.2.3
Recommendation9: Wherehomesandbusinessesarebuiltimmediatelyadjacenttothe
forestedge,theRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderincorporatingbuildingsetbacksinto
bylawwithaminimumdistanceof10mwhenbuildingsbordertheforestinterface.
Recommendation10: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconductaFireSmarthazardassessment
ofthecommunitytoeducateresidentsonthehazardsthatexistontheirpropertiesandhow
tomitigatethosehazards.
Recommendation11: TheRegionalDistrictshouldinvestigatethepolicytoolsavailablefor
reducingwildfirerisk.Theseincludevoluntaryfireriskreductionforlandowners,bylaws
forbuildingmaterialsandsubdivisionestablishment,covenantsforvegetationsetbacks,
delineationofWildfireDevelopmentPermitareas(http://www.regionaldistrict.com/docs/
planning/DPGuides/DP%20wildfire%20guide.pdf),incentivessuchasexclusionfromafire
protectiontax,andeducation.Specifically,theRegionalDistrictshouldinvestigateaprocess
tocreateand/orreviewandreviseexistingbylawstobeconsistentwiththedevelopmentof
aFireSmartcommunity.
Recommendation12: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderrequiringtheuseofroofing
materialsthatarefireretardantwithaClassAandClassBratingwithinnewsubdivisions.
TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderobtaininglegaladviceregardingtheimplementation
ofbuildingrequirementsthataremorerestrictivethantheBCBuildingCode.While
restrictionstoratedroofingarenotsupportedintheCodeatthistime,thereareseveral
communitieswhichhaveundergoneorareundergoingvariousprocesses(e.g.,lobbying,
legalopinion,declarationofhazardbyFireChief)toenactroofingbylawswithintheir
WildfireDevelopmentPermitareas.
Recommendation13: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderworkingwiththeBuilding
PolicyBranchtocreateapolicystructurethatwouldenabletheRegionalDistricttobetter
addresswildlandurbaninterfaceprotectionconsiderationsforbuildings.
Recommendation14: TheDistrictshouldconsiderconductingareviewofhydrant
distributionandfireflowsinruralareassuchasCherryCreekandBeaverCreektocheck
whetheranyupgradesarerequired,particularlyconsideringthepossibilityofmultiple
ignitionsfromspotting.
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Recommendation15: SubdivisiondesignplansshouldbereviewedbytheFireDepartment
toensurethatsuitableaccessroutesexist,thathydrantaccessibilityisadequatewhere
applicable,andthatinterfacefirerelatedissuesareaddressed.
7.3
EmergencyResponse
7.3.1
Objectives
Todevelopanemergencyresponseplanthatenableseffectiveevacuation,improves
firefightersuppressioncapabilityandmaintainsfirefightersafety.
Torevieweachcommunitysevacuationplansinthenext12months.
Todevelopacontingencyplan,overthenext12months,intheeventthatsmokerequires
evacuationofcriticalemergencyservicesfacilities.
7.3.2
Issues
Evacuationofresidentsandaccessforemergencypersonnelisanimportantconsideration
giventheamountofforestfuelsinproximitytomanyhomesandthepotentialformultiple
structurefiresresultingfromspottingbyairborneembers.TheRegionalDistricts
EmergencyPlanningprogramcurrentlyhasanevacuationplanfortsunamis.Thereisno
evacuationplanspecifictoforestfires.
Goodtwowayaccessiscriticalintheeventofaninterfacefire,bothformovementof
emergencycrewsinandevacuationofresidentsout.Smokeandpoorvisibilitycanfurther
complicateaccess,creatingthenecessityfortrafficcontrolinsomelocations.Ingeneral,the
RegionalDistricthasrelativelygoodaccessroutes.Bamfield,Sarita,andFranklinRiverare
accessedbyloggingroadfromPortAlberniandLakeCowichan.Thereisariskthatthese
areascouldbeisolateddependingonthelocationofawildfire.Howeverthereisgood
alternateaccessbyboatviaAlberniInlet.TheEaglePointpeninsulaonthenorthshoreof
SproatLakeislimitedtoasinglein/outaccessroute.Residentsinthisareacanbeevacuated
bywaterintheeventofafireduetothenumberofboatsanddocksreadilyavailableduring
summermonths.ThenorthernpartoftheAlberniValleyaccessedbyBeaverCreekRoad,
northofSmithRoadislimitedtoonemainin/outaccessroute.Therearealternate
evacuationroutesviaforestryroadstoCumberlandinthenorth,andloopingbacktothe
PacificRimHighwaybyGreatCentralLakeRoad.
Itcannotbeoverstatedthatintheeventofawildfire,somedeathsaretheresultofvehicle
accidentsorfirerelateddeathsduringevacuation.Oneaccidentcouldblockaroadwayand
haveamajornegativeimpactuponevacuationefforts.
Inadditiontotheevacuationofresidents,safetyoffirefightingpersonnelisamajor
consideration.UnderextremefireconditionsitmaybedifficultfortheFireandRescue
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Servicetoaccessspecificareasduetothepotentialforresourcestobeisolatedorcutoff.
Defenceoftheselocationswouldbesecondarytosafety.
ThereisaconsiderableamountofprivatelyownedforestlandaroundtheRegionalDistrict,
andaccesstosomeareasisgated.ThePortAlberniFireDepartmentmaintainsgatelocation
awarenessandhaskeysforsomegatesownedbyforestcompanies.Itischallengingtokeep
currentwithkeysasthelocksaresometimeschangedwithoutnotificationtotheFire
Department.TheEmergencyPlanningCoordinatordoesnothavedirectaccesstothegated
roadinformation.
7.3.3
Recommendation16: Aformalcommunicationstructureshouldbeestablishedwiththe
MOFRsothatinformationregardingfiresintheregioniscommunicatedtotheRegional
Districtinatimelymanner.Thismightbebestachievedthroughjointcooperationwiththe
ACRD,ACRDmunicipalities,andtheMOFR.
Recommendation17: Considerationshouldbegiventofurtherdevelopingcommunity
evacuationplansrelatingtointerfacewildfire,buildingontheACRDevacuationplan
currentlyinplacefortsunamis.Appropriateevacuationroutesshouldbemapped,
consideringDisasterResponseRoutes(DRR).Majorevacuationroutesshouldbesignedand
communicatedtothepublic.Theplanshouldidentifylooproadsandensureaccessroutes
havesufficientwidthfortwowaytraffic.Inaddition,alternativeemergencyresponder
accessshouldbeconsidered.
Recommendation18: Aspartoftheevacuationplan,theRegionalDistrictshoulddevelop
strategiestoquicklyidentifyandclearcaraccidentsthatblockorimpedetrafficduring
evacuationefforts.
Recommendation19: TheRegionalDistrictshouldworktowardsimprovingaccessinareas
oftheRegionalDistrictthatareconsideredisolatedandthathaveinadequatelydeveloped
accessforevacuationandfirecontrol(forexample,byopeningdeadendroads,widening
clearedroadrightsofwayandconnectingroads).Thestatusofforestryroadconditions
shouldbekeptcurrentduringthefireseason.
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Recommendation20: Newsubdivisionsshouldbedevelopedwithmultipleaccesspoints
thataresuitableforevacuationandthemovementofemergencyresponseequipment.The
numberofaccesspointsandtheircapacityshouldbedeterminedduringsubdivisiondesign
andshouldbebasedonthresholddensitiesofhousesandvehicleswithinthesubdivisions.
Recommendation21: Whereforestedlandsabutnewsubdivisions,considerationshouldbe
giventorequiringroadwaystobeplacedadjacenttothoselands.Ifforestedlandssurround
thesubdivision,ringroadsshouldbepartofthesubdivisiondesign.
Recommendation22: .TheEmergencyPlanningCoordinatorshouldmaintainacopyofa
gatelocationmapandkeystatusforprivateforestlandwithintheinterfacearea.Forest
companiesmanaginggatedroadsshouldbeencouragedtoupdatethePortAlberniFire
Departmentwheneverlocksarechangedsoasetofcurrentlockkeyscanbemaintained.
Recommendation23: Duringalargewildfireitispossiblethatcriticalinfrastructurewithin
theRegionalDistrictcouldbeseverelyimpactedbysmoke.Itisrecommendedthat
contingencyplansbedevelopedintheeventthatsmokecausesevacuationofthe
communitysincidentcommandcentres.TheRegionalDistrictshouldcooperatewith
municipalandprovincialgovernmentstoidentifyalternateincidentcommandlocations
andamobilefacilityintheeventthatthecommunityisevacuated.
Recommendation24: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderconductingareviewofcritical
waterinfrastructuretoidentifyareaswherewaterinfrastructurerequiresimprovement.
MappingofwaterinfrastructureshouldbesharedwithRegionalDistrictmunicipalities,as
wellasadjacentRegionalDistricts,whichhavemutualaidagreements,andwiththeMOFR
toaidwildlandsuppressioncrewsduringawildfireevent.
7.4
Training/Equipment
7.4.1
Objectives
Toensureadequateandconsistenttrainingforfirefighterpersonnelandtobuildfirefighter
experience.
TocontinuetotrainallFireDepartmentpersonneltotheprovincialstandard(S100and
S215)onanannualbasis.
Toensureadequateequipmentisavailableforwildfiresuppressioncrews.
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Issues
7.4.2
ThePortAlberniFireDepartmentpersonnelhavereceivedtrainingtoMinistryofForests
andRangewildlandfiresuppressionstandards(S100andS215).However,trainingisnot
doneonanannualbasis.
ThePortAlberniFireDepartmentrecentlypurchasedforestfirefightingequipment,
including2portablepumpsandforestrygradehose,thatistransportedby4x4vehicle.
Thereisnowatersupplycarriedonthetruck.
ThereisnodedicatedportablesprinklerkitavailableintheDistrict.Portablesprinklerkits
ownedbytheUBCMandadministeredbytheOfficeoftheFireCommissioneraredeployed
provinciallyatthediscretionoftheMOFR.ThesewillnotlikelybeavailableonVancouver
Islandunderconditionsofprovincialhighorextremefiredangerconditions.
7.4.3
Recommendation25: Thefollowingtrainingshouldbeconsidered:1)TheS100course
trainingshouldbeconductedonanannualbasisifpossible;andforallnewfiredepartment
personnel;2)TheS215courseinstructionshouldbegiventoFireChiefsandDeputies;3)A
reviewoftheS215courseshouldbegivenonanannualbasis;and,4)IncidentCommand
SystemtrainingshouldbegiventoFireChiefsandDeputies.
Recommendation26: TheFireDepartmentshouldmeetwiththeMOFRpriortothefire
seasontoreviewtheincidentcommandsystemstructureintheeventofamajorwildland
fire.Thereviewshouldincludedesignatedradiochannelsandoperatingprocedures.
Recommendation27: TheACRDandthePortAlberniFireDepartmentshouldconsider
reviewingitsexistinginventoryofinterfacefirefightingequipmenttoensurethatitemssuch
aslargevolumefirehoses,portablepumpsandfirefighterpersonalprotectionequipment
(PPE)areadequatetoresourcetheinterfacearea.FireDepartmentpersonnelshouldhave
correctpersonalprotectiveequipmentandwildlandfirefightingtools.Hoses,pumpsand
otherequipmentshouldbecompatiblewithMOFRwildlandfirefightingequipment.
Recommendation28: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderworkingwiththe
municipalitiestocoordinatethecreationofaregionalandsubregionalmobilecacheof
wildlandfirefightingequipment.Thiswouldreducethecostofpurchasingandmaintaining
thecacheandprovideadditionalresourcesintheeventofawildfire.
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Recommendation29: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderpurchasingamobilesprinkler
kit.TheUBCMshouldbeconsultedtoseeifsupplementalfundingisavailable.The
ErringtonVolunteerFireDepartmentandPortMoodyFireDepartmentcanbeconsultedto
reviewtheirmobilesprinklersystems.
Recommendation30: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderpurchasingandoutfittinga
mobileinitialattackwildlandinterfacetrailer.Thiswouldbestockedwithallrequired
interfacefirefightingequipment.ThePortMoodyFireDepartmentcanbeconsultedto
reviewtheirwildlandinterfacetrailer.
Recommendation31: Mutualaidagreementsshouldbereviewedorestablishedwith
MOFR,forestcompanies,municipalitieswithintheACRD,andadjacentRegionalDistricts
toensurethatadequateresourcesandmanpowersupportareavailableintheeventofa
wildfire.
7.5
Vegetation(Fuel)Management
7.5.1
Objectives
Toproactivelyreducepotentialfirebehaviour,therebyincreasingtheprobabilityof
successfulsuppressionandminimizingadverseimpacts.
Toreducethehazardousfueltypes(C3,C4)onpubliclandlocatedadjacenttostructures.
Ideally,overthenextfiveyears,themajorityofthesefueltypeswouldbeconvertedtoless
hazardousfueltypesorisolated.
7.5.2
Issues
LandintheRegionalDistrictstudyareaisprimarilyprivately(40%)andprovincially(52%)
owned(Map7).TheremaininglandsareFederalland(7%)(Table12).About25%ofthe
hazardousfueltypesarelocatedonprivatepropertyintheACRDprojectarea(Map8).The
mostsignificantportionofhazardousfueltypesonprivatelandislocatedintheAlberni
Valleyarea.
Table12.Landownershipwithinthestudyarea.
Ownership
CrownFederal
CrownProvincial
Private
Unknown
GrandTotal
Area
Percent
2,225ha
16,271ha
12,417ha
348ha
31,261ha
7
52
40
1
100
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Map7.Mapshowingownershipstatus(note:therearesomeerrorsintheavailableownershipdata).
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Priority1fueltypesfortreatmentconsiderationareC4fueltypeslocatedwithin100mof
structures,whileC3fueltypeswithin100mofstructuresareconsideredPriority2.
ExamplesofahazardousC4andC3fueltypesinthestudyareaareshowninFigure20and
Figure21respectively.Treatmentofotherfueltypesisnotconsideredapriority.Treatments
shouldbeginwithPriority1fuelpolygonsclosesttotheinterfaceandworkouttowards
Priority2fuelpolygons.Thefocusoftreatmentsshouldbethemodificationoffuelsusing
thinningtreatmentstoreducetheoverallfirebehaviourpotentialadjacenttothe
community.Bythinningcrownsdowntoapproximately40%crowncover,firebehaviour
canbemodifiedfromacrownfiretoagroundfire.Thesearelesshazardoustostructures
andpersonnel,andaremorereadilysuppressed.
ThereareseveralexistingnaturalfuelbreakswithintheDistrictincludingdeciduousand
shrubbyfueltypes(seeMap9).Fueltreatmentswithinhazardousfueltypesadjacentto
theseareaswillenhancetheeffectivenessoftheseexistingfuelbreaksonthelandscape
Figure20.PhotoofhazardousC4fueltypeinthestudyarea.
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Figure21.ExampleofatypicalsubdivisionadjacenttohazardousC3fueltype.
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Map8.Hazardousfueltypesinrelationshiptolandownershipwithintheprojectarea.Notethatthereareerrorsinthesourceownershipdata
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Map9.Existingfuelbreakswheredeciduous,nonfuels,water,orshrubbyO1aoccurs.
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7.5.3
Recommendation32: AportionofthehazardousfueltypesintheACRDarelocatedon
privateproperty.TheRegionalDistrictshouldworkwithprivatepropertyownerstoensure
theyunderstandtheimportanceandprinciplesofFireSmart.TheRegionalDistrictshould
investigatewaystosupportresidentsreducingfuels,makinghomesFireSmartandraising
awarenessofignitionhazards.
Recommendation33: TheRegionalDistrictshouldidentifypriority1and2standsoncrown
land,particularlyadjacenttoareasofhigherriskshownintheWRMSProbabilityX
Consequenceanalysis.Theseidentifiedareasshouldbethefocusofaprogressivethinning
programthatisimplementedoverthenextfivetotenyears.Aqualifiedprofessional
forester(RPF),withasoundunderstandingoffirebehaviourandfiresuppression,should
developtreatmentprescriptions.
Recommendation34: TheprovincialgovernmentandtheUBCMhavefundingprograms
specificallytoaddresswildfirehazardonCrownandDistrictlands.TheRegionalDistrict
shouldconsiderapplyingforUBCMfundingtocarryoutfueltreatmentsthatwill
strategicallymitigatefuelhazardwithin2kmoftheidentifiedhighprioritycommunities.
Recommendation35: TheRegionalDistrictshouldinitiallyconductfueltreatmentsina
pilotprojectarea.Thisareashouldbeusedasaneducationtooltohelpresidents
understandthegoalsandmethodsoffueltreatments.TheResortMunicipalityofWhistler
canbeconsultedtoreviewtheirCWPPfuelthinningproject(RobWhitton,RMOWFire
ChiefOffice,6049358260).
Recommendation36: TheRegionalDistrictshouldconsiderlobbyingtheprovinceto
identifyanddocumenthazardousfueltypesonCrownlandsthatarenotwithin2kmofthe
identifiedhighprioritycommunitiesbutthatarewithin5kmofresidentialareasthatcould
beimpactedbyawildlandurbaninterfacefire.Effortshouldbedirectedatencouragingthe
provincetoinitiateafueltreatmentprogramfortheselands.Thismayincludecoordinating
lobbyinginitiativeswithotherlocalgovernmentsfromwithintheACRD.
Recommendation37: TheRegionalDistrictshouldworkwithBCHydrotoensurethat:1)
transmissioninfrastructurecanbemaintainedandmanagedduringawildfireevent;and2)
therightofwayvegetationmanagementstrategyincludesconsultationwiththe
communityandtheFireDepartmentsothatwoodwasteaccumulationsorvegetationdo
notcontributetounacceptablefuelloadingordiminishtheabilityoftherightofwaytoact
asafuelbreak.
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8.0
CommunityWildfireProtectionPlanningBackground
8.1
CommunicationandEducation
OneofthekeyelementstodevelopingFireSmartcommunitiesandneighbourhoodsis
cultivatinganunderstandingoffireriskinthewildlandurbaninterface.Aneffective
communicationstrategyshouldtargetelectedofficials(regionalandlocalgovernments),
structuralandwildlandfirepersonnel,appropriateDistrictdepartments(planning,bylaw,and
environment),thepublicandtheprivatesector.Theprinciplesofeffectivecommunication
include:
Developingclearandexplicitobjectives,orworkingtowardclearunderstanding;
Involvingallpartiesthathaveaninterestinatransparentprocess;
Identifyingandaddressingspecificinterestsofdifferentgroups;
Coordinatingwithabroadrangeoforganizationsandgroups;
Notminimizingorexaggeratingthelevelofrisk;
Onlymakingcommitmentsthatyoucankeep;
Planningcarefullyandevaluatingyoureffort;and
Listeningtotheconcernsofyourtargetaudience.
Toeffectivelyminimizefireriskintheinterfacezonerequiresthecoordinationandcooperation
ofmanylevelsofgovernmentincludingtheB.C.MinistryofForestsandRange,theACRD,
localgovernmentdepartments,andothergovernmentagencies.However,ifprevention
programsaretobeeffective,fireriskreductionwithininterfaceareasofthestudyareamust
engagethelocalresidents.Thisrequiresacommitmenttowellplannededucationand
communicationprogramsthatarededicatedtointerfacefireriskreduction.
Thereisgenerallyalackofunderstandingaboutinterfacefireandthesimplestepsthatcanbe
takentominimizeriskincommunities.Typically,thereiseitherapathyand/oranaversionto
dealingwithmanyoftheissueshighlightedinthisreport.Publicperceptionoffireriskisoften
underdevelopedduetopublicconfidenceandrelianceonlocalandprovincialfirerescue
services.Twousefulwebsitesthatprovidelinkstowildfireeducationresourcesandbasicfire
informationincludewww.efire.organdhttp://www.pssg.gov.bc.ca/firecom/.Figure22showsa
screencapturefromtheCityofChilliwackspublicwildfireeducationwebsiteasanexampleof
aclear,navigableandinformativepubliccommunicationmethod.
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Figure22.Exampleofmunicipalwebsiteprovidingfireeducationinformation
(http://www.chilliwack.com/main/page.cfm?id=627).
8.1.1
Target Audiences
Historically,therehasbeenlimitedunderstandingofwildlandurbaninterfacefireriskswithin
manycommunitiesofBritishColumbia.However,thelessonslearnedfromthe2003fireseason
havesignificantlyincreasedlocalfirerescueserviceawarenessandlocal,regional,and
provincialorganizationshaveupgradedfiresuppressionunderstandingandcapability.Despite
this,thereislimitedunderstandingamongkeycommunitystakeholdersanddecisionmakers.
Educationandcommunicationprogramsmusttargetthebroadspectrumofstakeholdergroups
withincommunities.Thetargetaudienceshouldinclude,butnotbelimitedto,thefollowing
groups:
Homeownerswithinareasthatcouldbeimpactedbyinterfacefire;
Localbusinesses;
Districtcouncilsandstaff;
Localutilities;and
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Media.
8.1.2
Pilot Projects
PilotprojectsthatdemonstrateandcommunicatetheprinciplesofFireSmartanditsapplication
toCommunityWildfireProtectionshouldbeconsidered.Thefocusofthesepilotprojects
shouldbetodemonstrateappropriatebuildingmaterialsandconstructiontechniquesin
combinationwiththeFireSmartprinciplesofvegetationmanagement,andtoshowcaseeffective
fuelmanagementtechniques.SeveralhomesandbusinessescouldbeidentifiedbytheRegional
Districttoserveacommunicationandeducationfunctionthatwouldallowresidentstoseethe
properimplementationofFireSmartprinciples.Thefueltreatmentpilotshouldfocuson
hazardousfueltypesidentifiedintheCWPP.
Thesepilotprojectsareconsideredahighpriorityfortheurbaninterfacetoprovideinformation
ondifferentfirehazardreductiontechniquesanddemonstrateappropriatefireriskreduction
methodstothecommunityincludingDistrictstaff,communityleadersandthepublic.These
demonstrationareaswillalsoprovidesitesforimprovedpublicunderstandingofthemethods
tomitigatefireriskthatcanbeappliedonindividualproperties.
8.1.3
Website
Websitesareconsideredoneofthebestandmostcosteffectivemethodsofcommunication
available.Firerelatedinformationsuchasfiredangerandfirerestrictions,aswellasfirerisk
assessmentinformationshouldbeincludedonanyfireprotectionwebsite.Picturesandtext
thatoutlinedemonstration/pilotprojectscanalsobeeffectiveindemonstratingprogressand
successoffireriskreductionactivities.Duringfireseasonitisparticularlyimportantthat
wildfiresafetyrelatedinformationbepostedsothatitiseasilyaccessibletothegeneralpublic.
8.1.4
Media Contacts, Use and Coordination
Mediacontactplaysanessentialroleinimprovingpublicawarenessaboutfireriskinthe
community.Interestinwildfireprotectioncanbecultivatedandencouragedtoimprovethe
transferofinformationtothepublicbymorefrequentmediacontact.
Keyissuesindealingwiththemediainclude:
AssignmentofamediaspokespersonfortheRegionalDistrict;
Providingregularinformationupdatesduringthefireseasonregarding
conditionsandhazards;and
Providingnewsreleasesregardingtheinterfaceissuesandrisksfacingthe
community.
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8.1.5
Other Methods
Educationalinformationandcommunicationtoolsneedtobestakeholderspecific.Toestablish
effectivecommunicationwithintargetgroups,spokespersonswhocanbestestablish
communicationtiesandprovidetheeducationalinformationrequiredshouldbeselected.The
followingsubsectionsoutlinepotentialcommunicationmethodsforspecificstakeholder
groups.
8.1.5.1
8.1.5.2
8.1.6
Homeowners
Conductsurveysandconsultthepublictoascertaincurrentattitudes.
Designatespokespersonstocommunicatetothisgroupandestablisharapport.
Establishcommunityinformationmeetingsconductedbyspokespersons.
Mailoutinformationalmaterial.
ProvideFireSmarthazardassessmentformsandinformation.
Providesignageattrailheadsandotherprominentlocations.
Government Ministries, District and Municipal Officials, Disaster Planning Services,

Utilities
Developmaterialspecifictotheeducationalneedsoftheofficials.
Presentcouncilswithinformationandencouragecooperativeprojectsbetween
municipalitiesandtheRegionalDistrict.
Establishmemorandaofunderstandingbetweenagencies.
Appointaspokespersontocommunicatetothegroupsandhelpfosterinter
agencycommunication.
Raiseawarenessofofficialsastotheviewsofthepublicregardinginterface
risksintheircommunity.
General Messages
Educationandcommunicationmessagesshouldbesimpleyetcomprehensive.Thelevelof
complexityanddetailofthemessageshouldbespecifictothetargetaudience.Acomplex,
wordymessagewithoverlytechnicaljargonwillbelesseffectivethanasimple,straightforward
message.Abasiclevelofbackgroundinformationisrequiredtoenableasolidunderstandingof
fireriskissues.Generally,messagesshouldhaveatleastthefollowingthreecomponents:
1.
BackgroundInformation
Outlinegeneralissuesfacinginterfacecommunities.
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Communicatespecificconditionsinthecommunitythatcauseconcern.
Provideexamplesofpotentialwildfirebehaviorinthecommunity.
Provideexamplesofhowwildfirehasaffectedothercommunities.
Explaintheeffectsthatawildfirecouldhaveuponthecommunity.
ConveyFireSmartprinciples.
2.
CurrentImplementationandFutureInterfacePlanning
Provideinformationonthecurrentplanningsituation.
Explainwhoisinvolvedininterfaceplanning.
Explaintheobjectivesofinterfacewildfireplanning.
Explainthelimitationoffirefightingcrewsandequipmentincaseofawildfire.
Outlinetheemergencyprocedureduringawildfire.
3.
ResponsibilitiesandActions
Outlinetheresponsibilitiesofeachgroupinreducingwildfirehazards.
Explaintheactionsthateachgroupmaytaketomeettheseresponsibilities.
8.2
StructureProtection
8.2.1
FireSmart
Anotherimportantconsiderationinprotectingthewildlandurbaninterfacezonefromfireis
ensuringthathomescanwithstandaninterfacefireevent.Often,itisaburningembertraveling
somedistance(spotting)andlandingonvulnerablehousingmaterials,ratherthandirect
fire/flame(vegetationtohouse)contact,thatignitesastructure.Alternatively,theconvectiveor
radiantheatingproducedbyonestructuremayigniteanadjacentstructureifitiswithinclose
proximity.Structureprotectionisfocusedonensuringthatbuildingmaterialsandconstruction
standardsareappropriatetoprotectindividualhomesfrominterfacefire.Materialsand
constructionstandardsusedinroofing,exteriorsiding,windowanddoorglazing,eaves,vents,
openings,balconies,decksandporchesareprimaryconsiderationsindevelopingFireSmart
neighbourhoods.Housingbuiltusingappropriateconstructiontechniquesandmaterialsisless
likelytobeimpactedbyinterfacefires.
WhilemanycommunitiesestablishedtodateinBCwerebuiltwithoutsignificantconsideration
withregardtointerfacefire,therearestillwaystoreducehomevulnerability.Changesto
roofingmaterials,siding,anddeckingcanultimatelybeachievedthroughlongtermchangesin
bylawsandbuildingcodes.
TheFireSmartapproachhasbeenadoptedbyawiderangeofgovernmentsandisarecognized
templateforreducingandmanagingfireriskinthewildlandurbaninterface.Themost
importantcomponentsoftheFireSmartapproacharetheadoptionofthehazardassessment
systemsforwildfire,siteandstructurehazardassessment,andtheproposedsolutionsand
mitigationoutlinedforvegetationmanagement,structureprotection,andinfrastructure.Where
fireriskisunacceptable,theFireSmartstandardshould,ataminimum,beappliedtonew
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subdivisiondevelopmentsand,whereverpossible,thestandardshouldbeintegratedinto
changesto,andnewconstructionwithin,existingsubdivisionsandbuiltupareas.
8.2.1.1
Roofing Material
Roofingmaterialisoneofthemostimportantcharacteristicsinfluencingahomesvulnerability
tofire.Roofingmaterialsthatcanbeignitedbyburningembersincreasetheprobabilityoffire
relateddamagetoahomeduringaninterfacefireevent.
Inmanycommunitiesthereisnofirevulnerabilitystandardforroofingmaterial.Homesare
oftenconstructedwithunratedmaterialsthatareconsideredamajorhazardduringalargefire
event.Inadditiontothevulnerabilityofroofingmaterials,adjacentvegetationmaybein
contactwithroofs,orroofsurfacesmaybecoveredwithlitterfallandleavesfromadjacent
trees.Thisincreasesthehazardbyincreasingtheignitablesurfacesandpotentiallyenabling
directflamecontactbetweenvegetationandstructures.
8.2.1.2
Building Exterior - Siding Material
Buildingexteriorsconstructedofwoodareconsideredthesecondhighestcontributorto
structuralhazardafterroofingmaterial.Woodsidingwithintheinterfacezoneisvulnerableto
directflameormayignitewhensufficientlyheatedbynearbyburningfuels.Windscausedby
convectionwilltransportburningembers,whichmaylodgeagainstsidingmaterials.Siding
materials,suchaswoodshingles,boards,orvinylaresusceptibletofire.Brick,stucco,orheavy
timbermaterialsoffermuchbetterresistancetofire.
8.2.1.3
Balconies and Decking
Openbalconiesanddecksincreasefirevulnerabilitythroughtheirabilitytotraprisingheat,by
permittingtheentryofsparksandembers,andbyenablingfireaccesstotheseareas.Closing
thesestructuresofflimitsemberaccesstotheseareasandreducesfirevulnerability.
8.2.1.4
Combustible Materials
Combustiblematerialsstoredwithin10mofresidencesarealsoconsideredasignificantissue.
Woodpilesorotherflammablematerialsadjacenttothehomeprovidefuelandignitable
surfacesforembers.Locatingthesefuelsawayfromstructureshelpstoreducestructuralfire
hazards.
8.2.2
Planning and Bylaws
Therearetwotypesofwildfiresafetyregulationsmostcommonlyusedbylocalgovernments:
Type1)regulationsthatrestricttheuseoffire;and,Type2)regulationsthatrestrictbuilding
materials,requiresetbacksorrestrictzoning.WhilemostmunicipalitieshavebylawsforType1
regulations,Type2regulationsarenotascommon.However,theseregulationsarean
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importantcontributortowildfireriskreduction.SeveralType2policyoptionsaregenerally
availabletolocalgovernments.Theseprimarilyinclude:
Voluntaryfireriskreductionforlandowners(buildingmaterialsand
landscaping)
Bylawsforbuildingmaterialsandsubdivisiondesign
Covenantsrequiringsetbacksandvegetationspacing
Siteassessmentsthatdeterminetheimpositionoffireprotectiontaxes
Education
Zoninginfireproneareas
Treatmentsonprivateandpublicland(commercialthinning,noncommercial
mechanicalthinning,clearcutcommercialharvestingorprescribedburning)
Therearetwoprominentissuesthatmaybecorrectedthroughthebylawprocess.Unrated
roofingmaterialscontributesignificantlytofirerisk.Intheshortterm,aresolutiontothisissue
isdifficultgiventhesignificantcosttohomeowners.However,overthelongterm,altering
buildingcodesorbylawstoencourageachangeinroofingmaterialswhenroofreplacementof
individualresidencesisrequiredisgenerallyaviableoption.
Thesecondprominentissuerelatestothecreationoflargesetbacksbetweenbuildingsandthe
forest.Whereforesttreesencroachontobalconiesandbuildingfaces,thepotentialforstructure
ignitionisgreaterandmayresultinmorehousesbeingengagedbyfire,therebyreducing
firefighterabilitytosuccessfullyextinguishbothwildlandandstructuralfiresthroughouta
community.Thesetwosuggestionsrepresentonlyafractionofthechangesthatcanbe
consideredandmorecanbeidentifiedonacommunityspecificbasisbycompletingathorough
reviewofcurrentbylawsastheyrelatetofirerisk.
Localgovernmentshaveanimportantroleinmanagingcommunityfirehazardandrisk.
ThroughtheLocalGovernmentAct,DevelopmentPermitAreasauthorizelocalgovernmentsto
regulatedevelopmentinsensitiveorhazardousareaswherespecialconditionsexist.
Forexample,DevelopmentPermitAreascanbedesignatedforsuchpurposesas:
Protectionofthenaturalenvironment;
Protectionfromhazardousconditions;
Protectionofprovincialormunicipalheritagesites;
Revitalizationofdesignatedcommercialareas;or
Regulationofformandcharacterofcommercial,industrialandmultifamily
residentialdevelopment.
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Asalanduseplanningtool,theestablishmentofDevelopmentPermitAreasforinterfacefire
hazardscouldprotectnewdevelopmentsfromwildfireintheurbaninterface.Forthepurpose
offirehazardandriskreductionadevelopmentpermitmay:
8.2.3
Includespecificrequirementsrelatedtobuildingcharacter,landscaping,
setbacks,formandfinish;and
Establishrestrictionsontypeandplacementoftreesandothervegetationin
proximitytothedevelopment.
Sprinklers
AspartoftheFirestorm2003ProvincialReview,theprovincialgovernmentrespondedtothe
interfacefireissuebypurchasingmobilesprinklerkitsthatcanbedeployedduringinterface
fires.Giventhevalueoftheinterfaceinmanycommunities,itisappropriatetoconsider
employingasprinklersystemintheseareas.Trainingmayberequiredtoensureappropriate
deploymentanduseduringaninterfacefireemergency.
8.2.4
Joint Municipality Cooperation
Interagencycooperationonissuesrelatedtoresourcecapacity,training,mutualaid,and
equipmentsharingiscommonpracticeinBC.Anexpandedroleforthisrelationshipcould
includedevelopingcommunitybasedcommunicationandeducationtoolsforuseataregional
scale.Currently,manymunicipalitiesaredevelopinginhousestandardsandmaterialsto
improvepublicawareness.Amoreunifiedapproachcouldimproveefficiency,createconsistent
messages,andmorebroadlyinformthepublicofinterfacefireissuesandrisk.
8.2.5
Structured FireSmart Assessments of High Risk Areas
TheWRMSprovidesatooltoidentifyspecificareasofhighriskwithincommunities.The
WRMSprovidesasoundscientificframeworkonwhichtocompletemoredetailedlocal
neighbourhoodriskassessments.
8.3
EmergencyResponse
Theavailabilityandtimingofemergencyresponsepersonneloftendictateswhetherinterface
fireprotectionissuccessful.Wellplannedstrategiestodealwithdifferentanddifficultinterface
firescenariosarepartofacomprehensiveapproachtoaddressinginterfacefirerisk.In
communitieswheretheriskisconsideredlow,emergencyresponsealonemaybeconsideredan
adequatemanagementresponsetoprotectthecommunity.Asriskincreasessotooshouldthe
levelofemergencyresponse.Emergencyresponsealonemaynotbeanadequatemanagement
strategytodevelopdependingonthelevelofrisk.
Unlikestaticemergencies(e.g.landslides),firesaredynamicandsituationscanchange
dramaticallyovershortperiodsoftime,potentiallyoverwhelmingresources.Therefore,itis
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importanttoconsiderawiderangeofissuesincluding,butnotlimitedto,evacuationstrategies,
accessforemergencyvehiclesandequipment,managementofutilityhazardsassociatedwith
hydroelectricandgasinfrastructure,andthereliabilityandavailabilityofkeyfirefighting
infrastructureduringafireevent.
8.3.1
Access and Evacuation
Evacuationofresidentsandaccessforemergencypersonnelisanimportantconsiderationin
anycommunity.Itisparticularlyimportantinneighbourhoodswithlimitedaccessandwith
forestfuelsincloseproximitytohomeswhich.Giventhataforestfireisadynamicevent,
evacuationplanningisconsideredofcriticalimportance.FireDepartmentsmustbeprepared
forevacuationofthesick,disabled,andtheelderlywhendealingwithawildlandfire
emergency.Evacuationcanbefurthercomplicatedbysmokeandpoorvisibility,creatingthe
necessityfortrafficcontrol.Wherethisislikelytobethecase,establishingsecondaryor
alternateevacuationroutesisessential.
Inadditiontotheevacuationofresidents,safetyoffirefightingpersonnelisamajor
consideration.Whereaccessisonewayinandout,thereisthepotentialforresourcestobe
isolatedorcutoff.Defenceofneighbourhoodswithpooraccessissecondarytosafety
considerations.
8.3.2
Fire Response
Firesuppressioneffortsinmunicipalitiesareconstrainedbytheabilityoffirefightersto
successfullydefendresidenceswith:
Contiguousfuelsbetweentheforestandadjacenthomes;
Steepslopesofgreaterthan35%;and
Humancausedfuelaccumulationsandfueltanksadjacenttohomes.
Closeproximityoffuelstohomesandvulnerableroofingmaterialarethetwomostsignificant
factorsthatreducetheabilityoffirefighterstodefendresidences.Duringembershowers,
multiplefirescanigniteonvulnerableroofswithinthewildlandurbaninterface.Fuel
continuitycanprovideapathwayforfirebetweentheforestandhomes.Alackoffuelbreaks
betweenhousesandforestislikelytoincreasesuppressionresourcerequirements.Whilethere
willalwaysbealimitedabilitytoprotecthomesfromextremefirebehaviour,ortomodifyfuels
andtopography,communitiesdohavecontroloverissuessuchasdefensiblespaceandhome
constructionmaterials,andcanmakechangestoreducecommunityvulnerabilitytofire.
Residencesandbusinessesonsteepslopesarevulnerabletoincreasedfirebehaviourpotential
andshouldbetheimmediatefocusofinitialattackifthereisafirestartwithintheseareas.
Flamelengthandrateofspreadwillincreaseontheseslopes,resultinginsuppressiondifficulty
andincreasedsafetyissuesforbothwildlandandstructuralfirefighters.
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Anothersignificantissuethatcouldaffectemergencyresponseistheimpactofsmokeoncritical
infrastructuresuchasfiredepartmentsandhospitals.Heavysmokefromalargefirecouldforce
evacuationofthesefacilitiesdependingontheirlocation.
Intheeventofforestfire,municipalitiesrelyheavilyontheMOFRtoactionfiresintheforests
withinthecommunity.Duringperiodsofhighfireloadthroughouttheprovince,resourcesof
theMOFRcanbestretchedthin.Oftenhighfireactivityisconcentratedintheinteriorofthe
provinceandavailabilityofaircraftandequipmentcanbelimitedonthecoast.Insteepheavily
forestedterrain,themosteffectivemethodoffirecontrolisgenerallyairtankeractionor
bucketingwithwaterfromahelicopter.Therefore,underextremefireconditionsitmaybe
appropriateforsomemunicipalitiestoretainacontracthelicopteronstandby.Thismay
substantiallyimprovethecommunitysprobabilityofcontainingafireduringthemostsevere
partofthefireseason,andmayprovidetheMOFRwiththetimenecessarytomobilize
equipmentandresourcesfromotherpartsoftheprovince.
8.3.3
Water Supply
Inanemergencyresponsescenario,itiscriticalthatasufficientwatersupplybeavailable.The
FireUnderwritersSurveysummarizestheirrecommendationsregardingwaterworkssystems
fireprotectionrequirements,in1999WaterSupplyforPublicFireProtection,whichcanbe
accessedonlineathttp://www.scmrms.ca/TechnicalResourceLibrary_e.asp.Somekeypoints
fromthisdocumentincludetheneedfor:
Duplicationofsystempartsincaseofbreakdownsduringanemergency;
Adequatewaterstoragefacilities;
Welldistributedhydrants,includinghydrantsattheendsofdeadendstreets;and
Pipingthatiscorrectlyinstalledandingoodcondition.
Waterworksplanningshouldalwaystakeworstcasescenariosintoconsideration.Thewater
systemshouldbeabletoservemorethanonemajorfiresimultaneously,especiallyinlarger
urbancenters.
8.4
TrainingNeeds
Theeventsofthe2003fireseasonincreasedmunicipalawarenesswithregardtonecessary
trainingandequipmentimprovements.Thedivisionbetweenlocalfiredepartments/rescue
servicesandtheMOFRWildfireManagementBranchhasnarrowedthroughimprovedtraining
andcommunication.Trainingisfundamentaltomanaginginterfacefirerisk.Crossoverabilities
betweenprovincialwildlandfireandmunicipalstructuralfirepersonnelwillenhanceand
improvethecollectiveagencyresponsetowildlandurbaninterfacefire.Therefore,all
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managementstrategiesdesignedtoprotectthewildlandurbaninterfaceshouldbesupported
byanadequateleveloftrainingtoensureemergencyresponseaddressesbothwildlandand
structuralfire.
AllmunicipalfirefightersshouldbetrainedintheS100BasicWildlandFireFightingcourseon
ayearlybasis.ThisiscarriedoutbyinstructorsendorsedbytheB.C.ForestService.
Ingeneral,itisrecommendedthat:
TheS100courseinstructionbecontinuedonanannualbasis;
AreviewoftheS215courseinstructionbegivenonayearlybasis;
TheS215courseinstructionbegiventonewcareerstaffandPaidOnCall
officersonanongoingbasis;and
IncidentCommandSystemtrainingbegiventoallcareerandPaidOnCall
officers.
Althoughnotatruecourse,itisalsorecommendedthatmunicipalfiredepartmentsmeetwith
theB.C.ForestServicepriortothefireseasontoreviewtheIncidentCommandSystem
structureintheeventofamajorwildlandfire.Thisisbasedonthesuggestedtrainingfrom
above.
8.5
Vegetation(Fuel)Management
VegetationmanagementisconsideredakeyelementoftheFireSmartapproach.Givenpublic
concerns,vegetationmanagementisoftendifficulttoimplementandmustbecarefully
rationalizedinanopenandtransparentprocess.Vegetationmanagementshouldbe
strategicallyfocusedonminimizingimpactwhilemaximizingvaluetothecommunity.For
example,understorythinningorsurfacefuelremovalmaysufficetolowerfirerisk.In
situationswheretheriskishigh,amoreaggressivevegetationmanagementstrategymaybe
necessary.Vegetationmanagementmustbeevaluatedagainsttheotherelementsoutlined
abovetodetermineitsnecessity.Itseffectivenessdependsonthelongevityoftreatment
(vegetationgrowsback),cost,andtheresultanteffectonfirebehaviour.
8.5.1
Principles of Fuel Management
8.5.1.1
Definition
Fuelmanagementistheplannedmanipulationand/orreductionoflivinganddeadforestfuels
forlandmanagementobjectives(e.g.,hazardreduction).Itcanbeachievedbyanumberof
methodsincluding:
Prescribedfire;
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8.5.1.2
Mechanicalmeans;and
Biologicalmeans.
Purpose
Thegoalistoproactivelylessenthepotentialfirebehaviour,therebyincreasingtheprobability
ofsuccessfulcontainmentandminimizingadverseimpacts.Morespecifically,thegoalisto
decreasetherateoffirespread,andinturnfiresizeandintensity,aswellascrowningand
spottingpotential(Alexander2003).
Fire triangle
Fireisachemicalreactionthatrequiresthreemainingredients:
Fuel(carbon);
Oxygen;and
Heat.
Thesethreeingredientsmakeupthefiretriangle.Ifanyoneof
theseingredientsisnotpresent,afirewillnotburn.
Fuelisgenerallyavailableinamplequantitiesintheforest.Fuelmustcontaincarbon.Itcomes
fromlivingordeadplantmaterials(organicmatter).Treesandbrancheslyingontheground
areamajorsourceoffuelinaforest.Suchfuelcanaccumulategraduallyastreesinthestand
die.Fuelcanalsobuildupinlargeamountsaftercatastrophicevents,suchasinsectinfestations
ordisease.
Oxygenispresentintheair.Asoxygenisusedupbyfire,itisreplenishedquicklybywind.
Heatisneededtostartandmaintainafire.Heatcanbesuppliedbynaturethroughlightning.
Peoplealsosupplyaheatsourcethroughmisuseofmatches,campfires,trashfires,and
cigarettes.Onceafirehasstarted,itprovidesitsownheatsourceasitspreads.
8.5.1.3
Forest Fuels
Theamountoffuelavailabletoburnonanysiteisafunctionofbiomassproductionand
decomposition.ManyoftheforestecosystemswithinBritishColumbiahavethepotentialto
producelargeamountsofvegetationbiomass.Variationintheamountofbiomassproducedis
typicallyafunctionofsiteproductivityandclimate.Thedispositionorremovalofvegetation
biomassisafunctionofdecomposition.Decompositionisregulatedbytemperatureand
moisture.Inwetmaritimecoastalclimatestheratesofdecompositionarerelativelyhighwhen
comparedwithdriercoolercontinentalclimatesoftheinterior.Ratesofdecompositioncanbe
acceleratednaturallybyfireand/oranthropogenicallybyhumans.
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Ahazardousfueltypecanbedefinedbyhighsurfacefuelloadings;highproportionsoffine
fuels(<1cm)relativetolargersizeclasses,highfuelcontinuitybetweenthegroundsurfaceand
overstorytreecanopies,andhighstanddensities.Afuelcomplexisdefinedbyanycombination
oftheseattributesatthestandlevelandmayincludegroupingsofstands.
8.5.1.4
Surface Fuels
Surfacefuelsconsistofforestfloor,understoryvegetation(grasses,herbsandshrubs,andsmall
trees),andcoarsewoodydebristhatareincontactwiththeforestfloor(Figure23).Forestfuel
loadingisafunctionofnaturaldisturbance,treemortalityand/orhumanrelateddisturbance.
Surfacefuelstypicallyincludeallcombustiblemateriallyingonorimmediatelyabovethe
ground.Oftenrootsandorganicsoilshavethepotentialtobeconsumedbyfireandare
includedinthesurfacefuelcategory.
Surfacefuelsthatarelessthan12cmindiametercontributetosurfacefirespread;thesefuels
oftendryquicklyandareignitedmoreeasilythanlargerdiameterfuels.Therefore,this
categoryoffuelisthemostimportantwhenconsideringafuelreductiontreatment.Larger
surfacefuelsgreaterthan12cmareimportantinthecontributiontosustainedburning
conditions,butareoftennotascontiguousandarelessflammablebecauseofdelayeddrying
andhighmoisturecontent,whencomparedwithsmallersizeclasses.Insomecaseswherethese
lagersizeclassesformacontiguoussurfacelayer,suchasfollowingawindthroweventor
wildfire,theycancontributeanenormousamountoffuel,whichwillincreasefireseverityand
potentialforfiredamage.
Figure23.Highsurfacefuelloadingunderaforestcanopy
8.5.1.5
Aerial Fuels
Aerialfuelsincludealldeadandlivingmaterialthatisnotindirectcontactwiththeforestfloor
surface.Thefirepotentialofthesefuelsisdependentontype,size,moisturecontent,and
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overallverticalcontinuity.Deadbranchesandbarkontreesandsnags(deadstandingtrees)are
importantaerialfuel.Concentrationsofdeadbranchesandfoliageincreasetheaerialfuelbulk
densityandenablefiretomovefromtreetotree.Theexceptionisfordeciduoustreeswherethe
liveleaveswillnotnormallycarryfire.Numerousspeciesofmoss,lichens,andplantshanging
ontreesarelightandflashyaerialfuels.Allofthefuelsabovethegroundsurfaceandbelowthe
upperforestcanopyaredescribedasladderfuels.
Twomeasuresthatdescribecrownfirepotentialofaerialfuelsaretheheighttolivecrownand
crownclosure(Figure24andFigure25).Theheighttolivecrowndescribesfuelcontinuity
betweenthegroundsurfaceandlowerlimitoftheuppertreecanopy.Crownclosuredescribes
theintertreecrowncontinuityandreflectshoweasilyfirecanbepropagatedfromtreetotree.
Inadditiontocrownclosure,treedensityisanimportantmeasureofthedistributionofaerial
fuelsandhassignificantinfluenceontheoverallcrownandsurfacefireconditions(Figure26).
Higherstanddensityisassociatedwithlowerintertreespacing,whichincreasesoverallcrown
continuity.Whilehighdensitystandsmayincreasethepotentialforfirespreadintheupper
canopy,acombinationofhighcrownclosureandhighstanddensityusuallyresultsina
reductioninlightlevelsassociatedwiththesestandtypes.Reducedlightlevelsaccelerateself
treepruning,inhibitthegrowthoflowerbranches,anddecreasethecoverandbiomassof
understoryvegetation.
Figure24.Comparisonsshowingstandleveldifferencesintheheighttolivecrown.
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Figure25.Comparisonsshowingstandleveldifferencesincrownclosure.
Figure26.Comparisonsshowingstandleveldifferencesindensityandmortality.
Thinningisapreferredapproachtofuelstreatment(Figure27)andoffersseveraladvantages
comparedtoothermethods:
Thinningprovidesthemostcontroloverstandlevelattributessuchasspecies
composition,verticalstructure,treedensity,andspatialpattern,aswellasthe
retentionofsnagsandcoarsewoodydebrisformaintenanceofwildlifehabitat
andbiodiversity.
Unlikeprescribedfiretreatments,thinningiscomparativelylowrisk,isnot
constrainedtoshortweatherwindows,andcanbeimplementedatanytime.
Thinningmayprovidemarketablematerialsthatcanbeutilizedbythelocal
economy.
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Thinningcanbecarriedoutusingsensitivemethodsthatlimitsoildisturbance,
minimizedamagetoleavetrees,andprovidebenefitstoothervaluessuchas
wildlife.
Thefollowingsummarizestheguidingprinciplesthatshouldbeappliedindevelopingthinning
prescriptions:
Protectpublicsafetyandpropertybothwithinandadjacenttotheurban
interface.
Reducetheriskofhumancausedfiresintheimmediatevicinityoftheurban
interface.
Improvefiresuppressioncapabilityintheimmediatevicinityoftheurban
interface.
Reducethecontinuityofoverstoryfuelloadsandrelatedhighcrownfirerisk.
Maintainthediversityofwildlifehabitatthroughtheremovalofdense
understorywesternhemlock,westernredcedar,amabilisfir,Douglasfirand
otherminortreespecies.
Minimizenegativeimpactsonaestheticvalues,soil,nontargetedvegetation,
waterandairquality,andwildlife.
Themainwildfireobjectiveofthinningistoshiftstandsfromhavingahighcrownfirepotential
tohavingalowsurfacefirepotential.Ingeneral,thegoalsofthinningareto:
Reducestemdensitybelowacriticalthresholdtominimizethepotentialfor
crownfirespread.Targetcrownclosureislessthan40%;
Prunetoincreasetheheighttolivecrowntoaminimumof2.5metersor30%
ofthelivecrown(thelesserofthetwo)toreducethepotentialofsurfacefire
spreadingintotreecrowns;and
Removeslashcreatedbyspacingandpruningtomaintainsurfacefuelloadings
below5kg/m 2.
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Figure27.Schematicshowingtheprinciplesofthinningtoreducestandlevelhazard.
8.5.1.6
The Principles of Landscape Fuelbreak Design
Fuelbreakscanbedefinedasstrategicallyplacedstripsoflowvolumefuelwherefirefighters
canmakeastandagainstfireandprovidesafeaccessforfirecrewsinthevicinityofwildfires,
oftenforthepurposeoflightingbackfires.Fuelbreaksactasstagingareaswherefire
suppressioncrewscouldanchortheirfiresuppressionefforts,thusincreasingthelikelihood
thatfirescouldbestopped,orfirebehaviourminimized,sothatthepotentialforafiretomove
fluidlythroughamunicipalityandintotheinterfaceissubstantiallyreduced.Theprinciplesof
fuelbreakdesignaredescribedindetailinAppendix2.
TheRegionalDistrictmustbesensitivetovisualconcernsandpublicperception.Therefore,
specificareatreatmentsorothermanual/mechanicalmethodsaremostdesirable.Afuel
treatmentiscreatedbyreducingsurfacefuels,increasingheighttolivecrownandlowering
standdensitythroughtreeremoval(Figure28).Fuelbreakscanbedevelopedusingavarietyof
prescriptivemethodsthatmayincludeunderstoryandoverstoryfuelremoval,timingof
treatment,synergisticeffectswithothertreatments,andplacementonthelandscape.
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Figure28.Conceptualdiagramofashadedfuelbreakpretreatmentandposttreatment.
Whendevelopingfuelbreakprescriptions,theCFFDRSfueltypeclassificationfortheareaand
thepotentialfirebehaviourmustbeconsideredinordertopredictthechangeinfirebehaviour
thatwillresultfromalteringfuelconditions.Theidentificationofpotentialcandidateareasfor
fuelbreaksshouldbefocusedonareasthatwillisolateandlimitfirespread,andprovidesolid
anchorsforfirecontrolactions.Thesearchforcandidateareasshouldbeconductedusinga
combinationofaerialphotographs,TerrestrialResourcesInformationMapping(TRIM),
topographicmaps,andpersonalfieldexperience.
Priortofinalizingthelocationoffuelbreaks,firebehaviourmodelingusingtheCanadianFire
BehaviourPredictionsystem(FBP)shouldbeappliedtotesttheeffectivenessofthesizeand
scaleofproposedtreatments.Thesemodelrunsshouldincludebasicinformationfrom
fieldworkpertainingtothefueltypes,heighttolivecrownbase,crownfuelload,surfaceloads,
andtopography.Themodelrunsshouldbeusedtodemonstratetheeffectivenessoftreatments
inalteringfirebehaviourpotential.
Treatmentprescriptiondevelopmentmustalsoconsiderthemethodoffueltreatment.Methods
includemanual(chainsaw),mechanical,andpileburningoranycombinationofthese
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treatments.Tobesuccessful,manualtreatmentsshouldbeconsideredincombinationwith
prescribedburningofbroadcastfuelsorpileandburn.Mechanicaltreatmentsinvolve
machineryandmustbesensitivetogrounddisturbanceandimpactsonhydrologyand
watercourses.Typically,thesetypesoftreatmentsreducetheoverstoryfuelloadsbutincrease
thesurfacefuelload.Thesurfacefuelloadmustberemovedinordertosignificantlyreducethe
firebehaviourpotential.Increasedsurfacefuelloadisoftenthereasonthatprescribedburning
orpileandburnarecombinedinthetreatmentprescription.
Finalselectionofthemostappropriatefuelbreaklocationwilldependonanumberoffactors
including:
Protectionofrecreationandaesthetics;
Protectionofpublicsafety;
Reductionofpotentialliabilities;
Minimizingfuturesuppressioncosts;
Improvedknowledge;
Impactsonvisualquality;
Theeconomicsofthetreatmentsandthepotentialbenefits;
Treatmentcostrecovery;
Theimpactoftreatmentsonthealterationoffirebehaviour;and
Publicreviewandcomment.
Fuelbreaksshouldnotbeconsideredstandalonetreatmentstotheexclusionofotherimportant
strategiesalreadydiscussedinthisplan.Tobesuccessful,municipalitiesneedtointegratea
fuelbreakplanwithstrategicinitiativessuchasstructureprotection,emergencyresponse,
training,communicationandeducation.Anintegratedstrategywillhelptomitigatelandscape
levelfirerisk,reduceunwantedwildlandfireeffectsandthepotentialnegativesocial,economic
andenvironmentaleffectsthatlargecatastrophicfirescancause.
8.5.2
Maintenance
Onceamunicipalitycommitstothedevelopmentofafuelbreakstrategy,decisionmakersand
municipalstaffmustrecognizethattheyareembarkingonalongtermcommitmenttothese
typesoftreatmentsandthatfuturemaintenancewillberequired.Additionally,thefinancial
commitmentrequiredtodevelopthesetreatmentsintheabsenceofanyrevenuewillbehigh.A
componentofthematerialtoberemovedtocreatefuelbreakshasaneconomicvalueandcould
potentiallybeusedtooffsetthecostoftreatment,therebyprovidingbenefitstomunicipalities
andthelocaleconomy.
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Fuelbreaksrequireongoingtreatmenttomaintainlowfuelloadings.Followingtreatment,tree
growthandunderstorydevelopmentstarttheprocessoffuelaccumulationand,ifleft
unchecked,overtimethefuelbreakwilldegradetoconditionsthatexistedpriortotreatment.
Someformoffollowuptreatmentisrequired.Followupisdependentontheproductivityof
thesite,andmayberequiredasfrequentlyasevery10to15yearsinordertomaintainthesite
inaconditionoflowfirebehaviourpotential.
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9.0
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Assessments and scientific basis for management options. University of California,
Davis, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources.
Van Wagtendonk, J.W.,W.M.Sydoriak,andJ.M.Benedict. 1998. Heat content variation of Sierra
Nevada conifers. International Journal of Wildland Fire (in press).
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Appendix1FuelTypeDescriptions
Fuel Type Descriptions
Thefollowingisageneraldescriptionofthefueltypesfoundwithinthestudyarea.
C3fueltype
Area of Fuel Type (ha)
Structure Stage
Dominant Tree Species
Tree Species Type
Understory Vegetation
Age
Height
Crown Closure
Burn Potential
8,784
Young Forest
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), Thuja plicata (western redcedar), Tsuga
heterophylla (western hemlock)
> 80% Coniferous
Low (< 50% cover)
40 90 yrs
30 40 m
50 70 %
Moderate; however, if fire is wind driven then there is a high potential for
extreme fire behaviour and active crown fire.
Figure29.Exampleofevenlystocked,moderatedensitysecondgrowthstandclassifiedasaC3fuel
type.
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C4fueltype
Structure Classification
Tree Species Type
Age
Height
Crown Closure
Burn Potential
2,274
Pole/Sapling
> 80% Coniferous
Low - Moderate
20 40 yrs
10 20 m
60 80 %
Moderate to high; however, if fire is wind driven then there is a high potential
for extreme fire behaviour and active crown fire.
Figure30.ExampleofahighdensitysecondgrowthstandofDouglasfirclassifiedasaC4fueltype.
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C5fueltype
Tree Species Type
Average Age
Average Height
Crown Closure
Burn Potential
4,079
Mature and Old Forest
heterophylla (western hemlock), Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce)
> 80% Coniferous
Moderate (> 40% cover)
> 90 yrs
35 45 m
40 70 %
Low; however, if fire is wind driven then there is a moderate potential for
active crown fire.
Figure31.ExampleofmatureforestofwesternhemlockandwesternredcedarclassifiedasaC5fuel
type
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C7fueltype
Tree Species Type
Average Age
Average Height
Crown Closure
Burn Potential
406
Pole/Sapling to Mature Forest
> 80% Coniferous
Variable depending on site quality and moisture availability
20 80 yrs
20 40 m
20 40%
Low; however, if fire is wind driven then there is a low to moderate potential
for active crown fire.
Figure32.ExampleofanopenDouglasfirandwesternredcedarforestclassifiedasaC7fueltype.
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D1fueltype
Tree Species Type
Average Age
Average Height
Crown Closure
Burn Potential
958
Shrub/Herb to Mature Forest
Acer macrophyllum (bigleaf maple), Alnus rubra (red alder), Populus
trichocarpa (cottonwood)
> 80% Deciduous
High (> 90% cover)
10 70 yrs
15 30 m
40 70 %
Low
Figure33.MoistrichsitedominatedbyredalderclassifiedasaD1fueltype.
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M2fueltype
Tree Species Types

Average Age
Average Height
Crown Closure
Burn Potential
4,052
Pole/Sapling to Old Forest
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), Thuja Plicata (western redcedar),
Populus trichocarpa (cottonwood), Acer macrophyllum (bigleaf maple), Alnus
rubra (red alder), Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock)
Coniferous/Deciduous 20-80%
variable
20 80 yrs
25 40 m m
40 70 %
Low - Moderate; however, if fire is wind driven then there is a low to moderate
potential for active crown fire.
Figure34.Mixedfir/cedar/swordfernsitewithadeciduouscomponentofredalderandbigleafmaple
classifiedasanM2fueltype.
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M2Rfueltype
Tree Species Type
Average Age
Average Height
Crown Closure
Burn Potential
1,969
Shrub/Herb
Young regenerating stands of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), Thuja
plicata (western redcedar), Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock)
Coniferous
variable
5 - 20 yrs
<10 m
20 - 40%
Low
Figure35.youngregeneratingconiferousplantationclassifiedasM2R.
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O1afueltype
Tree Species Type
Average Age
Average Height
Crown Closure
Burn Potential
2,437
Shrub/Herb
None
Moderate - High
< 5 yrs
< 2m
< 20%
Low
Figure36.LowvolatilityShrub/HerbdominatedfueltypeclassifiedasO1a.
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Appendix2PrinciplesofFuelBreakDesign
TheinformationcontainedwithinthissectionhasbeeninsertedfromTheUseofFuelbreaksin
LandscapeFireManagementbyJamesK.Agee,BeniiBahro,MarkA.Finney,PhilipN.Omi,
DavidB.Sapsis,CarlN.Skinner,JanW.vanWagtendonk,andC.PhillWeatherspoon.This
articlesuccinctlydescribestheprinciplesanduseoffuelbreaksinlandscapefiremanagement.
Theprincipalobjectivebehindtheuseoffuelbreaks,aswellasanyotherfueltreatment,
istoalterfirebehaviourovertheareaoftreatment.Asdiscussedabove,fuelbreaks
providepointsofanchorforsuppressionactivities.
SurfaceFireBehaviour
Surfacefuelmanagementcanlimitfirelineintensity(Byram1959)andlowerpotential
fireseverity(RyanandNoste1985).Themanagementofsurfacefuelssothatpotential
firelineintensityremainsbelowsomecriticallevelcanbeaccomplishedthroughseveral
strategiesandtechniques.Amongthecommonstrategiesarefuelremovalbyprescribed
fire,adjustingfuelarrangementtoproducealessflammablefuelbed(e.g.,crushing),or
introducingliveunderstoryvegetationtoraiseaveragemoisturecontentofsurface
fuels(Agee1996).Wildlandfirebehaviourhasbeenobservedtodecreasewithfuel
treatment(Buckley1992),andsimulationsconductedbyvanWagtendonk(1996)found
bothpileburningandprescribedfire,whichreducedfuelloads,todecreasesubsequent
firebehaviour.Thesetreatmentsusuallyresultinefficientfirelineconstructionrates,so
thatcontrolpotential(reducingresistancetocontrol)canincreasedramaticallyafter
fueltreatment.
Thevarioussurfacefuelcategoriesinteractwithoneanothertoinfluencefireline
intensity.Althoughmorelitterandfinebranchfuelontheforestfloorusuallyresultsin
higherintensities,thatisnotalwaysthecase.Ifadditionalfuelsarepackedtightly(low
fuelbedporosity),theymayresultinlowerintensities.Althoughlargerfuels(>3inches)
arenotincludedinfirespreadmodels,astheydonotusuallyaffectthespreadofthefire
(unlessdecomposed[Rothennel1991]),theymayresultinhigherenergyreleasesover
longerperiodsoftimewhenafireoccurs,havingsignificanteffectsonfireseverity,and
theyreduceratesoffirelineconstruction.
Theeffectofherbandshrubfuelsonfirelineintensityisnotsimplypredicted.Firstof
all,moreherbandshrubfuelsusuallyimplymoreopenconditions.Theseshouldbe
associatedwithlowerrelativehumidityandhighersurfacewindspeeds.Deadfuelsmay
bedrierandtherateofspreadmaybehigherbecauseofthealteredmicroclimate
comparedtomoreclosedcanopyforestwithlessunderstory.Livefuels,withhigher
foliarmoisturewhilegreen,willhaveadampeningeffectonfirebehaviour.However,if
thegrassesandforbscure,thefinedeadfuelcanincreasefirelineintensityandlocalized
spotting.
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ConditionsThatInitiateCrownFire
Afiremovingthroughastandoftreesmaymoveasasurfacefire,anindependent
crownfire,orasacombinationofintermediatetypesoffire(VanWagner1977).The
initiationofcrownfirebehaviourisafunctionofsurfacefirelineintensityandofthe
forestcanopy:itsheightabovegroundandmoisturecontent(VanWagner1977).The
criticalsurfacefireintensityneededtoinitiatecrownfirebehaviourcanbecalculatedfor
arangeofcrownbaseheightsandfoliarmoisturecontents,andrepresentstheminimum
leveloffirelineintensitynecessarytoinitiatecrownfire(Table1);Alexander1988,Agee
1996).Firelineintensityorflamelengthbelowthiscriticallevelmayresultinfiresthat
donotcrownbutmaystillbeofstandreplacementseverity.Forthelimitedrangeof
crownbaseheightsandfoliarmoisturesshowninTable3,thecriticallevelsofflame
lengthappearmoresensitivetoheighttocrownbasethantofoliarmoisture(Alexander
1988).
Table1.Flamelengthsassociatedwithcriticallevelsoffirelineintensitythatareassociated
withinitiatingcrownfire,usingByrams(1959)equation.
Foliar Moisture
Content (%)
70
80
90
100
120
2 meters
6 feet
M ft
1.1 4
1.2 4
1.3 4
1.3 4
1.5 5
Height of Crown Base

in meters and feet
6 meters
12 meters
20 feet
40 feet
M ft
M ft
2.3 8
3.7 12
2.5 8
4.0 13
2.7 9
4.3 14
2.8 9
4.6 15
3.2 10
5.1 17
20 meters
66 feet
M ft
5.3 17
5.7 19
6.1 20
6.5 21
7.3 24
Ifthestructuraldimensionsofastandandinformationaboutfoliarmoistureareknown,
thencriticallevelsoffirelineintensitythatwillbeassociatedwithcrownfireforthat
standcanbecalculated.Firelineintensitycanbepredictedforarangeofstandfuel
conditions,topographicsituationssuchasslopeandaspect,andanticipatedweather
conditions,makingitpossibletolinkonthegroundconditionswiththeinitiating
potentialforcrownfires.Inordertoavoidcrownfireinitiation,firelineintensitymustbe
keptbelowthecriticallevel.Managingsurfacefuelscanaccomplishthissuchthat
firelineintensityiskeptwellbelowthecriticallevelorbyraisingcrownbaseheights
suchthatthecriticalfirelineintensityisdifficulttoreach.Inthefield,thevariabilityin
fuels,topographyandmicroclimatewillresultinvaryinglevelsofpotentialfireline
intensity,criticalfirelineintensity,andthereforevaryingcrownfirepotential.
ConditionsThatAllowCrownFireToSpread
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Thecrownofaforestissimilartoanyotherporousfuelmediuminitsabilitytoburn
andtheconditionsunderwhichcrownfirewillorwillnotspread.Theheatfroma
spreadingcrownfireintounburnedcrownaheadisafunctionofthecrownrateof
spread,thecrownbulkdensity,andthecrownfoliageignitionenergy.Thecrownfire
rateofspreadisnotthesameasthesurfacefirerateofspread,andoftenincludeseffects
ofshortrangespotting.Thecrownbulkdensityisthemassofcrownfuel,including
needles,finetwigs,lichens,etc.,perunitofcrownvolume(analogoustosoilbulk
density).Crownfoliageignitionenergyisthenetenergycontentofthefuelandvaries
primarilybyfoliarmoisturecontent,althoughspeciesdifferencesinenergycontentare
apparent(vanWagtendonketal.1998).Crownfireswillstopspreading,butnot
necessarilystoptorching,ifeitherthecrownfirerateofspreadorcrownbulkdensity
fallsbelowsomeminimumvalue.
Ifsurfacefirelineintensityrisesabovethecriticalsurfaceintensityneededtoinitiate
crownfirebehaviour,thecrownwilllikelybecomeinvolvedincombustion.Three
phasesofcrownfirebehaviourcanbedescribedbycriticallevelsofsurfacefireline
intensityandcrownfireratesofspread(VanWagner1977,1993):(1)apassivecrown
fire,wherethecrownfirerateofspreadisequaltothesurfacefirerateofspread,and
crownfireactivityislimitedtoindividualtreetorching;(2)anactivecrownfire,where
thecrownfirerateofspreadisabovesomeminimumspreadrate;and(3)an
independentcrownfire,wherecrownfirerateofspreadislargelyindependentofheat
fromthesurfacefireintensity.ScottandReinhardt(inprep.)havedefinedanadditional
class,(4)conditionalsurfacefire,wheretheactivecrowningspreadrateexceedsa
criticallevel,butthecriticallevelforsurfacefireintensityisnotmet.Acrownfirewill
notinitiatefromasurfacefireinthisstand,butanactivecrownfiremayspreadthrough
thestandifitinitiatesinanadjacentstand.
Criticalconditionscanbedefinedbelowwhichactiveorindependentcrownfirespread
isunlikely.Toderivetheseconditions,visualizeacrownfireasamassoffuelbeing
carriedonaconveyorbeltthroughastationaryflamingfront.Theamountoffinefuel
passingthroughthefrontperunittime(themassflowrate)dependsonthespeedofthe
conveyorbelt(crownfirerateofspread)andthedensityoftheforestcrownfuel(crown
bulkdensity).Ifthemassflowratefallsbelowsomeminimumlevel(VanWagner1977)
crownfireswillnotspread.Individualcrowntorching,and/orcrownscorchofvarying
degrees,maystilloccur.
Definingasetofcriticalconditionsthatmaybeinfluencedbymanagementactivitiesis
difficult.Atleasttwoalternativemethodscandefineconditionssuchthatcrownfire
spreadwouldbeunlikely(thatis,massflowrateistoolow).Oneistocalculatecritical
windspeedsforgivenlevelsofcrownbulkdensity(ScottandReinhardt,inprep.),and
theotheristodefineempiricallyderivedthresholdsofcrownfirerateofspreadsothat
criticallevelsofcrownbulkdensitycanbedefined(Agee1996).Crownbulkdensitiesof
0.2kgm 3arecommoninborealforeststhatburnwithcrownfire(Johnson1992),andin
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mixedconiferforests,Agee(1996)estimatedthatatlevelsbelow0.10kgm3crownfire
spreadwasunlikely,butnodefinitivesinglethresholdislikelytoexist.
Therefore,reducingsurfacefuels,increasingtheheighttothelivecrownbase,and
openingcanopiesshouldresultin(a)lowerfireintensity,(b)lessprobabilityoftorching,
and(c)lowerprobabilityofindependentcrownfire.Therearetwocaveatstothese
conclusions.Thefirstisthatagrassycoverisoftenpreferredasthefuelbreakground
cover,andwhilefirelineintensitymaydecreaseinthefuelbreak,rateofspreadmay
increase.VanWagtendonk(1996)simulatedfirebehaviourinuntreatedmixedconifer
forestsandfuelbreakswithagrassyunderstory,andfoundfirelineintensitydecreased
inthefuelbreak(flamelengthdeclinefrom0.83to0.63m[2.7to2.1ft])butrateof
spreadinthegrassycoverincreasedbyafactorof4(0.81to3.35m/min[2.711.05
ft/min]).Thisflashyfuelisanadvantageforbackfiringlargeareasinthefuelbreakasa
wildlandfireisapproaching(Green1977),aswellasforotherpurposesdescribedlater,
butifafirelineisnotestablishedinthefuelbreak,thefinefuelswillallowthefiretopass
throughthefuelbreakquickly.Thesecondcaveatisthatmoreopencanopieswillresult
inanalteredmicroclimatenearthegroundsurface,withsomewhatlowerfuelmoisture
andhigherwindspeedsintheopenunderstory(vanWagtendonk1996).
FuelbreakEffectiveness
Theeffectivenessoffuelbreakscontinuestobequestionedbecausetheyhavebeen
constructedtovaryingstandards,testedunderawidevarietyofwildlandfire
conditions,andmeasuredbydifferentstandardsofeffectiveness.Green(1977)describes
anumberofsituationswheretraditionalfuelbreaksweresuccessfulinstopping
wildlandfires,andsomewherefuelbreakswerenoteffectiveduetoexcessivespotting
ofwildlandfiresapproachingthefuelbreaks.
Fuelbreakconstructionstandards,thebehaviouroftheapproachingwildlandfire,and
thelevelofsuppressioneachcontributetotheeffectivenessofafuelbreak.Wider
fuelbreaksappearmoreeffectivethannarrowones.Fueltreatmentoutsidethefuelbreak
mayalsocontributetotheireffectiveness(vanWagtendonk1996).Areatreatmentsuch
asprescribedfirebeyondthefuelbreakmaybeusedtolowerfirelineintensityand
reducespottingasawildlandfireapproachesafuelbreak,therebyincreasingits
effectiveness.Suppressionforcesmustbewillingandabletoapplyappropriate
suppressiontacticsinthefuelbreak.Theymustalsoknowthatthefuelbreaksexist,a
commonprobleminthepast.Theeffectivenessofsuppressionforcesdependsonthe
leveloffundingforpeople,equipment,andaerialapplicationofretardant,whichcan
moreeasilyreachsurfacefuelsinafuelbreak.Effectivenessisalsodependentonthe
psychologyoffirefightersregardingtheirsafety.Narroworunmaintainedfuelbreaks
arelesslikelytobeenteredthanwider,wellmaintainedones.
Noabsolutestandardsforwidthorfuelmanipulationareavailable.Fuelbreakwidths
havealwaysbeenquitevariable,inbothrecommendationsandconstruction.A
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minimumof90m(300ft)wastypicallyspecifiedforprimaryfuelbreaks(Green1977).
Asearlyasthe1960s,fuelbreaksaswideas300m(1000ft)wereincludedingaming
simulationsoffuelbreakeffectiveness(Davis1965),andtherecentproposalfornorthern
CalifornianationalforestsbytheQuincyLibraryGroup(seewebsite
http://www.qlg.orgfordetails)includesfuelbreaks390m(0.25mi)wide.Fuelbreak
simulationsfortheSierraNevadaEcosystemProject(SNEP)adoptedsimilarwide
fuelbreaks(vanWagtendonk1996,Sessionsetal.1996).
Fuelmanipulationscanbeachievedusingavarietyoftechniques(Green1977)withthe
intentofremovingsurfacefuels,increasingtheheighttothelivecrownofresidualtrees,
andspacingthecrownstopreventindependentcrownfireactivity.IntheSierraNevada
simulations,pruningofresidualtreesto3m(10ft)heightwasassumed,withcanopy
coverat120%(vanWagtendonk1996).Canopycoverlessthan40%hasbeenproposed
fortheLassenNationalForestinnorthernCalifornia.Clearly,prescriptionsforcreation
offuelbreaksmustnotonlyspecifywhatistoberemoved,butmustdescribethe
residualstructureintermsofstandardorcustomfuelmodelssothatpotentialfire
behaviourcanbeanalyzed.
Page 84
July 2010

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