MODULE in Consumer Electronics

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
SYMBOLS AND FUNCTIONS
BLOCK DIAGRAMS
TYPES OF COMPONENTS
RESISTANCE
CAPACITANCE
AC/DC CIRCUITS
ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONS
OHMS LAW
WATT LAW
MULTIMETERS
OSCILLOSCOPE
TRANSISTORS
MOSFETS
TRANSDUCERS
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
TRANSFORMERS
COILS
DIODES
POWER SUPPLY
SOLDERING GUIDE
VACUUM TUBE
POWER SUPPLY PROJECT
EXERCISES
DEFINITION OF TERMS
PREFACE
This module is for beginning students without any background in
electricity and electronics, starting with basic components, ohms laws ,
series and parallel circuits , power dissipation in resistance , and the
topics progress to multimeters and low voltage power supplies.
For each subject, the basic principle are explained followed by
exercises.
Mr. Sancho L. Revilla

Trainer
Consumer Electronics /
Audio Video Servicing
Muntinlupa City Technical Institute ,TESDA
San Guillermo,Putatan
Muntinlupa City
Introduction
Electronics and radio communications are practical applications of
the general principles of electricity. The same electricity produced by a
battery for a flashlight can be modified to do any number of jobs, from
running a motor or producing heat and light to more advanced uses
such as working a computer or providing wireless broadcasting for radio
and television.
The word radio is an abbreviated form of radiotelegraph or
radiotelephone. In its first form, wireless communication was by
radiotelegraph, using short dots and longer dashes as symbols for
letters in the morse code. Now radiotelephone is used more,providing
wireless voice communications or broadcasting voice and music
programs for entertainment. In general, then, radio is the art of wireless
communications.
The word electronics derives from the electron, which is a tiny,
invisible quantity of electricity present in all materials. In terms of its
many uses, electronics can be defined to include all applications of
electricity flowing in a vacuum, as in vacuum tubes, in gas vapor, and in
certain solid materials such as transistors. More generally, electronics
includes all effects of electricity where the action of individual electrons
determines the application.
Radio and electronics are closely related. Sometimes they are even
joined in their use. For example, an electronic heating unit generates
radio waves that go through the work to produce heat. The heat bonds
the solid materials together. Even if applications are not so close, the
principles of radio and electronics are essentially the same. Both are
based on the fundamentals laws of electricity.
SYMBOLS AND FUNCTIONS
Wires and connections

Component
Circuit Symbol
Function of Component
To pass current very easily from one part
of a circuit to another.
Wire
Wires joined
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are

connected (joined), but it is sometimes
omitted. Wires connected at 'crossroads'
should be staggered slightly to form two Tjunctions, as shown on the right.
Wires not joi

ned
In complex diagrams it is often necessary

to draw wires crossing even though they
are not connected. The simple crossing on
the left is correct but may be misread as a
join where the 'blob' has been forgotten.
The bridge symbol on the right leaves no
doubt!
Power Supplies
Component
Circuit Symbol
Cell
Supplies electrical energy.

The larger terminal (on the left) is positive
(+).
A single cell is often called a battery, but
strictly a battery is two or more cells joined
together.
Battery
Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more

than one cell.
(+).
Solar Cell
Converts light to electrical energy.

(+).
DC supply

DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one
direction.

AC = Alternating Current, continually
changing direction.
AC supply
Fuse
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the

current flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.
Transformer
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.

Transformers are used to step up (increase)
and step down (decrease) AC voltages.
Energy is transferred between the coils by
the magnetic field in the core. There is no
electrical connection between the coils.
Earth
(Ground)
A connection to earth. For many electronic

circuits this is the 0V (zero volts) of the
power supply, but for mains electricity and
some radio circuits it really means the
earth. It is also known as ground.
Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

Component
Circuit Sym
bol
Lamp (lighting)
A transducer which converts electrical energy

to light. This symbol is used for a lamp
providing illumination, for example a car
headlamp or torch bulb.
Lamp (indicator
)

to light. This symbol is used for a lamp which
is an indicator, for example a warning light on
a car dashboard.
Heater

to heat.
Motor

to kinetic energy (motion).
Bell

to sound.
Buzzer

to sound.
Inductor
(Coil, Solenoid)
A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field

when current passes through it. It may have an
iron core inside the coil. It can be used as a
transducer converting electrical energy to

mechanical energy by pulling on something.
Switches
Component
Circuit Sy
mbol
Push Switch
(push-tomake)
A push switch allows current to flow only
when the button is pressed. This is the
switch used to operate a doorbell.
Push-to-Break
Switch
This type of push switch is normally closed

(on), it is open (off) only when the button is
pressed.
On-Off Switch
(SPST)
SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.

An on-off switch allows current to flow only
when it is in the closed (on) position.
2-way Switch
(SPDT)
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.

A 2-way changeover switch directs the flow of
current to one of two routes according to its
position. Some SPDT switches have a central
off position and are described as 'on-off-on'.
Dual On-Off
Switch
(DPST)
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.

A dual on-off switch which is often used to
switch mains electricity because it can
isolate both the live and neutral connections.
DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.
This switch can be wired up as a reversing
switch for a motor. Some DPDT switches
have a central off position.
Reversing
Switch
(DPDT)
An electrically operated switch, for example a

9V battery circuit connected to the coil can
switch a 230V AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
Relay
Resistors
Component
Resistor
Circuit Sy
mbol
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for
example to limit the current passing through an
LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
Some publications use the old resistor

symbol:
Variable Resis
tor
(Rheostat)
This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a

rheostat) is usually used to control current.
Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness,
adjusting motor speed, and adjusting the rate of
flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing
circuit.
Variable Resis
tor
(Potentiometer
)
This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a

potentiometer) is usually used to control
voltage. It can be used like this as a transducer
converting position (angle of the control spindle)
to an electrical signal.
Variable Resis
tor
(Preset)
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is

operated with a small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
made and then left without further adjustment.
Presets are cheaper than normal variable
resistors so they are often used in projects to
reduce the cost.
Capacitors
Component
Circuit Symbo
l
Capacitor
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor

is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It
can also be used as a filter, to block DC signals
but pass AC signals.
Capacitor,
polarised
A capacitor stores electric charge. This type

must be connected the correct way round. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to block
DC signals but pass AC signals.
Variable Capa
citor
A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.
Trimmer
Capacitor
Diodes
This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is

operated with a small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
made and then left without further
adjustment.
Component
Circuit Symbo
l
Diode
A device which only allows current to flow in

one direction.
LED
Light Emitting
Diode

to light.
Zener Diode
A special diode which is used to maintain a

fixed voltage across its terminals.
Photodiode
A light-sensitive diode.
Transistors
Component
Circuit Sym
bol
Transistor NPN
A transistor amplifies current. It can be used

with other components to make an amplifier or
switching circuit.
Transistor PNP
A transistor amplifies current. It can be used

with other components to make an amplifier or
switching circuit.
Phototransistor
A light-sensitive transistor.
Audio and Radio Devices

Component
Microphone
Circuit Sy
mbol
A transducer which converts sound to
electrical energy.
Earphone

to sound.
Loudspeaker

to sound.
Piezo Transducer

to sound.
Amplifier
(general symbol)
An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is

a block diagram symbol because it represents
a circuit rather than just one component.
A device which is designed to receive or

transmit radio signals. It is also known as an
antenna.
Aerial
(Antenna)
Meters and Oscilloscope
Component
Circuit S
ymbol
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.

The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference',
but most people prefer to say voltage!
Ammeter
An ammeter is used to measure current.

A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is
used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less.
Galvanometer
An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most

multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.
Ohmmeter
An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of

electrical signals and it can be used to measure their
voltage and time period.
Oscilloscope
Sensors (input devices)
Component
LDR
Thermistor
Circuit Sym
bol
A transducer which converts brightness (light) to
resistance (an electrical property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor
A transducer which converts temperature (heat) to
resistance (an electrical property).
Logic Gates
Logic gates process signals which represent true (1, high, +Vs, on) or false (0,
low, 0V, off).
For more information please see the Logic Gates page.
There are two sets of symbols: traditional and IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission).
Gate
Type
NOT
Traditional
IEC Symbol
Symbol
Function of Gate
A NOT gate can only have one input. The 'o'
on the output means 'not'. The output of a
NOT gate is the inverse (opposite) of its input,
so the output is true when the input is false.

A NOT gate is also called an inverter.
AND
An AND gate can have two or more inputs.

The output of an AND gate is true when all
its inputs are true.
NAND
A NAND gate can have two or more inputs.

The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
that it is a Not ANDgate. The output of a
NAND gate is true unless all its inputs are
true.
OR
An OR gate can have two or more inputs. The

output of an OR gate is true when at least
one of its inputs is true.
NOR
A NOR gate can have two or more inputs. The

'o' on the output means 'not' showing that it
is a Not OR gate. The output of a NOR gate is
true when none of its inputs are true.
EX-OR
An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs. The

output of an EX-OR gate is true when its
inputs are different (one true, one false).
EXNOR
An EX-NOR gate can only have two inputs.

The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
that it is a Not EX-ORgate. The output of an
EX-NOR gate is true when its inputs are the
same (both true or both false).
Block Diagrams
Block diagrams are used to understand (and design) complete circuits by
breaking them down into smaller sections or blocks. Each block performs a
particular function and the block diagram shows how they are connected
together. No attempt is made to show the components used within a block,
only the inputs and outputs are shown. This way of looking at circuits is called
the systems approach.
Power supply (or battery) connections are usually not shown on block
diagrams.
Audio Amplifier System
The power supply (not shown) is connected to the pre-amplifier and power
amplifier blocks.
Microphone - a transducer which converts sound to voltage.

Pre-Amplifier - amplifies the small audio signal (voltage) from the
microphone.
Tone and Volume Controls - adjust the nature of the audio signal.
The tone control adjusts the balance of high and low frequencies.
The volume control adjusts the strength of the signal.
Power Amplifier - increases the strength (power) of the audio signal.
Loudspeaker - a transducer which converts the audio signal to sound.
Radio Receiver System
The power supply (not shown) is connected to the audio amplifier block.
Aerial - picks up radio signals from many stations.

Tuner - selects the signal from just one radio station.
Detector - extracts the audio signal carried by the radio signal.
Audio Amplifier - increases the strength (power) of the audio signal.
This could be broken down into the blocks like the Audio Amplifier
System shown above.
Loudspeaker - a transducer which converts the audio signal to sound.
Regulated Power Supply System
Transformer - steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
Feedback Control System
The power supply (not shown) is connected to the control circuit block.
Sensor - a transducer which converts the state of the controlled quantity

to an electrical signal.
Selector (control input) - selects the desired state of the output. Usually it
is a variable resistor.
Control Circuit - compares the desired state (control input) with the
actual state (sensor) of the controlled quantity and sends an appropriate
signal to the output transducer.
Output Transducer - converts the electrical signal to the controlled
quantity.
Controlled Quantity - usually not an electrical quantity, e.g. motor speed.
Feedback Path - usually not electrical, the Sensor detects the state of the
controlled quantity.
Five Basic components

Considering the many different applications of electronics and radio, we
can be a little surprised that there are only five basic types of components for
all the different kinds of equipment. Of course, each type has many variations
for specific uses. Still, the following is a short list:
Electron tubes, including vacuum-tube
amplifiers, gas-filled tubes, and the
cathode-ray tube (CRT)
Transitors.this is probably the

most important use of solidstate semiconductors, which
includes diodes and the
intergrated circuits.
Resistors
Capacitors, or condensers
Inductors, or coils
Tubes and transistors are used in electonic circuits with resistors, capacitors
and inductors. The transistors and tubes are active components, meaning
they can amplify or rectify.
Resistors, capacitors and inductors are passive components.intergrated

circuits combined solid-state transistors, and diodes in one IC chip for a
complete circuit with the passive components.
Resistor
Resistance is inserted into a circuit, either to reduce the current to a
desired value or to produce a specific IR voltage drop. The components for this
purpose are called RESISTORS. They are the most used components in all
kinds of electronic equipment.
The two main types of resistors commonly used are the carbon
composition and the wire wound. They are the available from a fraction of an
ohm to many megohms, with a power rating of several hundred watts down to
a value as low as on tenth(1/10) of a watt.the power rating is the maximum
amount of watts the resitor can dissipate without excessive heat.
Wire wound resistors are used for applications where the power
dissipation in the resistor is about 3 watts or more.
Carbon-composition type is usually applied for 2 watts or less because
its smaller and costs less. Most of the resistor used in the radio, television and
electronic equipmant are carbon composition. The carbon composition cann
either fixed or variable. Fixed resistors have a specific amount or resistance
that cannot be adjusted from one value between zero ohm and its maximum
value.
Potentiometers and rheostats are variable resistance controls, either
carbon composition or wirewound, used for varying the voltage and current in
a circuit. A rheostat is a variable resistance with two terminals connected in
series to vary the current.on the other hand, the potentiometer has three
teminals. The fixed maximum resistance between the two end terminals is
connected across a voltage source and the variable is used to vary the voltage
division. Sometimes potentiometers are used as rheostat by short-circuiting
one end of the terminal to the middle terminal.
Because carbon resistors are small physically, they are color-coded to
indicate their resistance value in ohms.
Resistor tolerance
Tolerance is the amount by which actual resistance can be different from
the color coded value.tolerance is usually given in percent.
Classes of Resistors
Variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume
adjustment of Radio. The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant
to be adjusted by anyone but a technician.
Thermistor ( Thermally sensitive resistor )

The resistance value of the thermistor changes according to
temperature.
This part is used as a temperature sensor.
Fixed resistors-is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.
2nd band
3rd band
(multiplier)
4th band
(multiplier)
color
1st band
Black
1 brown
10
2 red
10
3orange
10
4 yellow
10
5 green
10
6 blue
10
7 violet
10
8 gray
10
9 white
10
Gold
0.1
+ or - 5%
silver
0.01
+ or - 10%
+ or - 20%
Resistors connected in Series

When resistors are connected in series their combined
resistance is equal to the individual resistances added
together. For example if resistors R1 and R2 are connected in
series their combined resistance, R, is given by:
Combined resistance in series: R = R1 + R2
This can be extended for more
resistors: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ...
Note that the combined resistance in series will always be greater than any
of the individual resistances.
Resistors connected in Parallel
When resistors are connected in parallel their
combined resistance is less than any of the
individual resistances. There is a special equation for
the combined resistance of two resistors R1 and R2:
Combined resistance of
R1 R2
R
=
two resistors in parallel:
R1 + R2
For more than two resistors connected in parallel a
more difficult equation must be used. This adds up
thereciprocal ("one over") of each resistance to give the reciprocal of the
combined resistance, R:
1
R
1
1
1
+
+
+ ...
R1 R2 R3
The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use!
Note that the combined resistance in parallel will always be less than any of
the individual resistances.
Capacitors
A capacitor is a small device that can be charged up with electrical energy,
store it and then release it. Just like a rechargeable battery. But unlike a
battery, it does not use a chemical reaction and it can only hold a very small
charge. A very large capacitor can only light up an LED for a few seconds. They
come in many shapes and sizes and a few are shown below. The bigger the
capacitor, the more charge it will hold.
A capacitor is made from two metal plates or metal foils separated by an

insulator
called
Dielectric
material.
The Dielectric materials can be made from Ceramic, Mica, Polypropylene,

Polyester,
Electrolytic,
Tantalum
and
even
air.
The larger capacitors look like tubes, this is because the metal foil plates are
rolled up with an insulating dielectric material sandwiched in between.
The value of capacitance is determined by The size of the plates, The distance
between them, The type of dilectric material used.
The Unit of Capacitance (C) Capacitance is measured in Farads. (after
Michael Faraday 1791 - 1867)
The Farad is too big a unit so values are measured in:microfarads (F), nanofarads (nF) and picofarads (pF).
Largest value is 22000F Lowest value is 1.0pF
1F =1,000,000F
1F = 1000nF
1nF = 1000pF
Circuit Identification. In circuit diagrams a fixed capacitor is identified with

the letter C. i.e. C1 C2 ... C12
Variable capacitors/Trimmers are identified with the letters VC1 VC2 .....
Polarized Capacitors. Electrolytic and Tantalum capacitors are POLARISED

and they must be connected the correct way round. (correct polarity).
The casing is marked showing the Negative lead which should be connected to
the Negative rail (0 Volt). The circuit symbol shows the + Positive lead.
All others capacitors can be connected either way round.
Use of Capacitors.
Capacitors are used in following ways:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Store a voltage for a period of time,

Create a time delay circuit.
Shorten or extend pulse lengths,
Smooth fluctuating voltages,
Filter unwanted frequencies,
Allows Alternating Current (ac) to pass to another part of a circuit but
blocks Direct Current (dc).
Working Voltage. The working voltage of the capacitor must not be exceeded.
It is good practice to choose a capacitor with a working voltage 50% higher
than the circuits normal working voltage. Care should be taken with polarised
Electrolytic and Tantalum capacitors as they have low working voltages. For a
9 Volt circuit choose a 16V or higher capacitor. The higher the voltage, the
bigger and more expensive they get. Manufacturer's catalogue will give you all
the information you need.
Leakage Current.
The dielectric is an insulator and the current should not flow through it.
However a perfect insulator does not exist and a small leakage current will flow
out eventually discharging the capacitor.
Capacitance Code:- Most capacitors have a tolerance of 20% and have the
following numerical values
10 15 22 33 47 68 82 As many capacitors are small, the values
are printed with a three number code. The first two refer to the numerical
values and the last gives the numbers of zeros.
Some old capacitors are colour coded in a way similar to resistors.
Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Combined
capacitance (C)
of
capacitors
connected
in series:
Combined
capacitance (C)
of
capacitors
connected
in parallel:
1
C
1
C1
=
1
C2
+
1
C3
+
+
...
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
Two or more capacitors are rarely

deliberately connected in series in real circuits, but it can be useful to connect
capacitors in parallel to obtain a very large capacitance, for example to smooth
a power supply.
Note that these equations are the opposite way round for resistors in series and
parallel.
Charging a capacitor
The capacitor (C) in the circuit diagram is being
charged from a supply voltage (Vs) with the current
passing through a resistor (R). The voltage across
the capacitor (Vc) is initially zero but it increases
as the capacitor charges. The capacitor is fully
charged when Vc = Vs. The charging current (I) is
determined by the voltage across the resistor (Vs Vc):
Charging current, I = (Vs - Vc) / R (note that Vc is
increasing)
At first Vc = 0V so the initial current, Io = Vs / R
Vc increases as soon as charge (Q) starts to build up (Vc = Q/C), this reduces
the voltage across the resistor and therefore reduces the charging current. This
means that the rate of charging becomes progressively slower.
time constant = R C
where:
time constant is in seconds (s)

R = resistance in ohms ( )
C = capacitance in farads (F)
For example:
If R = 47k and C = 22F, then the time constant, RC = 47k 22F = 1.0s.
If R = 33k and C = 1F, then the time constant, RC = 33k 1F = 33ms.
A large time constant means the capacitor charges slowly. Note that the time
constant is a property of the circuit containing the capacitance and resistance, it
is not a property of a capacitor alone.
The time constant is the time taken for the charging (or discharging) current (I)
to fall to 1/e of its initial value (Io). 'e' is the base of natural logarithms, an
important number in mathematics (like ). e = 2.71828 (to 6 significant figures)
so we can roughly say that the time constant is the time taken for the current
to fall to 1/3 of its initial value.
After each time constant the current falls by 1/e (about 1/3). After 5 time
constants (5RC) the current has fallen to less than 1% of its initial value and
we can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully charged, but in fact the
capacitor takes for ever to charge fully!
The bottom graph shows how the voltage (V) increases

as the capacitor charges. At first the voltage changes
rapidly because the current is large; but as the
current decreases, the charge builds up more slowly
and the voltage increases more slowly.
After 5 time constants (5RC) the capacitor is almost
fully charged with its voltage almost equal to the
supply voltage. We can reasonably say that the
capacitor is fully charged after 5RC, although really
charging continues for ever (or until the circuit is
changed).
Time Voltage Charge

0RC
0.0V
0%
1RC
5.7V
63%
2RC
7.8V
86%
3RC
8.6V
95%
4RC
8.8V
98%
5RC
8.9V
99%
Discharging a capacitor
The top graph shows how the current (I) decreases as the capacitor
discharges. The initial current (Io) is determined by the initial voltage across
the capacitor (Vo) and resistance (R):
Initial current, Io = Vo / R.
The bottom graph shows how the voltage (V) decreases
as the capacitor discharges.
Time Voltage Charge
At first the current is large because the voltage is

large, so charge is lost quickly and the voltage
decreases rapidly. As charge is lost the voltage is
reduced making the current smaller so the rate of
discharging becomes progressively slower.
0RC
9.0V
100%
1RC
3.3V
37%
2RC
1.2V
14%
After 5 time constants (5RC) the voltage across the

capacitor is almost zero and we can reasonably say
that the capacitor is fully discharged, although really
discharging continues for ever (or until the circuit is
changed).
3RC
0.4V
5%
4RC
0.2V
2%
5RC
0.1V
1%
AC, DC and Electrical Signals

AC means Alternating Current and DC means Direct Current. AC and DC are
also used when referring to voltages and electrical signals which are not
currents! For example: a 12V AC power supply has an alternating voltage
(which will make an alternating current flow). Anelectrical signal is a voltage or
current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage. The term can
be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.
Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current (AC) flows
one way, then the other way,
continually reversing direction.
An AC voltage is continually
changing between positive (+)
and negative (-).
AC from a power supply

This shape is called a sine wave.
The rate of changing direction

is called the frequency of the
AC and it is measured in hertz
(Hz) which is the number of
forwards-backwards cycles per
second.
This triangular signal is AC because it changes
between positive (+) and negative (-).
Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz.See below for more details
of signal properties.
An AC supply is suitable for powering some devices such as lamps and heaters
but almost all electronic circuits require a steady DC supply (see below).
Direct Current (DC)

Direct Current (DC) always flows in
the same direction, but it may
increase and decrease.
A DC voltage is always positive (or
always negative), but it may increase
and decrease.
Electronic circuits normally require
a steady DC supply which is
constant at one value or asmooth
DC supply which has a small
variation called ripple.
Steady DC
from a battery or regulated power supply,
this is ideal for electronic circuits.
Cells, batteries and regulated power

supplies provide steady DC which is
ideal for electronic circuits.
Power supplies contain
a transformer which converts the
mains AC supply to a safe low
voltage AC. Then the AC is converted
to DC by a bridge rectifier but the
output is varying DC which is
unsuitable for electronic circuits.
Some power supplies include
a capacitor to provide smooth
DC which is suitable for lesssensitive electronic circuits,
including most of the projects on
this website.
Smooth DC
from a smoothed power supply,
this is suitable for some electronics.
Varying DC
from a power supply without smoothing,
this is not suitable for electronics.
Lamps, heaters and motors will work

with any DC supply.
Please see the Power Supplies page for further information.
Power supplies are also covered by the Electronics in Meccano website.
Properties of electrical signals

An electrical signal is a voltage or
current which conveys
information, usually it means a
voltage. The term can be used for
any voltage or current in a circuit.
The voltage-time graph on the right shows various properties of an electrical

signal. In addition to the properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency
which is the number of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a
constant shape.
Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.

It is measured in volts, V.
Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short
so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (s) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s
and 1s = 0.000001s.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz
(kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and
1MHz = 1000000Hz.
frequency =
1
time period
and
time period =
Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz,

so it has a time period of 1/50 = 0.02s = 20ms.
1
frequency
Root Mean Square (RMS) Values

The value of an AC voltage is continually
changing from zero up to the positive peak,
through zero to the negative peak and back to
zero again. Clearly for most of the time it is less
than the peak voltage, so this is not a good
measure of its real effect.
Instead we use the root mean square

voltage (VRMS) which is 0.7 of the peak voltage (Vpeak):
VRMS = 0.7 Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 VRMS
These equations also apply to current.
They are only true for sine waves (the most common type of AC) because the
0.7 and 1.4 are different values for other shapes.
The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the
equivalent steady DC (constant) value which gives the same effect.
For example a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will light with the same
brightness when connected to a steady 6V DC supply. However, the lamp will
be dimmer if connected to a 6V peak AC supply because the RMS value of this
is only 4.2V (it is equivalent to a steady 4.2V DC).
You may find it helps to think of the RMS value as a sort of average, but please
remember that it is NOT really the average! In fact the average voltage (or
current) of an AC signal is zero because the positive and negative parts exactly
cancel out!
What do AC meters show, is it the RMS or peak voltage?

AC voltmeters and ammeters show the RMS value of the voltage or current.
What does '6V AC' really mean, is it the RMS or peak voltage?
If the peak value is meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise assume it is
the RMS value. In everyday use AC voltages (and currents) are always given
as RMS values because this allows a sensible comparison to be made with
steady DC voltages (and currents), such as from a battery.
For example a '6V AC supply' means 6V RMS, the peak voltage is 8.6V. The UK
mains supply is 230V AC, this means 230V RMS so the peak voltage of the
mains is about 320V!
So what does root mean square (RMS) really mean?
First square all the values, then find the average (mean) of these square values
over a complete cycle, and find the square root of this average. That is the RMS
value. Confused? Ignore the maths (it looks more complicated than it really is),
just accept that RMS values for voltage and current are a much more useful
quantity than peak values.
Electricity and the Electron

Electricity is an invisible force that can produce heat., light , motion ,
and many other physical effects. The force is an attraction or repulsion
between electric charges. More specifically, electricity can be explained in terms
of electric charge , current , voltage , and resistance. The corresponding
electrical units are the coulomb for measuring charge , the ampere for current,
the volt for potential difference, and the ohm for resistance. These
characteristics can then be applied to the electric circuits.
Charges of opposite polarity attract
If two small charged bodies of light weight are mounted so that they are
free to move easily and are placed close to each other, one can be attracted to
the other when the two charges have opposite polarity. In terms of electrons
and protons, they tend to be attracted to each other by the force of attraction
between opposite charges.
Charges of the same polarity repel
When the two bodies have an equal amount of charge with the same
polarity, they repel each other.
Electricity is the flow of charge around a

circuit carrying energy from the battery (or power
supply) to components such as lamps and motors.
Electricity can flow only if there is a complete
circuit from the battery through wires to
components and back to the battery again.
The diagram shows a simple circuit of a battery,
wires, a switch and a lamp. The switch works by
breaking the circuit.
With the switch open the circuit is broken - so electricity cannot flow and the
lamp is off.
With the switch closed the circuit is complete - allowing electricity to flow and
the lamp is on. The electricity is carrying energy from the battery to the lamp.
We can see, hear or feel the effects of electricity flowing such as a lamp lighting,
a bell ringing, or a motor turning - but we cannot see the electricity itself, so
which way is it flowing?
Which way does electricity flow?
We say that electricity flows from the positive (+)
terminal of a battery to the negative (-) terminal of
the battery. We can imagine particles with positive
electric charge flowing in this direction around the
circuit, like the red dots in the diagram.
This flow of electric charge is called conventional
current.
This direction of flow is used throughout
electronics and it is the one you should remember
and use to understand the operation of circuits.
Imaginary positive particles

moving in the direction of
the conventional current
However this is not the whole answer because the particles that move in fact
have negative charge! And they flow in the opposite direction! Please read on...
The electron
When electricity was discovered scientists tried many
experiments to find out which way the electricity was
flowing around circuits, but in those early days they
found it was impossible to find the direction of flow.
They knew there were two types of electric charge,
positive (+) and negative (-), and they decided to say that
electricity was a flow of positive charge from + to -. They
knew this was a guess, but a decision had to be made!
Everything known at that time could also be explained if
electricity was negative charge flowing the other way, from - to +.
The electron was discovered in 1897 and it was found to have a negative
charge. The guess made in the early days of electricity was wrong! Electricity in
almost all conductors is really the flow of electrons (negative charge) from - to
+.
By the time the electron was discovered the idea of electricity flowing from + to
- (conventional current) was firmly established. Luckily it is not a problem to
think of electricity in this way because positive charge flowing forwards is
equivalent to negative charge flowing backwards.
To prevent confusion you should always use conventional current when
trying to understand how circuits work, imagine positively charged particles
flowing from + to -.
Electrical characteristics
Quantity
Current
Charge
Power
Voltage
Resistance
Reactance
Impendance
Conductance
symbol
I or i
Q or q
P
V or v
R
X
Z
G
Admittance
Susceptance
Capacitance
Inductance
Frequency
Period
Y
B
C
L
F or f
T
Basic unit
Ampere
Coulomb
Watt
Volt
Ohm
Ohm
Ohm
Siemens
Siemens
Siemens
Farad
Henry
Hertz
Second
Multiples and submultiples of units

value
prefix
1,000,000,000,000=10
1,000,000,000=10
1,000,000=10
1,000=10
100=10
10=10
0.1=10
0.01=10
0.001=10
0.000 001=10
0.000 000 001=10
0.000 000 000 001= 10
Tera
Giga
Mega
Kilo
Hecto
deka
deci
centi
mili
micro
nano
pico
symbol
T
G
M
K
h
da
d
c
m
u
n
p
Conversion of units
How to convert basic units ti sub-units/ multiple units
Rule#1:
When converting smaller to a bigger unit, move the decimal point to the left.
Example:
1,000 = 1 k
200 = 0.2 k
Rule#2:
When converting bigger to smaller unit, move the decimal point to the right.
Example:
2.2k= 2,200
1m = 1,000,000
OHMs Law
This unit explains how the amount of current I in the cicuit depends on
its resistance R and the applied voltage. Specifically, I=V/R, determined in
1828 by the experiments of George Simon Ohm. Ohms law also determine the
amount of electrical power in the circuit.
Formula:
V-- is the Voltage measured in

volts
I --is the Current measured in
amperes
R --is the resistance measured in
Ohms
Volts = Amps times Ohms or
Amps = Volts divide by Ohms or
Ohms = Volts divide by Amps
Current= I=V/R
Resistance= R=V/I
Voltage= V=IR
Series Circuit
When the components in a circuit are connected in successive order with
an end of each joined to an end of the next,they form a series circuit. The result
is only one path of electron flow.current I is the same in all series components.
Total resistance RT=R + R + R etc..
Total voltage
VT=V + V + V etc..
Parallel Circuit
When two or more components are connected across one voltage source
,they form a parallel circuit. Each parallel path is then a branch with its own
individual current I. parallel circuits therefore, have one common voltage
across all the branches but individual branch currents that can be
different.these characteristics are opposite from series circuits. That have one
common current but individual voltage or ops that can be different.
Formulas:
RT=
for two branches
RT =
RT =
long method
IT=I1 + I2+ I3 etc.

PT=P1 + P2 + P3
An open in one branch results in no current through the branch, but the other
branches can have their normal current .
Series and Parallel Connections

Connecting Components
There are two ways of connecting components:
In series
so that each component has the same current.
The battery voltage is divided between the two lamps
Each lamp will have half the battery voltage if the
lamps are identical.
In parallel
so that each component has the same voltage.
Both lamps have the full battery voltage across them.
The battery current is divided between the two lamps.
Most circuits contain a mixture of series and parallel connections

The terms series circuit and parallel circuit are
sometimes used, but only the simplest of
circuits are entirely one type or the other. It is
better to refer to specific components and say
they are connected in series orconnected in
parallel.
For example: the circuit on the right shows
a resistor and LED connected in series (on the
right) and two lamps connected in parallel (in the centre). The switch is
connected in series with the two lamps.
Lamps in Series
If several lamps are connected in series
they will all be switched on and off together
by a switch connected anywhere in the
circuit. The supply voltage is divided
equally between the lamps (assuming they
are all identical). If one lamp blows all the
lamps will go out because the circuit is broken.
Christmas Tree Lights

The lamps on a Christmas tree are connected in series.
Normally you would expect all the lamps to go out if one blew, but Christmas
tree lamps are special! They are designed to short circuit (conduct like a wire
link) when they blow, so the circuit is not broken and the other lamps remain
lit, making it easier to locate the faulty lamp. Sets also include one 'fuse' lamp
which blows normally.
If there are 20 lamps and the mains electricity voltage is 240V, each lamp must
be suitable for a 12V supply because the 240V is divided equally between the
20 lamps: 240V 20 = 12V
WARNING! The Christmas tree lamps may seem safe because they use only
12V but they are connected to the mains supply which can be lethal. Always
unplug from the mains before changing lamps. The voltage across the holder of
a missing lamp is the full 240V of the mains supply! (Yes, it really is!)
Lamps in Parallel
If several lamps are connected in parallel each one
has the full supply voltage across it. The lamps may
be switched on and off independently by connecting
a switch in series with each lamp as shown in the
circuit diagram. This arrangement is used to control
the lamps in buildings.
This type of circuit is often called a parallel circuit but you can see that it is not
really so simple - the switches are in series with the lamps, and it is
these switch and lamp pairs that are connected in parallel.
Switches in Series
If several on-off switches are
connected in series they must all be
closed (on) to complete the circuit.
The diagram shows a simple circuit
with two switches connected in series
to control a lamp.
Switch S1 AND Switch S2 must be closed to light the lamp.
Switches in Parallel
If several on-off switches are
connected in parallel only one needs
to be closed (on) to complete the
circuit.
The diagram shows a simple circuit
with two switches connected in
parallel to control a lamp.
Switch S1 OR Switch S2 (or both of them) must be closed to light the lamp.
Power Dissipation in Resistance

When current flows in a resistance, heat is produced because friction
between the holing free electrons and the atoms obstructs the path of electron
flow. the heat is the evidence that power is used in producing current. This is
how a fuse opens, as heat resulting from excessive current melts the metal link
in the fuse.
There are 3 basic formulas for power but 9 combinations, as follows:
P=VI
I=P/V
V=P/I
P=IR
R=P/I
I=
P=V/R
R=V/P
V=
Watts and horse power units: a further example of how electrical power
corresponds to mechanical power is the fact that,
746w= 1hp = 650 ft. lb/s
This relation can be remembered more easily as 1hp equals
approximately kilowatt (kw). Ikw=1,000w
KILOWATTHOURS (KWH) = This is a unit commonly used for large amounts of

electrical work or energy.The amount is calculated simply as the product of the
power in kilowatts multiplied by the time in hours during which the power is
used.As an example,if a light bulb uses 300w or 0.3kw for 4 hours (h),the amount
of energy is 0.3 x 4, which equals 1.2 kwh.
Comparison of Series and Parallel Circuit

Series Circuit:
Parallel circuit:
Current the same in all

components
Voltage the same across all the

branches
V across each series R is IR
I in each branch R is V/R
VT=V + V + V etc..
IT=I + I + I etc..
RT=R + R + R etc..
GT=G + G + G etc..
RT must be more than the

largest individual R
RT must be less than the

smallest branch R
PT=P + P + P etc..
PT=P + P + P
Applied voltage is divided into

IR voltage drops
Main-line current is divided into

branch currents
The largest IR drop is across

the largest series R
The largest branch I is in the

smallest parallel R
Open in one component causes Open in one branch does not

entire circuit to be open
prevent I in other branches
Multimeter
A multimeter or tester is an indespensable tool for a technician, the
interpretation of meter reading gives technician clues to troubleshooting.
Parts of a multimeter
Range selector knob
Scale
Pointer or needle
Moving coil assembly
Scale plate
0 adjuster knob
Test probe or test prod
Negative and positive input

Output socket
Zero position adjuster
General Precaution on Using Multitester
never leave the multitester on the edge of working table

when not in use, always set the multitester on the highest range
(1,000 vac)
always place in the appropriate range position, the range selector
before using the multimeter.
Never ever leave the multimeter with test probe connected to each
other specially when its range selector is on resistance scale.
When measuring an ac or dc voltage with undetermined power rating,
set it on the highest range either ac or dc depending on voltage source
When measuring resistance and voltages, connect the two test probe
across the load.
When measuring current, connect the instrument inseries with the
load.
Take note the polarity of being measure
Always check the battery of the V.O.M
Handle it with care.
Choosing a multimeter
The photographs below show modestly priced multimeters which are suitable
for general electronics use, you should be able to buy meters like these for less
than 15. A digital multimeter is the best choice for your first multimeter,
even the cheapest will be suitable for testing simple projects.
If you are buying an analogue multimeter make sure it has a high
sensitivity of 20k /V or greater on DC voltage ranges, anything less is not
suitable for electronics. The sensitivity is normally marked in a corner of the
scale, ignore the lower AC value (sensitivity on AC ranges is less important), the
higher DC value is the critical one. Beware of cheap analogue multimeters sold
for electrical work on cars because their sensitivity is likely to be too low.
Digital multimeters
All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so
they use virtually no power from the circuit under test.
This means that on their DC voltage ranges they have a
very high resistance (usually called input impedance) of
1M or more, usually 10M , and they are very unlikely to
affect the circuit under test.
Typical ranges for digital multimeters like the one
illustrated:
(the values given are the maximum reading on each range)
DC Voltage: 200mV, 2000mV, 20V, 200V, 600V.

AC Voltage: 200V, 600V.
Digital Multimeter
DC Current: 200A, 2000A, 20mA, 200mA, 10A*.
*The 10A range is usually unfused and connected via a special socket.
AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).
Resistance: 200 , 2000 , 20k , 200k , 2000k , Diode Test.
Digital meters have a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges
cannot be used to test diodes and other semiconductors.
Analogue multimeters
Analogue meters take a little power from the circuit
under test to operate their pointer. They must have a
high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may upset the
circuit under test and give an incorrect reading. See the
section below on sensitivity for more details.
Batteries inside the meter provide power for the
resistance ranges, they will last several years but you
should avoid leaving the meter set to a resistance range
in case the leads touch accidentally and run the battery
flat.
Analogue Multimeter
Typical ranges for analogue multimeters like the one illustrated:

(the voltage and current values given are the maximum reading on each range)
DC Voltage: 0.5V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.

AC Voltage: 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
DC Current: 50A, 2.5mA, 25mA, 250mA.
A high current range is often missing from this type of meter.
AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).
Resistance: 20 , 200 , 2k , 20k , 200k .
These resistance values are in the middle of the scale for each range.
It is a good idea to leave an analogue multimeter set to a DC voltage range such

as 10V when not in use. It is less likely to be damaged by careless use on this
range, and there is a good chance that it will be the range you need to use next
anyway!
Sensitivity of an analogue multimeter

Multimeters must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V otherwise their
resistance on DC voltage ranges may be too low to avoid upsetting the circuit
under test and giving an incorrect reading. To obtain valid readings the meter
resistance should be at least 10 times the circuit resistance (take this to be the
highest resistor value near where the meter is connected). You can increase the
meter resistance by selecting a higher voltage range, but this may give a
reading which is too small to read accurately!
On any DC voltage range:
Analogue Meter Resistance = Sensitivity Max. reading of range
e.g. a meter with 20k /V sensitivity on its 10V range has a resistance of 20k
/V 10V = 200k .
By contrast, digital multimeters have a constant resistance of at least 1M
(often 10M ) on all their DC voltage ranges. This is more than enough for
almost all circuits.
Measuring voltage and current with a multimeter

1. Select a range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading to
be.
2. Connect the meter, making sure the leads are the correct way round.
Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an analogue meter
may be damaged.
3. If the reading goes off the scale: immediately disconnect and select a
higher range.
Multimeters are easily damaged by careless use so please take these
precautions:
Always disconnect the multimeter before adjusting the range switch.

Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to a
circuit.
Never leave a multimeter set to a current range (except when actually
taking a reading).
The greatest risk of damage is on the current ranges because the meter
has a low resistance.
Measuring voltage at a point

When testing circuits you often need to find the voltages at various points, for
example the voltage at pin 2 of a 555 timer IC. This can seem confusing where should you connect
the second multimeter lead?
Connect
the black (negative -)
lead to 0V, normally
the negative terminal
of the battery or
power supply.
Connect
the red (positive +)
lead to the point you
where you need to
measure the voltage.
Measuring voltage at a point.
The black lead can be
left permanently
connected to 0V while you use the redlead as a probe to measure
voltages at various points.
You may wish to fit a crocodile clip to the black lead of your multimeter
to hold it in place while doing testing like this.
Voltage at a point really means the voltage difference between that point and
0V (zero volts) which is normally the negative terminal of the battery or power
supply. Usually 0V will be
labelled on the circuit
diagram as a reminder.
Reading analogue scales
Check the setting of the
range switch and choose an
appropriate scale. For
some ranges you may need
to multiply or divide by 10
or 100 as shown in the
sample readings below. For
AC voltage ranges use
the red markings because
the calibration of the scale
is slightly different.
Analogue Multimeter Scales

These
can
appear
daunting at first but remember
Sample readings on the
that you only need to read one scale at a time!
scales shown:
The
top scale is used when measuring resistance.
DC 10V range: 4.4V (read 010 scale directly)
DC 50V range: 22V (read 0-50 scale directly)
DC 25mA range: 11mA (read 0-250 and divide by 10)
AC 10V range: 4.45V (use the red scale, reading 0-10)
If you are not familiar with reading analogue scales generally you may wish to
see theanalogue display section on the general meters page.
Measuring resistance with a multimeter
To measure the resistance of a component it must not be connected in a
circuit. If you try to measure resistance of components in a circuit you will
obtain false readings (even if the supply is disconnected) and you may damage
the multimeter.
The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are
treated separately:
Measuring resistance with a DIGITAL multimeter

1. Set the meter to a resistance range greater than you expect the
resistance to be.
Notice that the meter display shows "off the scale" (usually blank except
for a 1 on the left). Don't worry, this is not a fault, it is correct - the
resistance of air is very high!
2. Touch the meter probes together and check that the meter reads
zero.
If it doesn't read zero, turn the switch to 'Set Zero' if your meter has this
and try again.
3. Put the probes across the component.
Avoid touching more than one contact at a time or your resistance will
upset the reading!
Measuring resistance with an ANALOGUE multimeter
The resistance scale on an analogue meter is normally at the top, it is an
unusual scale because it reads backwards and is not linear (evenly spaced).
This is unfortunate, but it is due to the way the meter works.
1. Set the meter to a suitable resistance range.
Choose a range so that the resistance you expect will be near the middle
of the scale. For example: with the scale shown below and an expected
resistance of about 50k choose the 1k range.
2. Hold the meter probes together and adjust the control on the front of the
meter which is usually labelled "0 ADJ" until the pointer reads zero (on
the RIGHT remember!).
If you can't adjust it to read zero, the battery inside the meter needs
replacing.
3. Put the probes across the component.
Avoid touching more than one contact at a time or your resistance will
upset the reading!
Reading analogue
resistance scales
For resistance use
the upper scale, noting
that it reads backwards
and is not linear (evenly
spaced).
Check the setting of the
range switch so that you
know by how much to
multiply the reading.
Sample readings on the
scales shown:
10 range: 260
1k range: 26k
Analogue Multimeter Scales

The resistance scale is at the top, note that it reads
backwards and is not linear (evenly spaced).
If you are not familiar withreading analogue scales generally you may wish to
see theanalogue display section on the general meters page.
Testing a diode with a multimeter
The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are
treated separately:
Testing a diode with a DIGITAL multimeter
Digital multimeters have a special setting for testing

a diode, usually labelled with the diode symbol.
Connect the red (+) lead to the anode and
the black (-) to the cathode. The diode should
conduct and the meter will display a value (usually
the voltage across the diode in mV, 1000mV = 1V).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT
conduct this way so the meter will display "off the
scale" (usually blank except for a 1 on the left).
Diodes
a = anode
k = cathode
Testing a diode with an ANALOGUE multimeter
Set the analogue multimeter to a low value resistance range such as

10.
It is essential to note that the polarity of analogue multimeter leads is
reversed on the resistance ranges, so the black lead is positive (+) and
the red lead is negative (-)! This is unfortunate, but it is due to the way
the meter works.
Connect the black (+) lead to anode and the red (-) to the cathode. The
diode should conduct and the meter will display a low resistance (the
exact value is not relevant).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the
meter will show infinite resistance (on the left of the scale).
For further information please see the diodes page.

You may find it easier to test a diode with the simple tester project.
Testing a transistor with a multimeter
Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an
analogue multimeter to a low resistance range
such as 10, as described above for testing a
diode.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in
total):
The base-emitter (BE) junction should

behave like a diode and conduct one way
only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should
Testing an NPN transistor
only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes
are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
The ohmmeter scale is used to measure resistance, the topmost

scale of a multimeter is for ohmmeter reading. Zero is located on the
right side of the meter: the infinity is on the left side.
Ohm/division 1
0-2=0.2
2-10=0.5
10-20=1
20-50=2
50-100=5
100-200=20
200-500=100
1k=1,000=
2k=2,000
The voltmeter is used when it is necessary to determine

the presence or absence of an electrical pressure or voltage on
a unit undertest. Our tester has two voltmeter functions, one
is DC and the other is AC . although this functions are
separated from each other both AC and DC are indicated in
the same scales of the meter.
Volts/division
ACV:
10v=0.2v
50v=1v
250v=5v
1,000v=20v
DCV:
10v=0.2v
50v=1v
250v=5v
1,000v=20v
0.1v=0.002v/2mv
2.5v=0.05v/50mv
Connecting meters
It is important to connect meters the correct way round:
The positive terminal of the meter, marked + or coloured red should be

connected nearest to + on the battery or power supply.
The negative terminal of the meter, marked - or coloured black should be
connected nearest to - on the battery or power supply.
Voltmeters
Voltmeters measure voltage.

Voltage is measured in volts, V.
Voltmeters are connected
in parallel across components.
Voltmeters have a very high
resistance.
Connecting a voltmeter in parallel
Measuring voltage at a point

When testing circuits you
often need to find the
voltages at various points,
for example the voltage at
pin 2 of a 555 timer IC. This
can seem confusing - where
should you connect the
second voltmeter lead?
Connect
the black (negative -)
voltmeter lead to 0V,
normally the negative
terminal of the battery
or power supply.
Connect the red (positive +) voltmeter lead to the point you where you
need to measure the voltage.
The black lead can be left permanently connected to 0V while you use
the redlead as a probe to measure voltages at various points.
You may wish to use a crocodile clip on the black lead to hold it in place.
Voltage at a point really means the voltage difference between that point and
0V (zero volts) which is normally the negative terminal of the battery or power
supply. Usually 0V will be labelled on the circuit diagram as a reminder.
Analogue meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their
pointer. This may upset the circuit and give an incorrect reading. To avoid this
voltmeters should have a resistance of at least 10 times the circuit resistance
(take this to be the highest resistor value near where the meter is connected).
Most analogue voltmeters used in school science are not suitable for
electronics because their resistance is too low, typically a few k . 100k or
more is required for most electronics circuits.
Ammeters
Ammeters measure current.

Current is measured in amps
(amperes), A.
1A is quite large, so mA (milliamps)
and A (microamps) are often used.
1000mA = 1A, 1000A = 1mA,
1000000A = 1A.
Ammeters are connected in series.
To connect in series you must break the
circuit and put the ammeter across the
gap, as shown in the diagram.
Connecting an ammeter in series
Ammeters have a very low resistance.
The need to break the circuit to connect in series means that ammeters are
difficult to use on soldered circuits. Most testing in electronics is done with
voltmeters which can be easily connected without disturbing circuits.
Galvanometers
Galvanometers are very sensitive meters which are
used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less.
They are used to make all types of analogue meters by
adding suitable resistors as shown in the diagrams
below. The photograph shows an educational 100A galvanometer for which
various multipliers and shunts are available.
Making an
Making a Voltmeter
Ammeter
A galvanometer
A galvanometer
with a high
with a low
resistance multiplie
resistance shunt i
r in series to make
n parallel to make
a voltmeter.
an ammeter.
Galvanometer with multiplier and

shunt
Maximum meter current 100A (or
20A reverse).
This meter is unusual in allowing
small
reverse readings to be shown.
Ohmmeters
An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance in ohms (
). Ohmmeters are rarely found as separate meters
but all standard multimeters have an ohmmeter
setting.
1 is quite small so k and M are often used.
1k
= 1000 , 1M
= 1000k
= 1000000 .
Oscilloscopes (CROs)
An oscilloscope is a test instrument

which allows you to look at the 'shape' of
electrical signals by displaying a graph of
voltage against time on its screen. It is
like a voltmeter with the valuable extra
function of showing how the voltage
varies with time. A graticule with a 1cm
grid enables you to take measurements
of voltage and time from the screen.
Circuit symbol for

an oscilloscope
The graph, usually called the trace, is

drawn by a beam of electrons striking
the phosphor coating of the screen
making it emit light, usually green or
blue. This is similar to the way a
television picture is produced.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one
end to emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so
they move rapidly down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an
electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam
up/down and left/right.
The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode
and this gives the oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.
A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing you to
easily compare the input and output of an amplifier for example. It is well
worth paying the modest extra cost to have this facility.
Precautions
An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile (and

expensive) vacuum tube.
Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these
remain for some time after switching off - for your own safety do not
attempt to examine the inside of an oscilloscope!
Setting up an oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require
some care to set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off
the screen if controls are set wrongly!
There is some variation in the arrangement and labelling of the many controls
so the following instuctions may need to be
adapted for your instrument.
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm
up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this
stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y
INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch
to SWP (sweep).
This is what you should see
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
after setting up, when there
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal,
is no input signal connected
the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a
moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the timebase VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10.
Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace
across the middle of the screen, like the picture.
11.
Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp
trace.
12.
The oscilloscope is now ready to use!
Connecting the input lead is described in the next section.
Connecting an oscilloscope
The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be
a co-axial lead and the diagram shows its
construction. The central wire carries the
signal and the screen is connected to earth
(0V) to shield the signal from electrical
interference (usually called noise).
Construction of a co-axial lead
Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the

y input and the lead is connected with a push
and twist action, to disconnect you need to
twist and pull. Oscilloscopes used in schools
may have red and black 4mm sockets so that
ordinary, unscreened, 4mm plug leads can be
used if necessary.
Professionals use a specially designed lead
and probes kit for best results with high
frequency signals and when testing high
resistance circuits, but this is not essential for
Oscilloscope lead and probes kit
simpler work at audio frequencies (up to
20kHz).
An oscilloscope is connected like a voltmeter but you must be aware that the
screen (black) connection of the input lead is connected to mains earth at the
oscilloscope! This means it must be connected to earth or 0V on the circuit
being tested.
Obtaining a clear and stable trace
Once you have connected the oscilloscope to the
circuit you wish to test you will need to adjust the
controls to obtain a clear and stable trace on the
screen:
The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control

determines the height of the trace. Choose a
setting so the trace occupies at least half the
screen height, but does not disappear off the
screen.
The trace of an AC signal
The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines
with the oscilloscope
the rate at which the dot sweeps across the
controls correctly set
screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at
least one cycle of the signal across the screen.
Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for which
the timebase setting is not critical.
The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.
If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time it is best to start with an easy
signal such as the output from an AC power pack set to about 4V.
Measuring voltage and time
period
The trace on an oscilloscope
screen is a graph of voltage against
time. The shape of this graph is
determined by the nature of the
input signal.
In addition to the properties
labelled on the graph, there is
frequency which is the number of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a
constant shape.
Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.

It is measured in volts, V.
Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an
oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short
so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (s) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s
and 1s = 0.000001s.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz
(kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and
1MHz = 1000000Hz.
frequency =
1
time period
and
time period =
1
frequency
Voltage
Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale
is determined by the Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM)
control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured
because it can be read correctly even if the position
of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peakpeak voltage.
The trace of an AC signal
If you wish to read the amplitude voltage directly you
must check the position of 0V (normally halfway up
Y AMPLIFIER: 2V/cm
the screen): move the AC/GND/DC switch to GND
TIMEBASE: 5ms/cm
(0V) and use Y-SHIFT (up/down) to adjust the
position of the trace if necessary, switch back to DC Example measurements:
afterwards so you can see the signal again.
peak-peak voltage = 8.4V
Voltage = distance in cm volts/cm
amplitude voltage = 4.2V
Example: peak-peak voltage = 4.2cm 2V/cm = 8.4V
amplitude (peak voltage) = peak-peak voltage =
time period = 20ms
4.2V
frequency = 50Hz
Time period
Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. Thetime period (often just called period) is the
time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cyles per
second, frequency = 1/time period
Ensure that the variable timebase control is set to 1 or CAL (calibrated) before
attempting to take a time reading.
Time = distance in cm time/cm
Example: time period = 4.0cm 5ms/cm = 20ms
and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz
Slow timebase, no input

You can see the dot moving
Timebase (time/cm) and trigger controls

The oscilloscope sweeps the electron beam across
the screen from left to right at a steady speed set
by the TIMEBASE control. Each setting is labelled
with the time the dot takes to move 1cm, effectively
it is setting the scale on the x-axis. The timebase
control may be labelled TIME/CM.
At slow timebase settings (such as 50ms/cm) you
can see a dot moving across the screen but at
faster settings (such as 1ms/cm) the dot is moving
so fast that it appears to be a line.
Fast timebase, no input

The dot is too fast to see
so it appears to be a line
The VARIABLE timebase control can be turned to make a fine adjustment to

the speed, but it must be left at the position labelled 1 or CAL (calibrated) if
you wish to take time readings from the trace drawn on the screen.
The TRIGGER controls are used to maintain a steady trace on the screen. If
they are set wrongly you may see a trace drifting sideways, a confusing
'scribble' on the screen, or no trace at all! The trigger maintains a steady trace
by starting the dot sweeping across the screen when the input signal reaches
the same point in its cycle each time.
For straightforward use it is best to leave the trigger level set to AUTO, but if
you have difficulty obtaining a steady trace try adjusting this control to set the
level manually.
Y amplifier (volts/cm) control
The oscilloscope moves the trace up and down in
proportion to the voltage at the Y INPUT and the
setting of the Y AMPLIFIER control. This control
sets the voltage represented by each centimetre
(cm) on the the screen, effectively it is setting the
scale on the y-axis. Positive voltages make the
trace move up, negative voltages make it move
down.
The y amplifier control may be labelled Y-GAIN or
VOLTS/CM.
Varying DC (always positive)
The input voltage moving the dot up and down at the same time as the dot is
swept across the screen means that the trace on the screen is a graph
of voltage (y-axis) against time (x-axis) for the input signal.
The AC/GND/DC switch

The normal setting for this switch is DC for all
signals, including AC!
Switching to GND (ground) connects the y input
to 0V and allows you to quickly check the
position of 0V on the screen (normally halfway
up). There is no need to disconnect the input lead
while you do this because it is disconnected
internally.
Switching to GND allows you
to quickly check the position
Switching to AC inserts a capacitor in series with of 0V (normally halfway up).
the input to block out any DC signal present and
pass only ACsignals. This is used to examine
signals showing a small variation around one
constant value, such as the ripple on the output of a smooth DC supply.
Reducing the VOLTS/CM to see more detail of the ripple would normally take
the trace off the screen! The AC setting removes the constant (DC) part of the
signal, allowing you to view just the varying (AC) part which can now be
examined more closely by reducing the VOLTS/CM. This is shown in the
diagrams below:
Displaying a ripple signal using the AC switch
Switch in normal DC
Switch moved to AC
VOLTS/CM reduced to
position.
position.
enlarge the ripple.
The ripple is difficult to see, The constant (DC) part of The ripple can now be
but if VOLTS/CM is reduced
the
examined more closely.
to enlarge it the trace will
signal is removed, leaving
disappear off the screen!
just the ripple (AC) part.
Transistor
The transistor, invented by three scientists at the Bell Laboratories in 1947,
rapidly replaced the vacuum tube as an electronic signal regulator. A transistor
regulates current or voltageflow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic
signals. A transistor consists of three layers of a semiconductor material, each
capable of carrying a current. A semiconductor is a material such as
germanium and silicon that conducts
electricity in a "semi-enthusiastic" way. It's somewhere between a real
conductor such as copper and an insulator (like the plastic wrapped around
wires).
The semiconductor material is given special properties by a chemical
process called doping. The doping results in a material that either adds extra
electrons to the material (which is then called N-type for the extra negative
charge carriers) or creates "holes" in the material's crystal structure (which is
then called P-type because it results in more positive charge carriers). The
transistor's three-layer structure contains an N-type semiconductor layer
sandwiched between P-type layers (a PNP configuration) or a P-type layer
between N-type layers (an NPN configuration).
A small change in the current or voltage at the inner semiconductor
layer (which acts as the control electrode) produces a large, rapid change in the
current passing through the entire component. The component can thus act as
a switch, opening and closing an electronic gate many times per second.
Today's computers use circuitry made with complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) technology. CMOS uses two complementary transistors
per gate (one with N-type material; the other with P-type material). When one
transistor is maintaining a logic state, it requires almost no power.
Transistors are the basic elements in integrated circuits (ICs), which
consist of very large numbers of transistors interconnected with circuitry and
baked into a single siliconmicrochip or "chip."
Transistor Function
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to
amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can
operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many
circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a
changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify
voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current,
or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier(always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard
transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the
transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN
because this is the easiest type to make from
silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to
start by learning how to use NPN transistors.
Transistor circuit symbols
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not
much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as
labels!
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high
current gain.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect
transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit
symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.
Connecting
Transistors have three leads
which must be connected the
correct way round. Please take
care with this because a
wrongly connected transistor
may be damaged instantly
when you switch on.
If you are lucky the orientation
of the transistor will be clear
from the PCB or stripboard
layout diagram, otherwise you
will need to refer to a supplier's
catalogue to identify the leads.
The drawings on the right show
Transistor leads for some common case styles.
the leads for some of the most
common case styles.
Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the
leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show
the view from above.
Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common
transistors.
Soldering
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if
you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to
the lead between the joint and the transistor body. A
standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.
Crocodile clip.
Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the

permanent heat sink (described below) which may be required for a power
transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.
Heat sinks
Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing
through them. Heat sinks are needed for power transistors
because they pass large currents. If you find that a transistor is
becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The
heat sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it
to the surrounding air.
Heat sink
Testing a transistor
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If
you suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test
it:
1. Testing with a multimeter
Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery,
resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads
for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to
diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low
resistance range.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in
total):
The base-emitter (BE) junction should

Testing an NPN transistor
only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct
one way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes
are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
2. Testing in a simple switching circuit

Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on
the right which uses the transistor as a switch.
The supply voltage is not critical, anything between
5 and 12V is suitable. This circuit can be quickly
built on breadboardfor example. Take care to
include the 10k resistor in the base connection
or you will destroy the transistor as you test it!
If the transistor is OK the LED should light when
the switch is pressed and not light when the switch
is released.
To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but
reverse the LED and the supply voltage.
A simple switching circuit

to test an NPN transistor
Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known

base current and measures the collector current so as to display the
transistor's DC current gain hFE.
Transistor codes
There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:
Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478

The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The
second letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio
frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F means low power
high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor.
There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is
added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main
type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a
project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if
the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is
suitable.
Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The
letter at the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code
identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the
numbering system.
Choosing a transistor
Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can
usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The
most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and
the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their
transistors in categories determined either by their typical use or maximum
power rating.
To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data
which are normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful
information but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with
the abbreviations used. The table below shows the most important technical
data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books will
usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless you
are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained below
NPN transistors
Code
Structure
Case
style
IC
VCE hFE
max. max. min.
Ptot
max.
Category
Possible
(typical
substitutes
use)
Audio,
low power
BC182
BC547
BC107
NPN
TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW
BC108
NPN
General
TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW purpose,
low power
NPN
General
low power
NPN
Audio
(low
TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW
noise),
low power
BC184
BC549
BC182
NPN
General
TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose,
low power
BC107
BC182L
BC182L
NPN
General
TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose,
low power
BC107
BC182
BC547B
NPN
TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW
BC548B
NPN
TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW General
BC108C
BC109
Audio,
low power
BC108C
BC183
BC548
BC107B
BC108B
purpose,
low power
BC549B
2N3053
BFY51
BC639
TIP29A
TIP31A
TIP31C
TIP41A
2N3055
NPN
Audio
(low
TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW
noise),
low power
BC109
NPN
TO39 700mA 40V
General
50 500mW purpose,
low power
BFY51
TO39
30V
General
purpose,
40 800mW
medium
power
BC639
80V
General
purpose,
40 800mW
medium
power
BFY51
60V
30W
General
purpose,
high
power
40W
General
purpose,
high
power
TIP31C
TIP41A
40W
General
purpose,
high
power
TIP31A
TIP41A
65W
General
purpose,
high
power
117W
General
purpose,
high
power
NPN
NPN
NPN
NPN
NPN
NPN
NPN
TO92A
TO220
TO220
TO220
TO220
TO3
1A
1A
1A
3A
3A
6A
15A
60V
40
10
100V 10
60V
60V
15
20
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which
are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please
consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Code
Case
Structure
style
IC
VCE hFE
max. max. min.
Ptot
max.
Category
Possible
(typical
substitutes
use)
BC177
PNP
TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW
Audio,
low power
BC477
BC178
PNP
General
low power
BC478
BC179
PNP
Audio
(low
TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW
noise),
low power
BC477
PNP
TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW
Audio,
low power
BC177
PNP
General
low power
BC178
BC478
TIP32A
TIP32C
PNP
PNP
TO220
TO220
3A
3A
60V
25
100V 10
40W
General
purpose,
high
power
TIP32C
40W
General
purpose,
high
power
TIP32A
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which
are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please
consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
Structure
This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The

polarities of the two types are different, so if you are
looking for a substitute it must be the same type.
Case style
There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the

most common case styles in the Connecting section
above. This information is also available in suppliers'
catalogues.
IC max.
Maximum collector current.
VCE max.
Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction.

You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.
hFE
This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain).
The guaranteed minimum value is given because the

actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even
for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just
a number so it has no units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current
IC which is usually in the middle of the transistor's
range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at
least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum
values are given. Since the gain is roughly constant for
various currents but it varies from transistor to
transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts.
Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for
transistors, each with their own symbol. There are too
many to explain here.
Ptot max.
Maximum total power which can be developed in the

transistor, note that a heat sink will be required to
achieve the maximum rating. This rating is important for
transistors operating as amplifiers, the power is roughly
IC VCE. For transistors operating as switches the
maximum collector current (IC max.) is more important.
Category
This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good

starting point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues
may have separate tables for different categories.
Possible substitutes These are transistors with similar electrical properties

which will be suitable substitutes in most circuits.
However, they may have a different case style so you will
need to take care when placing them on the circuit
board.
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the
amplified current from the first is amplified further by
the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a
very high current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs
are sold as complete packages containing the two
transistors. They have three leads (B, C and E) which
are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual
transistor.
You can make up your own Darlington pair from two
transistors.
For example:
For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220.

For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.
The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 hFE2 = 220 40 = 8800.

The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.
MOSFET
Two power MOSFETs in the surface-mount package D2PAK.

Operating as switches, each of these components can sustain a blocking
voltage of 120 volts in theOFF state, and can conduct a continuous current of
30 amperes in the ON state, dissipating up to about 100 watts and controlling
a load of over 2000 watts. Amatchstick is pictured for scale.
A cross section through an nMOSFET when the gate voltage VGS is below the
threshold for making a conductive channel; there is little or no conduction
between the terminals source and drain; the switch is off. When the gate is
more positive, it attracts electrons, inducing an n-type conductive channel in
the substrate below the oxide, which allows electrons to flow between thendoped terminals; the switch is on.
Simulation result for formation of inversion channel (electron density)

and attainment of threshold voltage (IV) in a nanowire MOSFET. Note that the
threshold voltage for this device lies around 0.45V.
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a transistor used for
amplifying or switching electronic signals. The basic principle of this kind
oftransistor was first proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. In
MOSFETs, a voltage on the oxide-insulated gate electrode can induce
a conducting channel between the two other contacts called source and drain.
The channel can be of n-type or p-type (see article on semiconductor devices),
and is accordingly called an nMOSFET or a pMOSFET (also commonly nMOS,
pMOS). It is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog
circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more
common.
The 'metal' in the name is now often a misnomer because the previously
metal gate material is now often a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline
silicon). Aluminium had been the gate material until the mid 1970s, when
polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to form self-aligned gates.
Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to increase the speed
of operation of transistors without metal gates.
IGFET is a related term meaning insulated-gate field-effect transistor,
and is used almost synonymously with MOSFET, being more accurate since
many "MOSFETs" use a gate that is not metal and a gate insulator that is not
oxide. Another synonym is MISFET for metalinsulatorsemiconductor FET.
P-channel
N-channel
JFET
MOSFET enh
MOSFET enh (no bulk)
MOSFET de
Transducers
A transducer is a device which converts a signal from one form to another.Most
electronics circuits use both input and output transducers:
Input Transducers
Input Transducers convert a quantity to an electrical signal
(voltage) or to resistance (which can be converted to voltage). Input
transducers are also called sensors.
Examples:
LDR converts brightness (of light) to resistance.

Thermistor converts temperature to resistance.
Microphone converts sound to voltage.
Variable resistor converts position (angle) to resistance.
LDR
Output Transducers
Output Transducers convert an electrical signal to another
quantity.
Examples:
Lamp converts electricity to light.

LED converts electricity to light.
Loudspeaker converts electricity to sound.
Motor converts electricity to motion.
Heater converts electricity to heat.
Loudspeaker
Using input transducers (sensors)

Most input transducers (sensors) vary
their resistance and this can be used directly in
some circuits but it is usually converted to an
electrical signal in the form of a voltage.
The voltage signal can be fed to other parts of the
circuit, such as the input to an IC or a transistor
switch.
The conversion of varying resistance to varying
voltage is performed by a simple circuit called
a voltage divider.
Voltage divider circuit
Voltage Dividers
They are also called Potential Dividers
Voltage divider (potential divider)
A voltage divider consists of two resistances R1 and R2
connected in series across a supply voltage Vs. The
supply voltage is divided up between the two resistances
to give an output voltage Vo which is the voltage across
R2. This depends on the size of R2 relative to R1:
If R2 is much smaller than R1, Vo is small (low,

almost 0V)
(because most of the voltage is across R1)
If R2 is about the same as R1, Vo is about half
Vs
(because the voltage is shared about equally
between R1 and R2)
If R2 is much larger than R1, Vo is large (high,
almost Vs)
(because most of the voltage is across R2)
Vo =
Vs R2
R1 + R2
If you need a precise value for the output voltage Vo you can
use Ohm's law and a little algebra to work out the formula for Vo shown on the
right. The formula and the approximate rules given above assume that
negligible current flows from the output. This is true if Vo is connected to a
device with a high resistance such as voltmeter or an IC input. For further
information please see the page on impedance. If the output is connected to
a transistor Vo cannot become much greater than 0.7V because the transistor's
base-emitter junction behaves like a diode.
Voltage dividers are also called potential dividers, a name which comes from
potential difference (the proper name for voltage).
One of the main uses of voltage dividers is to connect input transducers into
circuits...
Using an input transducer (sensor) in a voltage divider

Most input transducers (sensors) vary their resistance and usually a voltage
divider is used to convert this to a varying voltage which is more useful. The
voltage signal can be fed to other parts of the circuit, such as the input to an IC
or a transistor switch.
The sensor is one of the resistances in the voltage divider. It can be at the top
(R1) or at the bottom (R2), the choice is determined by when you want a large
value for the output voltage Vo:
Put the sensor at the top (R1) if you want a large Vo when the sensor
has a small resistance.
Put the sensor at the bottom (R2) if you want a large Vo when the
sensor has a large resistance.
Then you need to choose a value for the resistor...

Choosing a resistor value
The value of the resistor R will determine the range of
the output voltage Vo. For best results you need a
large 'swing' (range) for Vo and this is achieved if the
resistor is much larger than the sensor's minimum
resistance Rmin, but much smaller than the sensor's
maximum resistance Rmax.
You can use a multimeter to help you find the
minimum and maximum values of the sensor's
resistance (Rmin and Rmax). There is no need to be
precise, approximate values will do.
Then choose resistor
value: R = square root of (Rmin Rmax)
Choose a standard value which is close to this
calculated value.
For example:
An LDR: Rmin = 100 , Rmax = 1M ,
so R = square root of (100 1M) = 10k .
OR
swapping over the resistor and sensor

The resistor and sensor can be swapped over to invert the action of the voltage
divider. For example an LDR has a high resistance when dark and a low
resistance when brightly lit, so:
If the LDR is at the top (near +Vs),

Vo will be low in the dark and high in bright light.
If the LDR is at the bottom (near 0V),
Vo will be high in the dark and low in bright light.
Using a variable resistor

A variable resistor may be used in place of the
fixed resistor R. It will enable you to adjust the
output voltage Vo for a given resistance of the
sensor. For example you can use a variable
resistor to set the exact brightness level which
makes an IC change state.
The variable resistor value should be larger than
the fixed resistor value. For finer control you can
use a fixed resistor in series with the variable
resistor. For example if a 10k fixed resistor is
suitable you could replace it with a fixed 4.7k
resistor in series with a 10k variable resistor,
allowing you to adjust the resistance from 4.7k to
14.7k .
The sensor and variable
If you are planning to use a variable resistor
resistor can be swapped
connected between the +Vs supply and the base
over if necessary
of a transistor you must include a resistor in
series with the variable resistor. This is to prevent excessive base current
destroying the transistor when the variable resistor is reduced to zero. For
further information please see the page onTransistor Circuits.
POWER TRANSFORMERS
LAMINATED CORE
Laminated Core Transformer

This is the most common type of transformer, widely used in appliances
to convert mains voltage to low voltage to power electronics
Widely available in power ratings ranging from mW to MW
Insulated lamination minimizes eddy current losses
Small appliance and electronic transformers may use a split bobbin, giving
a high level of insulation between the windings
Rectangular core
Core laminate stampings are usually in EI shape pairs. Other shape pairs
are sometimes used
Mu-metal shields can be fitted to reduce EMI (electromagnetic interference)
A screen winding is occasionally used between the 2 power windings
Small appliance and electronics transformers may have a thermal cut out
built in
Occasionally seen in low profile format for use in restricted spaces
Laminated core made with silicon steel with high permeability
Toroidal
Toroidal Transformer
Doughnut shaped toroidal transformers are used to save space compared to EI
cores, and sometimes to reduce external magnetic field. These use a ring
shaped core, copper windings wrapped round this ring (and thus threaded
through the ring during winding), and tape for insulation.
Toroidal transformers compared to EI core transformers:
Lower external magnetic field
Smaller for a given power rating
Higher cost in most cases, as winding requires more complex and slower
equipment
Less robust
Central fixing is either
bolt, large metal washers and rubber pads
bolt and potting resin
Over-tightening the central fixing bolt may short the windings
Greater inrush current at switch-on
Autotransformer
An autotransformer has only a single winding, which is tapped at
some point along the winding. AC or pulsed voltage is applied across a portion
of the winding, and a higher (or lower) voltage is produced across another
portion of the same winding. The higher voltage will be connected to the ends of
the winding, and the lower voltage from one end to a tap. For example, a
transformer with a tap at the center of the winding can be used with 230 V
across the entire winding, and 115 volts between one end and the tap. It can be
connected to a 230 V supply to drive 115 V equipment, or reversed to drive 230
V equipment from 115 V. Since the current in the windings is lower, the
transformer is smaller, lighter cheaper and more efficient. For voltage ratios not
exceeding about 3:1, an autotransformer is cheaper, lighter, smaller and more
efficient than an isolating (two-winding) transformer of the same rating. Large
three-phase autotransformers are used in electric power distribution systems,
for example, to interconnect 33 kV and 66 kV sub-transmission networks.
Coils
A coil is nothing more than copper wire wound in a spiral.
This symbol
is used to indicate a coil in a circuit diagram.
Inductance value is designated in units called the Henry(H). The more
wire the coil contains, the stronger its characteristics become. The
inductance value can become quite large. If a coil is wound around an
iron rod, or ferrite core (strengthened with iron powder), the
inductance of the coil will be greatly increased. Coils used in typical
electric circuits varely widely in values, ranging from a few micro-henry
(H) to many henry (H).
Coils are sometimes called "inductors." Inductance is the measure of
the strength of a coil. Capacitors have capacitance, resistors have
resistance, and Inductors (coils) have inductance. When alternating
current flows through a coil, the magnetic flux that occurs in the coil
changes with the current. When a second coil is put close to the first
coil (with the changing flux), alternating voltage is caused to flow in the
second coil by an effect known as "mutual induction." Mutual
inductance (inductance) is measured in units of the Henry. The
changing magnetic flux in a coil affects itself as well as other coils. This
is called self induction, the degree of this self induction is called Self
Inductance. Self inductance is a measure of a coil's ability to establish
an induced voltage as a result of a change in its current. Self
inductance is commonly referred to as simply "inductance," and is
symbolized by "L". The unit of inductance is the Henry (H).
The definition of "Henry" is "When a current of 1 ampere flows
through a given coil in 1 second such that 1 volt is induced to flow in a
second coil, the mutual inductance between the coils is said to be 1
Henry." The definition of self inductance is the same, except that the 1
volt is induced in the first coil; there is no second coil.
Characteristic of coils
When wire is coiled, it takes on various characteristics that are
different from straight wire. Below I will explain some of the
characteristics coils that I know.
Current Stabilization Characteristic
When current begins to flow in the coil, the coil resists the flow. When
current decreases, the coil makes current continue to flow (briefly) at
the previous rate.
This is called "Lenz's law".
'The direction of induced current in a coil is such that is opposes the
change in the magnetic field that procduced it.'
This characteristic is used for

the ripple filter circuit of a
power supply where it
transforms alternating
current(AC) to direct
current(DC).
When a rectifier is used to
make DC from AC, the output
of the rectifier without a ripple
filter circuit is ripple current.
Ripple current is DC that has a
large AC component.
A ripple filter circuit often

combines coil and capacitors.
The coil resists the change of
current and capacitors
supplement the flow of current
by discharging into the circuit
if the input voltage drops.
Thus, clear, ripple-free DC is
obtained from the ripple filter
circuit.
Resistor is used instead of coil
in simple ripple filter circuit.
Mutual induction
As I wrote above, electric power can be transfered between two coils by
mutual induction.
The transformer utilizes this characteristic.
The input coil that gives the electric power is
called the primary side, while the output coil that
takes out the electric power is called the
secondary side.
The output voltage is determined by the ratio of
turns of wire between the primary coil and
secondary coil.
Some transformers have a tap (or several) on the secondary coil to
provide multiple voltage levels.
Electromagnet
When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic
field is created. This field is much stronger in a coil. An
electromagnet is just like a regular magnet. It attracts
iron, nickel, and some other metals.
Relays utilize this characteristic.
When the current flows to the coil of relay, the magnetic field attracts a
steel plate, and the switch that is attached to the steel plate goes ON.
And the doorbell chime also utilizes electromagnets.
Resonance
When a coil and a capacitor are combined, the resulting circuit has
special characteristics. The impedance (resistance to current flow) of
the circuit changes with the frequency of the voltage. Current will flow
easily at a given frequency, but has difficulty flowing at another
frequency.
The tunning circut that select a particular radio station utilizes this
characteristic.
Explaning resonance in more detail is very difficult. If you want to
know more detail, please read further in a book about electronics.
High Frequency Coils

The photograph
shows an example of
a small coil
component.
The component on
the left is wound
with thin copper wire
to a small barbellshaped ferrite core,
and has a value of
100H.
It is used for high frequency resonance, or for detering of high

frequency.
As for size, the diameter is about 4 mm, the height about 7 mm.
The value of the small coil like this is indicated with a color code, just
like a resistor.
The strengh of this type of coil varies from 1H to several hundred H.
1H, 2.2H, 3.3H, 3.9H, 4.7H, 5.6H, 6.8H, 8.2H, 10H, 15H,
18H, 22H, 27H, 33H, 39H, 46H, 56H, 68H, 82H, 100H
other.
The second coil from the left has thin copper wire wound around a
stick-shaped ferrite core.
It is used the same as the component above.
The value is 470H. The diameter of the core is 4 mm, height is 10
mm, and the diameter of the coil is 8 mm.
The two devices on the right in the photograph are high frequency
transformers.
They are used for intermediate frequency (455KHz) tuning of transistor
radios, or for oscillator circuits.
To shield the coils from magnetic flux, and to prevent the coils from
interfering with other circuits, the high frequency coils are housed in a
metal case called shield case. This case must be connected to ground.
As for tuning or oscillation, this type of transformer can change its
value of inductance.
Adjustment of the
Inductance Value
The ferrite core of the
coil is made like a
screw. The core can be
made to move in or out
of the coil by turning it
with a screwdriver.
A special plastic
screwdriver is better to use for adjustment of the coils.
By moving the ferrite core in or out of the coil, the value of the coil's
inductance can be changed.
The value of inductance can also be changed by changing the number
of turns of wire that comprise the coil, but in fact it is not possible in
any practical way. You want try it ?
The tuner of an FM radio handles very high frequencies (about 70MHz
to 100MHz). The coils used in the tuning circuit are hollow; i.e. they
have no ferrite core. A coil with a ferrite core has too much inductance
too be used in such a circuit.
To adjust the inductance value of a hollow coil, the spacing between
the loops of the coil is changed.
When you disassemble an FM radio, you may find these coils to appear
a bit untidy. Do not try to "fix" the coil by making it a perfect set of
loops. The coil has been bent intentionally, in order to be adjusted
precisely.
The Toroidal Coil

The toroidal coil consists of copper wire wrapped
around a cylindrical core. It is possible to make it
so that the magnetic flux which occurs within the
coil doesn't leak out, the coil efficiency is good,
and that the magnetic flux has little influence on
other components.
Diodes
A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow
through it in only one direction. Although a transistor is also a
semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a diode does. A
diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only
one direction.
Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here.
A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating
Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a power supply device.
Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies.
Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current.
This symbol
is used to indicate a diode in a
circuit diagram.
The meaning of the symbol is (Anode)
(Cathode).
Current flows from the anode side to the
cathode side.
Although all diodes operate with the same general principle, there are
different types suited to different applications. For example, the
following devices are best used for the applications noted.
Voltage regulation diode (Zener Diode)

The circuit symbol is
.
It is used to regulate voltage, by taking advantage of the fact that
Zener diodes tend to stabilize at a certain voltage when that voltage
is applied in the opposite direction.
Light emitting diode
.
This type of diode emits light when current flows through it in the
forward direction. (Forward biased.)
Variable capacitance diode
.
The current does not flow when applying the voltage of the opposite
direction to the diode. In this condition, the diode has a capacitance

like the capacitor. It is a very small capacitance. The capacitance of
the diode changes when changing voltage. With the change of this
capacitance, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed.
The graph on the

right shows the
electrical
characteristics of a
typical diode.
When a small
voltage is applied to
the diode in the
forward direction,
current flows easily.
Because the diode
has a certain
amount of
resistance, the
voltage will drop slightly as current flows through the diode. A typical
diode causes a voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (VF) (In the case of silicon
diode, almost 0.6V)
This voltage drop needs to be taken into consideration in a circuit
which uses many diodes in series. Also, the amount of current passing
through the diodes must be considered.
When voltage is applied in the reverse direction through a diode, the
diode will have a great resistance to current flow.
Different diodes have different characteristics when reverse-biased. A
given diode should be selected depending on how it will be used in the
circuit.
The current that will flow through a diode biased in the reverse
direction will vary from several mA to just A, which is very small.
The limiting voltages and currents permissible must be considered on
a case by case basis. For example, when using diodes for rectification,
part of the time they will be required to withstand a reverse voltage. If
the diodes are not chosen carefully, they will break down.
Rectification / Switching / Regulation Diode
The stripe stamped on one end of

the diode shows indicates the
polarity of the diode.
The stripe shows the cathode side.
The top two devices shown in the
picture are diodes used for
rectification. They are made to
handle relatively high currents. The
device on top can handle as high as
6A, and the one below it can safely
handle up to 1A.
However, it is best used at about
70% of its rating because this
current value is a maximum rating.
The third device from the top (red color) has a part number of 1S1588.
This diode is used for switching, because it can switch on and off at
very high speed. However, the maximum current it can handle is 120
mA. This makes it well suited to use within digital circuits. The
maximum reverse voltage (reverse bias) this diode can handle is 30V.
The device at the bottom of the picture is a voltage regulation diode
with a rating of 6V. When this type of diode is reverse biased, it will
resist changes in voltage. If the input voltage is increased, the output
voltage will not change. (Or any change will be an insignificant
amount.) While the output voltage does not increase with an increase
in input voltage, the output current will.
This requires some thought for a protection circuit so that too much
current does not flow.
The rated current limit for the device is 30 mA.
Generally, a 3-terminal voltage regulator is used for the stabilization of
a power supply. Therefore, this diode is typically used to protect the
circuit from momentary voltage spikes. 3 terminal regulators use
voltage regulation diodes inside
Diode bridge
Rectification diodes are used to make DC from AC. It is possible to do
only 'half wave rectification' using 1 diode. When 4 diodes are
combined, 'full wave rectification' occurrs.
Devices that combine 4 diodes in one package are called diode bridges.
They are used for full-wave rectification.
The photograph on the left

shows two examples of diode
bridges.
The cylindrical device on the
right in the photograph has a
current limit of 1A. Physically,
it is 7 mm high, and 10 mm
in diameter.
The flat device on the left has
a current limit of 4A. It is has
a thickness of 6 mm, is 16
mm in height, and 19 mm in width.
The photograph on the right shows a large, high-power diode bridge.

It has a current capacity of
15A. The peak reverse-bias
voltage is 400V.
Diode bridges with large
current capacities like this one,
require a heat sink. Typically,
they are screwed to a piece of
metal, or the chasis of device in
which they are used. The heat
sink allows the device to
radiate excess heat.
As for size, this one is 26 mm
wide on each side, and the
height of the module part is 10 mm.
Light Emitting Diode

( LED )
Light emitting diodes
must be choosen
according to how they
will be used, because
there are various
kinds.
The diodes are
available in several
colors. The most
common colors are red and green, but there are even blue ones.
The device on the far right in the photograph combines a red LED and
green LED in one package. The component lead in the middle is
common to both LEDs. As for the remaing two leads, one side is for the
green, the other for the red LED. When both are turned on
simultaneously, it becomes orange.
When an LED is new out of the package, the polarity of the device can
be determined by looking at the leads. The longer lead is the Anode
side, and the short one is the Cathode side.
The polarity of an LED can also be determined using a resistance
meter, or even a 1.5 V battery.
When using a test meter to determine polarity, set the meter to a low
resistance measurement range. Connect the probes of the meter to the
LED. If the polarity is correct, the LED will glow. If the LED does not
glow, switch the meter probes to the opposite leads on the LED. In
either case, the side of the diode which is
connected to the black meter probe when
the LED glows, is the Anode side. Positive
voltage flows out of the black probe when
the meter is set to measure resistance.
It is possible to use an LED to obtain a fixed voltage.

The voltage drop (forward voltage, or VF) of an LED is comparatively
stable at just about 2V.
I explain a circuit in which the voltage was stabilized with an LED in
"Thermometer of bending apparatus-2".
Shottky barrier diode
Diodes are used to rectify alternating current into
direct current. However, rectification will not
occur when the frequency of the alternating
current is too high. This is due to what is known
as the "reverse recovery characteristic."
The reverse recovery characteristic can be
explained as follows:
IF the opposite voltage is suddenly applied to a
forward-biased diode, current will continue to flow in the forward
direction for a brief moment. This time until the current stops flowing
is called the Reverse Recovery Time. The current is considered to be
stopped when it falls to about 10% of the value of the peak reverse
current.
The Shottky barrier diode has a short reverse recovery time, which
makes it ideally suited to use in high frequency rectification.
The shottky barrier diode has the following characteristics.

The voltage drop in the forward direction is low.
The reverse recovery time is short.
However, it has the following disadvantages.
The diode can have relatively high leakage current.
The surge resistance is low.
Because the reverse recovery time is short, this diode is often used for
the switching regulator in a high frequency circuit.
Power Supplies
Types of Power Supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high
voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics
circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of
blocks, each of which performs a particular function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:
Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:
Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit
diagram and a graph of their output:
Transformer
Transformer
Transformer
Transformer
Dual Supplies
only
+ Rectifier
+ Rectifier + Smoothing
+ Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative
outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like
two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the diagram.
Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a 9V supply has +9V, 0V and 9V outputs.
Transformer only
The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC
motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier
and a smoothing capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier
The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It
is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing
capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic
circuits.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all
electronic circuits.
Transformer
Transformers convert AC electricity from one
voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one
of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.
Transformer
circuit symbol
Step-up transformers increase voltage, stepdown transformers reduce voltage. Most power
supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce
the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK)
to a safer low voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the

output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils,
instead they are linked by an alternating
magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the
transformer. The two lines in the middle of the
circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformer
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the
power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large
number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high
voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output)
coil to give a low output voltage.
turns ratio =
Vp
Np
=
Vs
Ns
and
power out = power in

Vs Is = Vp Ip
Vp = primary (input) voltage

Np = number of turns on primary
coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Vs = secondary (output) voltage

Ns = number of turns on secondary
coil
Is = secondary (output) current
Rectifier
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to
DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces fullwave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if
a centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now that
diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the
positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.
Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also
available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a
full-wave rectifier because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative
sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V
when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as shown in the
diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can
pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at
least three times the supply RMSvoltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak
voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details, including pictures of
bridge rectifiers.
Bridge rectifier
Alternate pairs of diodes conduct,
changing over
the connections so the alternating
directions of
AC are converted to the one direction of
DC.
Output: full-wave varying DC

(using all the AC wave)
Single diode rectifier

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying
DC which has gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this
sufficiently well to supply electronic circuits unless they require a very small
current so the smoothing capacitor does not significantly discharge during the
gaps. Please see the Diodes page for someexamples of rectifier diodes.
Single diode rectifier
Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)
Smoothing
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across
the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the
varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the
unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The
capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges
as it supplies current to the output.
Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost

the peak value (1.4 RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full
wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing
this increases to almost the peak value giving 1.4 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it

discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is
10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the
required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less
ripple. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C =
5 Io
Vs f
C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK
Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are
available with fixed
(typically 5, 12 and 15V) or
variable output voltages.
They are also rated by the
maximum current they can
pass. Negative voltage
regulators are available,
mainly for use in dual
supplies. Most regulators
include some automatic
protection from excessive
current ('overload
protection') and overheating
('thermal protection').
Voltage regulator
Many of the fixed voltage

regulator ICs have 3 leads
and look like power
transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They
include a hole for attaching aheatsink if necessary.
Zener diode regulator

For low current power supplies a simple voltage
regulator can be made with a resistor and a zener
diode connected in reverse as shown in the
diagram. Zener diodes are rated by
their breakdown voltage Vz andmaximum power
Pz (typically 400mW or 1.3W).
The resistor limits the current (like an LED
resistor). The current through the resistor is
constant, so when there is no output current all the
current flows through the zener diode and its power
rating Pz must be large enough to withstand this.
Please see the Diodes page for more information
about zener diodes.
zener diode
a = anode, k = cathode
Choosing a zener diode and resistor:

1. The zener voltage Vz is the output voltage
required
2. The input voltage Vs must be a few volts
greater than Vz
(this is to allow for small fluctuations in Vs
due to ripple)
3. The maximum current Imax is the output
current required plus 10%
4. The zener power Pz is determined by the maximum current:
Pz > Vz Imax
5. The resistor resistance: R = (Vs - Vz) / Imax
6. The resistor power rating: P > (Vs - Vz) Imax
Example: output voltage required is 5V, output current required is 60mA.
1. Vz = 4.7V (nearest value available)
2. Vs = 8V (it must be a few volts greater than Vz)
3. Imax = 66mA (output current plus 10%)
4. Pz> 4.7V 66mA = 310mW, choose Pz = 400mW
5. R = (8V - 4.7V) / 66mA = 0.05k = 50 , choose R = 47
6. Resistor power rating P > (8V - 4.7V) 66mA = 218mW, choose P = 0.5W
Soldering Guide
How to Solder
What is solder?
Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically
60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a temperature of
about 200C. Coating a surface with solder is called
'tinning' because of the tin content of solder. Lead is
poisonous and you should always wash your hands
after using solder.
Solder for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux,
like the wires inside a mains flex. The flux is
corrosive, like an acid, and it cleans the metal
surfaces as the solder melts. This is why you must
Reels of solder
melt the solder actually on the joint, not on the iron
tip. Without flux most joints would fail because
metals quickly oxidise and the solder itself will not flow properly onto a dirty,
oxidised, metal surface.
The best size of solder for electronics is 22swg (swg = standard wire gauge).
Desoldering
At some stage you will probably need to desolder a joint to remove or reposition a wire or component. There
are two ways to remove the solder:
1. With a desoldering pump

(solder sucker)
Using a desoldering pump (solder sucker)
Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it locks.
Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the
joint.
Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.
Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck the
molten solder into the tool.
Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible.
The pump will need emptying occasionally by unscrewing the nozzle.
2. With solder remover wick (copper braid)
Apply both the end of the wick and the tip of your
soldering iron to the joint.
As the solder melts most of it will flow onto the
wick, away from the joint.
Remove the wick first, then the soldering iron.
Cut off and discard the end of the wick coated with
solder.
Solder remover wick
After removing most of the solder from the joint(s) you may be able to remove
the wire or component lead straight away (allow a few seconds for it to cool). If
the joint will not come apart easily apply your soldering iron to melt the
remaining traces of solder at the same time as pulling the joint apart, taking
care to avoid burning yourself.
First a few safety precautions:
Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.

They are very hot (about 400C) and will give you a nasty burn.
Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron.
The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra protection. An ordinary
plastic flex will melt immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a
serious risk of burns and electric shock.
Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.
Never put it down on your workbench, even for a moment!
Work in a well-ventilated area.
The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite
irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the side of, not
above, your work.
Wash your hands after using solder.

Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal.
If you are unlucky (or careless!) enough to burn yourself please read the First
Aid section.
Preparing the soldering iron:
Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in.

The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature of
about 400C.
Dampen the sponge in the stand.
The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold
tap for a moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be
damp, not dripping wet.
Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up.
You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little solder on the tip.
Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge.
This will clean the tip.
Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.
This is called 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the iron's tip
to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug in the iron, and
occasionally while soldering if you need to wipe the tip clean on the
sponge.
You are now ready to start

soldering:
Hold the soldering iron

like a pen, near the base
of the handle.
Imagine you are going to
write your name!
Remember to never touch
the hot element or tip.
Touch the soldering iron
onto the joint to be
made.
Make sure it touches
both the component lead and the track. Hold the tip there for a few
seconds and...
Feed a little solder onto the joint.

It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape
as shown in the diagram. Apply the solder to the joint, not the iron.
Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still.
Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before you move the circuit board.
Inspect the joint closely.
It should look shiny and have a 'volcano' shape. If not, you will need to
reheat it and feed in a little more solder. This time ensure that boththe
lead and track are heated fully before applying solder.
If you are unlucky (or careless!) enough to burn yourself please read the First
Aid section.
Crocodile clip
Using a heat sink

Some components, such as transistors, can be damaged by heat when
soldering so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the
lead between the joint and the component body. You can buy a special tool, but
a standard crocodile clip works just as well and is cheaper.
Soldering Advice for Components

It is very tempting to start soldering components onto
the circuit board straight away, but please take time to
identify all the parts first. You are much less likely to
make a mistake if you do this!
1. Stick all the components onto a sheet of paper
using sticky tape.
2. Identify each component and write its name or
value beside it.
3. Add the code (R1, R2, C1 etc.) if necessary.
Many projects from books and magazines label
the components with codes (R1, R2, C1, D1 etc.)
and you should use the project's parts list to find
these codes if they are given.
4. Resistor values can be found using the resistor colour code which is
explained on our Resistors page. You can print out and make your
own Resistor Colour Code Calculator to help you.
5. Capacitor values can be difficult to find because there are many types
with different labelling systems! The various systems are explained on
our Capacitors page.
Some components require special care when soldering. Many must be placed
the correct way round and a few are easily damaged by the heat from soldering.
Appropriate warnings are given in the table below, together with other advice
which may be useful when soldering.
For more detail on specific components please see the Components page or
click on the component name in the table.
For most projects it is best to put the components onto the board in the order
given below:
Components
IC Holders
(DIL sockets)
2 Resistors
Small value capacitors

(usually less than 1F)
Pictures
Reminders
and
Warnings
Connect
the correct
way
round by
making
sure the
notch is at
the correct
end.
Do NOT put
the ICs
(chips) in
yet.
No special
precautions
are needed
with
resistors.
These may
be
connected
either way
round.
Electrolytic capacitors
(1F and greater)
5 Diodes
6 LEDs
Take care
with
polystyrene
capacitors
because
they are
easily
damaged by
heat.
Connect
the correct
way
round. They
will be
marked
with a + or near one
lead.
Connect
the correct
way round.
Take care
with
germanium
diodes (e.g.
OA91)
because
they are
easily
damaged by
heat.
Connect
the correct
way round.
The
diagram
may be
labelled a or
+ for anode
and k or for
cathode;
yes, it really
is k, not c,
7 Transistors
Wire Links between points on the circuit

board.
for cathode!
The cathode
is the short
lead and
there may
be a slight
flat on the
body of
round
LEDs.
Connect
the correct
way round.
Transistors
have 3 'legs'
(leads) so
extra care is
needed to
ensure the
connections
are correct.
Easily
damaged by
heat.
Use single
core wire,
this is one
solid wire
which is
plasticcoated.
If there is
no danger of
touching
other parts
single core wire
you can use
tinned
copper wire,
this has no
plastic
coating and
looks just
like solder
but it is
stiffer.
Battery clips, buzzers and other parts with

their own wires
Wires to parts off the circuit board,

1
includingswitches, relays, variable resistors
0
andloudspeakers.
1
ICs (chips)
1
stranded wire
Connect
the correct
way round.
You should
use
stranded
wire which
is flexible
and plasticcoated.
Do not use
single core
wire
because
this will
break when
it is
repeatedly
flexed.
Connect
the correct
way round.
Many ICs
are static
sensitive.
Leave ICs in
their
antistatic
packaging
until you
need them,
then earth
your hands
by touching
a metal
water pipe
or window
frame before
touching
the ICs.
Carefully
insert ICs
in their
holders:
make sure
all the pins

are lined up
with the
socket then
push down
firmly with
your
thumb.
Vacuum tube
.
Modern vacuum tubes, mostly miniature style
In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube (in North America),

or thermionic valve (elsewhere, especially in Britain), reduced to simply "tube"
or "valve" in everyday parlance, is a device that relies on the flow of electric
current through a vacuum. Vacuum tubes may be used
for rectification, amplification, switching, or similar processing or creation of
electrical signals. Vacuum tubes rely onthermionic emission of electrons from a
hot filament or cathode, that then travel through a vacuum toward
the anode (commonly called the plate), which is held at a positive voltage
relative to the cathode. Additional electrodes interposed between the cathode
and anode can alter the current, giving the tube the ability to amplify
and switch.
Vacuum tubes were critical to the development of electronic technology,

which drove the expansion and commercialization of radio communication and
broadcasting, television, radar, sound reproduction, large telephone networks,
analog and digital computers, and industrial process control. Although some of
these applications had counterparts using earlier technologies, such as
the spark gap transmitter or mechanical computers, it was the invention of
the triodevacuum tube and its capability of electronic amplification that made
these technologies widespread and practical.
In most applications, vacuum tubes have been replaced by solid-
state devices such as transistors and other semiconductor devices. Solid-state

devices last much longer, and are smaller, more efficient, more reliable, and
cheaper than equivalent vacuum tube devices. However, tubes still find
particular uses where solid-state devices have not been developed or are not
practical. Tubes are still produced for such applications and to replace those
used in existing equipment such as high-power radio transmitters.
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
A Signetics a741 operational amplifier, one of the most successful opamps.
An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled highgain electronic voltageamplifier with a differential input and, usually, a singleended output.[1] An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically
hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage difference between its
input terminals.[2]
Operational amplifiers are important building blocks for a wide range
of electronic circuits. They had their origins in analog computers where they
were used in many linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits. Their
popularity in circuit design largely stems from the fact that characteristics of
the final elements (such as theirgain) are set by external components with little
dependence on temperature changes and manufacturing variations in the opamp itself.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today,
being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many
standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume;
however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special
performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Opamps may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex
integrated circuits.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of
differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the opamp, but with two outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from
three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation
amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an
ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or
more op-amps and a resistive feedback network).
Activity No.1
THE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
OBJECTIVE
To observe and measure the input voltage of a half-wave rectifier
INTRODUCTION
DC and AC voltages and currents serve the power requirements of a wide
variety of electronic devices.Since ac power is more efficient and economical to
transmit,it is generally distributed by utility companies.There is a necessity
therefore for the rectification (conversion) of ac into dc voltages and currents.In
this experiment we shall be concerned with electronic means of achieving
rectification.
Direct current is current which flows in only one direction.The
semiconductor diode is well suited to accomplish rectification,since it permits
current to flow in only one direction.
Materials required:
VOM
Diode,1N4001
Capacitor,1000 uf/16v
Transformer 12v
PROCEDURE
Connect on the mounting board the circuit.Have your instructor check
your circuit before proceeding.
Activity No.2
THE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
OBJECTIVE
To observe and measure the input and output voltages of a full-wave
rectifier.
INTRODUCTION
It is possible to rectify both alternations of the input voltage by using two
diodes.However,the power transformer which was used in the previous
experimentwill have to be modified in order that in can be used for this
purpose.The transformer needs to have a center-tapped secondary.In such a
circuit,each diode receives one-half of the voltage across the secondary
winding.
Materials required:
VOM
2pcs. 1N4001
1pc.1000uf/16v
Transformer 12v x 12v
PROCEDURE
Connect the circuit on the mounting board.Have your instructor check
your circuit before proceeding.
Activity No.3
THE BRIDGE-TYPE RECTIFIER
OBJECTIVE
To observe and measure the input and output voltages of a bridge-type
rectifier.
INTRODUCTION
Another form of full-wave rectification is the bridge-type rectifier.It uses
four diodes and does not required a center-tapped transformer making it more
widely used than the full-wave rectifier circuit used in the previous
experiment.In the bridge configuration two diodes are conducting on each half
of the ac input signal.
Materials required:
VOM
4pcs.,1N4001
1pc.,1000uf/16v
LED
1k resistor
Transformer 12v (secondary)
PROCEDURE
Connect the circuit on the mounting board.Observe the proper polarity of
each diode.Have your instructor check your circuit before proceeding.
Activity No.4
THE SPLIT-TYPE POWER SUPPLY
OBJECTIVE
To measure the input and output voltages of split type power supplies.
INTRODUCTION
Present electronic devices such as amplifiers or those using integrated
circuits not only require single power supply but also dual symmetrical or
split-type power supply.This type of power supply features at the same time
two equal voltages but opposite in polarities which is an advantage over having
two single power supplies built for one electronic device.
Material required:
VOM
4pcs,1N4001
2pcs.1000uf/16v
Transformer 12v x12v (secondary)
PROCEDURE
Connect the circuit on the mounting board.Observe the proper polarity of
each diode.Have your instructor check your circuit before proceeding.
Activity no. 1
Schematic Diagram of a Half-Wave Rectifier
Activity Sheet 1
Activity no. 2
Schematic Diagram of a Full-Wave Rectifier
Activity Sheet 2
Activity no. 3
Schematic Diagram of a Bridge-Type Rectifier
Activity Sheet 3
Activity no. 4
Schematic Diagram of a Split-Type Rectifier
Activity Sheet 4
Printed Cicuit Board (PCB) Lay out and placement guide
D1
C1
R1
Q1
C3
R2
Dcv out +
D2
AC in
D3
D4
Gnd neg.
C2
Materials needed ;
D1 to D2= 1N4001
C1,C3= 1000 uf/16v
C2-330 uf/16v
Q1=C1061 NPN
R1=390 ohm
Z1
Led1
R2=1K ohm
Z1= 12v
Led1=Red
2x2 Pcb
Permanent pen
Masking tape
Cutting knife
12v dc mini drill
For Etching Process;
Ferric Chloride solution

Plastic basin
Clean water
Exercises; The symbols of the given names below

symbol
name
symbol
name
Antenna
Zener diode
Resistor(fixed)
Capacitor(fixed)
Light emitting
diode(LED)
Tunnel diode
Inductor(fixed)
Capacitive diode
Ground
Ohmmeter
Fuse
Ammeter
Speaker
Voltmeter
Microphone
Galvanometer
Plug
Resistor(variable)
Thermistor
Capacitor(variable)
Shielded wire
Inductor(variable)
Amplifier
I.F. transformer
Wire connected
Single pole/
Single throw
Single pole/
Double throw
Double pole/
Single throw
Double pole/
Double throw
Wire not
connected
Crystal
Rectifier diode
Exercises
Color coding
1.)brown,red,blue,black=_____
11.)brown,blue,silver,silver=_______
2.)red,red,brown,black=____
12.)orange,orange,black,black=_______
3.)green,blue,black,black=____
13.)gray,black,gold,gold=______
4.)gray,black,red,gold=_______
14.)blue,black,silver,silver=_______
5.)orange,white,brown,gold=___
15.)violet,red,black,black=______
6.)yellow,violet,black,gold=_____
16.)green,green,green,black=______
7.)blue,black,gold,gold=_______
17.)white,black,blue,gold=________
8.)white,white,gold,gold=______
18.)gray,gray,violet,gold=________
9.)violet,red,gold,gold=________
19.)brown,black,blue,gold=_______
10.)green,green,silver,silver=____
20.)red,red,yellow,gold=_______
Exercises:
De-coding
1.)200 + or 5%=_________
11.)0.47=______________
2.)5,600 + or 10%=_______
12.)0.2=_______________
3.)100,000=__________
13.)10k=_______________
4.)33=________________
14.) 4.7M=______________
5.)470=_________
15.)2M=_______________
6.)5=___________
16.)500k=______________
7.)20=__________
17.)1.2k=_______________
8.)2,500,000=_______
18.)2.2M=______________
9.)40,000=__________
19.)1G=_________________
10.)6.5=________
20.)10.7
=_______________
Exercises:
Convert the following ;

1.) 20,000 =_____________K
11.) 5M=__________________
2.) 100,000 =____________K
12.) 6.8M=________________
3.) 3,500,000=___________K
13.) 10M=________________
4.) 5,000=______________ K
14.) 6G=_________________
5.) 20=_________________ K
15.) 2T=__________________
6.) 10k=_________________
16.)6,000,000=___________M
7.) 4.7k=________________
17.)2,000 =______________M
8.) 500k=________________
18.) 4,700 =______________M
9.) 8k= __________________
19.) 500 =________________ M
10.)2k=_________________
20.) 10 =______________ M
Example ;
1 0 3 = 10 000 pf = 0.01 uf
Exercises : Convert the following from pf to uf
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
203
104
222
223
224
332
102
503
204
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
pf
pf
pf
pf
pf
pf
pf
pf
pf
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
uf
uf
uf
uf
uf
uf
uf
uf
uf
10. 602 = _____________ pf = ______________ uf
Definition of Terms
antenna
=intercept modulated resignal transmitted by the transmitter

of a station
resistor
=regulate the flow of electric currnet in the circuit to a desired

amount.
Capacitor
=it is an electronic device or component that is used to store

elecrical charges or voltage.
Ground
=part of a circuit that is zero potential with respect to the earth

or conducting body such as the chasis of a radio set,at general
ckt.
Speaker
=it is a device that convert the electrical inpulse into

soundwaves.
Amplifier
=it is a device used to enlarge, or amplify signal.
Plug
=for connecting an electric cord to a source of electricity.
Direct current = an electric current of constant direction (ex.battery )

Alternating
= current () = one that continuosly varies in magnitude and

periodically reverse in polarity.
Fuse =it is used to protect the circuit in shortaged when excessive

current passed to a circuit.
Microphone = converts sound waves into electrical impulses.
Ammeter
= an instrument that measures electric cuurent
Voltmeter
= for measuring potential difference.
Galvanometer =sensitive instrument for mesuring very small values of

current.
Transformer
=an electromagnetic device used to increase or decrease an

AC voltage.
IFtransformer=a transformer that couples signal between two amplifiers.
Headphone
=contains two small dynamic speakers with separate leads for

stereo, thepurpose of headphone is to concentrate sound at
the ears while blocking extraneous background sounds.
Diode(rectifier)=an electronic device which is used to change alternating

current to direct current.
Tunnel diode =is heavily poped germanium or galium or arsenic diode with
radically different characteristics in a negative tesistance. The current decrease
for an increase of applied voltage.
Zener diode =it is used as a voltage regulator
Conductors =substance that has low resistance materials that let free
electrons move freely from atom to
atom(ex.gold,silver,copper)
The purpose of using conductors is to allow electric current to flow with
minimum position
Insulators
=substance that have a property of conductors or insulators
(ex.transistor,diode)
Semi-conductors =substance that have a property of conductors and
insulators.(ex.transistor,diode)
Lightning =is a bright flash of light which is often seen during storms,
the flash is actually a discharge of electricity in the air.
Thunder is a familiar result of discharge.
Circuit = is the path of electron or current flow.
Close circuit=complete path of current flow. It is a flow of electron from

one point of the circuit to the other.
Open circuit=incomplete path of current flow.
Short circuit=complete path of current flow but without flowing to the
resistance load.
Battery - provides voltage.

Switch - a device used to break or complete the current path.
Relay - a switch that is designed to trigger another switch.
Circuit breaker - a switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from
overload. When the circuit breaker senses an overload in voltage or current it
switches off to discontinue electrical flow to the rest of the circuit.

Potentiometer/Variable Resistor - a resistor whose resistance value is not
fixed and can be adjusted..
Variable Capacitor - a capacitor whose charging capacity is not fixed and can
be adjusted.
Inductor - stores energy in a magnetic field and opposes change in current.
Transistor - amplifies signal.
Comparator - a device that compares two voltages or currents and switches its
output to indicate which is larger.
Operational Amplifier - amplifies output voltage.
NE555 - can be used as a timer, produce pulse or oscillation.
Diode - allows current to pass in one direction while blocking it from passing
the opposite direction.
LED (light emitting diode) - a device that produces light.
Varactor Diode - variable capacitor which stores energy and controlled by
voltage.
Zener Diode - allows current to pass in the opposite direction after the circuit
reaches a certain threshold (for example, it can conduct after voltage reaches 5v).
Photoresistor - light sensing resistor whose resistance decreases as light
intensity increases.
Thermistor - a temperature sensing resistor whose resistance increases or
decreases based on changes in temperature.
Thryistor - acts as a switch, conducting when it receives current trigger and
continues to conduct while it is forward biased.
Darlington Pair Transistors - two transistors connected at the base, which
amplifies current twice as much.
Voltage Divider - a strategically placed resistor to decrease the voltage at a
certain point of the circuit.
Bridge Rectifier - an arrangement of four or more diodes that can convert AC
to DC.
Breadboard - a board that can be used to construct a circuit which does not
require soldering. It has holes where components can be pushed in.
Printed Circuit Board (PCB) - a board that can be used to construct a circuit
which requires solodering
Diagram a figure, usually consisting of a line drawing, made to accompany and
illustrate a geometrical theorem, mathematical demonstration, etc.
Block diagrams are used to understand (and design) complete circuits by
breaking them down into smaller sections or blocks. Each block performs a
particular function and the block diagram shows how they are connected
together. No attempt is made to show the components used within a block,
only the inputs and outputs are shown. This way of looking at circuits is called
the systems approach.
schematic, or schematic diagram, is a representation of the elements of
a system using abstract, graphic symbols rather than realistic pictures.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Mr. Sancho L. Revilla

SYMBOLS AND FUNCTIONS

Wires and connections

A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are

Wires not joi

In complex diagrams it is often necessary

Supplies electrical energy.

Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more

Converts light to electrical energy.

Supplies electrical energy.

Supplies electrical energy.

A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the

Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.

A connection to earth. For many electronic

Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field

transducer converting electrical energy to

This type of push switch is normally closed

SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.

SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.

DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.

An electrically operated switch, for example a

Some publications use the old resistor

This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a

This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a

This type of variable resistor (a preset) is

A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor

A capacitor stores electric charge. This type

A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is

A device which only allows current to flow in

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A special diode which is used to maintain a

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used

Audio and Radio Devices

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A transducer which converts electrical energy

A transducer which converts electrical energy

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is

A device which is designed to receive or

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.

An ammeter is used to measure current.

An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most

An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of

so the output is true when the input is false.

An AND gate can have two or more inputs.

A NAND gate can have two or more inputs.

An OR gate can have two or more inputs. The

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs. The

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs. The

An EX-NOR gate can only have two inputs.

Audio Amplifier System

Microphone - a transducer which converts sound to voltage.

Radio Receiver System

Aerial - picks up radio signals from many stations.