Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
e.c
GASES
LONG QUESTIONS
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Chapter No.3
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States of Matter
Matter exists in four states solid , liquid , gas and plasma.
The gases are the simplest form of matter.
Properties of Gases
The general properties of gases are the following:
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Properties of Liquids
All liquids show the following general properties.
1.
Liquids have definite volume but indefinite shape.
They adopt
the shape of the container in which they are placed but their
volume does not change.
2.
Liquids molecules are in constant random. The evaporation and
diffusion of liquid molecules are due to this motion.
3.
Liquids are denser than gases. The densities of liquid are much
greater than those of gases but are close to those of solids.
4.
Liquid molecules are very close together. Molecules of liquid lie
close together with very little space between them so they cannot
be compressed.
5.
Intermolecular attractive forces. The intermolecular attractive
forces in liquids are intermediate between gases and solids. The
melting and boiling points of gases, liquid and solids depend upon
the strength of such forces. The strength of these forces is different
in different liquids.
6.
Liquid molecules possess kinetic energy. Molecules of liquids
possess kinetic energy due to their motion. Liquid can be
converted into solids on cooling, e I , by decreasing their kinetic
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constant)
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PV=K ----------(1)
WhereKis a proportionality constant. The value of k is
different for different amounts of the same gas .
According to Eq (1), boyles law can be stated as follows:
At constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume of
a fixed amount of a gas remains constant.
So,
P1V1 =k
and
P2V2=k
Hence,
P1V1 =P2 V2
Where P1 and V1 are the initial pressure and volume while P2 and
V2 are the final pressure and volume.
Experimental Verification of Boyles,s Law
Consider a fixed amount of a gas in a cylinder at constant
temperature say at 25oC. The cylinder is fitted with a moveable piston
and a manometer to read the pressure of the gas directly .Let the initial
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line is obtained which meet at the origin . This straight line will
be away from the x-axis, Fig(a) . Again the straight line straight
line indicates that P is directly proportional to ( ).
Keeping the temperature constant at T1, when the
pressure of the gas is varied, its volume changes. On plotting a
graph between P on x-axis and the product PV on y-axis, a
straight line parallel to x-axis is obtained, Fig (b). This straight
line shows that PV remains constant even if we change pressure.
Now increase the temperature of the same gas form T1 to T2.
Keeping the temperature constant at T2, when the pressure of
the agars is varied, its volume change. On plotting graph
between P on x-axis and the product PV on y-axis, again a
straight line parallel to x-axis is obtained, Fig (b) . This
straight line shows that PV remains constant even if we
change pressure. However, the value of PV increases with
increase in temperature.
Charless Law
At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of a gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Mathematically:
V
=
T
(P and N are
constant)
V
=
kT
=
k
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Hence Charles s law is verified.
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V100 =
cm3
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At 100 oC
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This general equation can be used to know the volume of the gas at
various temperatures.
Suppose at 0oC , the original volume , Vo of the gas is 546
cm 3 .Thus
Vo =546 cm3
At 10o C,
V10 =546(1+
dm3
The two ratios are not equal. So , Charless law is not being
obeyed when temperature is measured on the Celsius scale. For this
reason a new temperature scale has been developed.
The new temperature scale starts from-273oC (more correctly273.16 oC) which is called zero Kelvin (0k) or zero absolute. The
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advantage of this scale is that all the temperatures on this scale are in
positive figures .In order to develop the new temperature scale, the best
way is to plot a graph between the variables of Charles,s law . That is, V
and T
Graphical Explanation of Charles,s Law
Keeping the pressure of a given mass (say 1 mole) of gas
constant, when the temperature of a gas is varied, its volume changes.
The volumes at different temperatures are measured, Now if a graph is
plotted between temperature (oC) on x-axis and volume on y-axis , a
straight line is obtained ,this straight line cuts the temperature-axis and
(x-axis) at -273. 16oCif it is extrapolated. The volume of a gas becomes
zero at -273.16oC. This temperature is the lowest temperature which is
attainable if the substance remains in the gaseous stat. Actually, all real
gases first converted into liquid and then into solids before reaching this
temperature
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Fig. the graph between volume and temperature for a gas according
to table.
If many plots of this type are examined. It is found that a given gas
follows different straight lines for different masses of gas and for
different pressures. Greater the mass of gas taken, greater will be the
slope of the straight line. The reason is that greater the number of moles
greater the volume occupied .All these straight lines when extrapolated
meet at a common point of -273.16oC (0k). It is clear that this
temperature of -273.16oC will be attained when the volume becomes
zero. It is true for an ideal gas. But for a real gas. Thus-273.16oC
represents the coldest temperature. This is the zero point (0K) for an
absolute scale of temperature.
Charless law is obeyed when the temperature is taken on the
Kelvin scale. For example, at 283K (10o C) the volume is 566 cm3 and at
373 k (100o C) the volume is 746 cm3 . According to Charlies law.
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Remember that the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are both relative
temperature scales. They define two reference points (such as 0 oC and
100oC). The Kelvin scale, however, is an absolute scale. Zero on this
scale is the lowest temperature that can achieved.
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
The temperature 273.16 k (0o C) and pressure 1 atmosphere (760
mm Hg) have been chosen as standard temperature and standard
pressure.
STP 273.16K (0o C) and 1 atm (760 mm Hg)
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=[ n and P constant]
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3.
4.
5.
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V=kT
For a fixed amount of gas at constant volume,
=[ n and V constant]
P=kT
For a fixed pressure and temperature,
[ P and T constant ]
V=kn
(Avogadros Law)
For a fixed volume and temperature,
[ T and V constant]
P=kn
General Gas Equation For one mole of gas
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(vi)
mole .
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us that the Avogadros number of molecules of all the ideal gases have
the same demand of energy.
Density of an Ideal Gas
We know that,
n=
Where a is the number of moles of gas .m is the mass of the
substance in grams and M is the molar mass of the substance.
On substituting the above expression into the ideal gas equation,
We obtained
PV=RT
(Third From)-------(6)
PM==RT
PM=dRT
(d=)
d=
(Fourth From)---------(7)
Hence the density of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its molar
mass.
Greater the pressure on the gas , the closer will be the molecules
and greater the density temperature of the gas ,the lower will be the
density of the gas.
With the help of equation (7) ,we can calculate the relative molar
mass, M of an ideal gas if its pressure ,temperature and density are
know.
Example3:
A sample of nitrogen gas is enclosed in a vessel of volume 380
3
cm at 120o C and pressure of 101325 Nm-2 .This gas is transferred to a
10dm3.
Flask and cooled to 27o C.Calculate the pressure in Nm-2 exerted
by the gas at27o C.
Solution:
V1 =380cm3 =0.38 dm3
;
V2 =10dm3
P1 =101325 Nm-2
;
P2 =?
T1 =273+120=393k
;
T2 =273+27=300k
Formula used:
=
P2 =
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Example 4:
Calculate the density of CH4 at 0o C and 1 atmospheric pressure,
what will happen to the density if
(a)
temperature is increase to 27o C.
(b)
the pressure is increased to 2 atmospheres at 0o C.
Solution:
MCH4=12+4=16g mol-1
P=1 atm
R= 0.0821dm3 atm K-1 mol-1
T = 273+0=273K
Formula Used:
d=
d=
d=0.7138 g dm3 Answer
(a)
Density at 27o C
MCH4=16g mol -1
P= 1 atm
R=0.0821 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1
T=273+27=300K
Formula Used:d=
d=
d = 0.6496g dm3 Answer
Thus by increasing the temperature from 0o C , the density of gas has
decreased form 0.7143 to 0.6496 g dm3 .
(b)
Density at 2 atm pressure and 0o C.
MCH4=16g mol-1
P
= 2 atm
R
=0.0821 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1
T
= 273+0=273k
Formula Used:
d=
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d=
d=1.428 g dm-3 Answer
Thus the increasing of pressure has increased the density . the
density becomes double by doubling the pressure .
Example 5:
Calculate the mass of 1 dm3 of NH3 gas at 30o C and 1000 mm
Hg pressure, considering that NH4 is behaving ideally.
Solution: Given:
P=1000 mm Hg = 1.316 atm ;
V=1 dm3
MNH4 =14+3=17g mol-1
:
R=0.0821dm3 atm K-1
mol-1
T=273+30-303l
;
m=?
Formula Used:
PV =
M=
M=
M =0.0908 g Answer
Avogadro s Law
The law may be stated in a number of ways as follows;
1.
Equal volumes of ideal gases at the same temperature
and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
2.
Equal number of molecules of ideal gases at the same
temperature and pressure occupy equal volumes.
3.
At constant temperature and pressure, the volume of an
ideal gas is directly proportional to the number of moles or
molecules of gas.
Mathematically:
V n (at P and T constant)
V=kn
Explanation:
Since one mole of an ideal gas at STP has a volume of 22.414
3
dm ,So 22.414dm3 of an ideal gas at STP will have Avogadros number
of molecules , i.e, 6.02x1023 .
Mathematically , it can be written as,
22.414 dm3 of an ideal gas at STP has number of
molecules
=6.02x1023
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In other words if we have one dm3 of each of H2 ,O2 ,N2 and CH4 in
separate vessels at STP, then the number of molecules in each will be
2.68x 1022 .
Similarly when the temperature or pressure are equally changed for
these four gases, then the new equal volumes will have the same number
of molecules , 2.68x1022 .
One dm3 of H2 at STP weight approximately 0.0899 grams and
one dm3 of O2 at STP weight 1.4384 grams, but their number of
molecules are the same .Although , oxygen molecule is 16 times heavier
than hydrogen but this does not disturb the volume occupied by the
molecules because molecules , of the gases are widely separated from
each other at STP .One molecule of gas is approximately at a distance of
300 times its own diameter from its neighbors at room temperature .
Daltans Law of Partial Pressure
The total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is
equal to the sum of their individual partial pressure.
Mathematically: Pt =P1 +P2 +P3
Where Pt is the total pressure of the mixture of gases and P 1 ,P2
and P3 are the partial pressure of gas1 . gas2 and gas 3 respectively in the
mixture.
The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases in the pressure
a gas would exert if it were the only gas in the container. Partial
pressures are commonly represented by small ps.
Explanation: Suppose we have four 10 dm3 cylinders. The first one
contains H2 gas at a pressure of 400 torr; the second one contains CH 4
gas at a pressure of 100 torr at the same temperature. Now transfer these
gases to the fourth cylinder of capacity 10dm3 at the same temperature.
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Pch2
(iii)PO2 V=no2 RT
Po2 no2
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Po2 =no2
nCh4
is a constant factor
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H2 , CH4 and O2 have their own partial pressures . Since volume and
temperature are the same so their number of moles will be different and
will be directly proportional to their partial pressures .
Adding Equations (i),(ii) and (iii),we get ,
(PH2 +PCH4 +Po2 )V= (nH2 + nCH4 +no2 )RT
Pt
=
nt RT
Where Pt =PH2 +PCH4 +Po2 , nt =nH2 +nCH4 + no2
Hence, the total pressure of the mixture of gases depends upon the total
number of .moles of the gases.
Calculation of Partial Pressure of a Gas
The partial pressure of any gas in a mixture of gases can be
calculated provided we know the mass or number of moles of the gas,
the total pressure and the total number of moles present in the mixture of
gases.
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PA=
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n=
nH2
nHe
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nCH4 = 0.51-(0.396+0.03)=0.51-0.426=0.084mol
PH2
=
=0.776x760=589.76torr Answer
=
PH2
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Remember that :
While solving the numerical, the aqueous tension is
subtracted from the total pressure (P moist gas )
2.
Process of Respiration: In living beings, the process of
respiration depends upon differences in partial pressures. When animals
inhale air then oxygen moves into lungs as the partial pressure of oxygen
in the air is 159 torr while the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs is
116 torr . On the other hand, CO2 produced during respiration moves out
in the opposite direction as its partial pressure is low in the air relative to
its partial pressure in the lungs .
3
Pilots feel uncomfortable breathing at higher altitudes: At
higher altitudes ,the pilot feel uncomfortable breathing because the
partial pressure of oxygen in the unperssurized cabin is low as compared
to torr in air where one feels comfortable breathing.
4
Deep sea divers feel uncomfortable breathing: deep Sea divers
take oxygen mixed with an inert gas (He) and adjust the partial pressure
of oxygen according to the requirement. In sea after every 100feet depth,
the diver experiences about 3 atm pressure .Therefore ,normal air cannot
be breathed in depth of sea . Moreover, the pressure of N 2 increases in
depth of sea and it diffuses in the blood.
Diffusion and Effusion
Diffusion
The spontaneous intermingling (intermixing) of molecules of
one gas with another at a given temperature and pressure is called
diffusion.
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Effusion:
The escape of gas molecules through an extremely small
opening into a region of low pressure is called effusion.
The spreading of molecules in effusion is not due to collisions
but to their escape one by one .Actually the molecules of a gas are
habitual in colliding with the walls of the vessel. When a molecule
approaches just in front of the opening it enters the other portion of the
vessel. This type of escape of gas molecules through a small hole into a
region of low pressure or vacuum is called effusion.
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Mathematically.
Rate of diffusion
(at constant T
and P)
=
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Rate of diffusion
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Rx
= =k
The constant k is same for all gases, when they are all studied at the
same temperature and pressure .
Suppose we have two gases 1 and 2 whose rates of diffusion are
r1 and r2 and densities are D1 and d2 respectively. According to
Grahams law,
r1 x 1=k
r2 x 2=k
Divide the two equations and rearrange
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Form Grahams law the rates of diffusion of NH3 and HCI can be
calculated by using their molecular masses as follows:
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Where
square of the
molecules)
The idea of the mean square velocity is important because all the
molecules of a gas at a particular temperature have different velocities
.These velocities are distributed among the molecules.
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Where is known as the mean of average velocity .The bar (-) over the
velocity (c ) indicates average or mean value.
In this reference n1 + n2 +n3 =N
mean square velocity ,c2
The average value of the square of the different velocities of
all the molecules in a sample of gas at a particular temperatures is
called the square velocity.
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Where ,
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PV= (K.E)
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is constant
PV=constant
(which is boyles law)
Thus boyles law is derived.
2.
Charles,s Law
According to kinetic gas equation,
PV=
Multiplying and dividing by 2 on right hand side.
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PV=
=KE
PV= (K.E)
is constant
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V=constant x T
(which is Charless law)
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V
T
3
Avogadros Law
Consider two gases 1 and 2 at the same pressure P and the same volume
V.Suppose their number of molecules are N1 and N2 ,masses are m1 and
respectively.
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PV-
..(1)
For gas 2:
PV-
.(2)
If the temperature of the gas 1 and gas 2 are the same, their kinetic
energy will also be the same.
Kinetic energy of gas1 =kinetic energy of gas2
=
Dividing eq(3) by eq(4)
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N1 = N2
Thus ,number of molecules of gas1 =number of molecules of gas2
4.
Grahams law of Diffusion
According to kinetic gas equation,
PV=
(mNA=M)
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PV =
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PV =
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P=
=d(density of gas)]
Since the root mean square velocity of the gas is equal to the rate of
diffusion of the gas,
Cnms =r
So,
r=
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At constant pressure,
r=
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(2)
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Ek=
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Ek
We can draw the following conclusions from the above equation:
1.
Concept of Absolute Zero of Temperature
According to the equation, T=
, absolute temperature of a gas is
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directly
Proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of the gas
molecules. It means that a change in temperature brings about a change
in the intensity of molecular motion .Thus, when T=0k (-273.16o C), the
translational kinetic theory, absolute zero of temperature, both velocity
and kinetic energy of gas molecules become zero. Also at this
temperature, the gas exerts no pressure on the walls of the container.
The absolute zero temperature cannot be attained .However, a
temperature as low as 10-5 K is obtained.
2.
Concept of Average Kinetic Energy of a gas
The average translational kinetic energy of a gas depends only on its
absolute temperature and is independent of the pressure, volume, or type
of gas. The mean kinetic energy of each gas molecule is the same at the
same temperature. The mean kinetic energy of gas molecule does not
depend upon its mass. Therefore, a small molecule such as H2 will have ,
at the same temperature , the same average kinetic energy as a much
heavier molecule such as CO2 . Hence, for different gases average
kinetic energy of molecules at the same temperature is the same. Thus at
the same temperature.
K.E of gas 1 = K.E of gas2
3.
Concept of Heat Flow
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When heat flows from one body to another, the molecules in the
hotter body give up some of their kinetic energy through collisions to
molecules in the colder body. This process of flow of heat continues
until the average translational kinetic energies of all the molecules
become equal. Consequently, the temperature of both the bodies
becomes equal.
4.
Concept of Temperature of Gases, Liquids and solids
Temperature is the measure of average translational kinetic
energies of molecules. In gases and liquids, temperature is the measure
of average translational of kinetic energies of their molecules , In solids ,
temperature is the measure of vibrational kinetic energy of molecules
because there is only vibrational motion about mean position .
Liquefaction of Gases
General Principle of Liquefaction of Gases
Under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure all gases
may be liquefied. Liquefaction occurs only when the attractive forces
between the molecules are greater than the kinetic energy of the
molecules.
Two conditions favour this situation.
1.
High pressure. High pressure is applied on gases. This brings the
molecules of a gas close to each other. Thus the forces between the
molecules increase.
2.
Low temperature. Low temperature is created in gases .This
decreases the kinetic energy of the molecules. Thus the attractive
forces between the molecules increase.
In general, the liquefaction of a gas requires high pressure and
low temperature.
Liquefaction means the conversion of a gas into a liquid.
For each gas, there is a certain temperature above which the gas
cannot be liquefied even if a very high pressure is applied. This
temperature is known as critical temperature. The critical
temperature of a gas may be defined as, the highest temperature
which a gas con be liquefied by increasing the pressure is called
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(ii)
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Conclusions:
On the basis of experimental observations, we draw the following
two conclusions.
1.
Gases are ideal at low pressure and non-ideal at high
pressure.
2.
Gases are ideal at high temperature and non-ideal at low
temperature.
Causes for Deviation From Ideality
In the derivation of ideal gas equation, PV=nRT, it was assumed
that all gases behaved exactly alike under all conditions of pressures and
temperatures. In 1873, van der Waals pointed out that all real gases
deviate from ideal behavior at high pressures and low temperatures. It
was found that the following two incorrect postulates in the kinetic
theory of gases are the cause of deviation.
1.
The molecules exert no forces of attraction on each other in a
gas.
When the pressure on a gas is high and the temperature is low
then the intermolecular attractive forces become significant.
Therefore, the ideal gas equation does not hold good .Actually,
under these conditions, the gas does not remain ideal .
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2.
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Greater the attractive forces among the gas molecules, smaller the
volume of container, greater the value of lessened pressure Pi.
This a is called coefficient of attraction or attraction per unit
volume . It has a constant value for a particular real gas .Thus effective
kinetics pressure of a gas is given by Pi , which is the pressure if the gas
would have been ideal .
Pi+ P=
The kinetic gas equation for one mole of a gas may be written as,
(P+ )(V-b) =RT
For n moles of a gas, the kinetic gas equation may be written as
(P+) (V-b) =RT
This is called van der Waals equation. a and b are known as van
der waals constants.
Units of a
Since
Pi =
a=
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a=
a=atm dm6 mol-2
In sI units, pressure is in Nm-2 and volume in m3.
a=
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So,
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a= Nm4 mol-2
Units b: b is excluded or incompressible volume /mole of gas .So ,
its units should be dm3 mol-1 or m3 mol-1 .
The values of a and b can be determined by knowing the
values of P,V and T of a gaseous system under two different conditions .
The values of a and b for some common gases are given in the
following table.
Gas
a (atm dm6 mol-2)
b(dm3 mol-1)
Hydrogen
0.245
0.0266
Oxygen
1.360
0.0318
Nitrogen
1.390
0.0391
Carbon dioxide
3.590
0.0428
Ammonia
4.170
0.0371
Sulphur dioxide
6.170
0.0564
Chlorine
6.493
0.0562
The presence of intermolecular forces in gases like CI2 and SO2
increase their a factor. The least valur of a for H2 is taken, then its
small size and non-palar character. The b value of H2 is 0.0266 g (1
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mol) of H2 is taken, then it will occupy 0.0266 dm3 mol-1 . It means that
if 2.0266 dm3 or 266 cm3 of volume at closet approach in the gaseous
stat.
Example 8: One mole of methane gas is maintained at 300 k. Its
volume is 250 cm3 .calculate the pressure exerted by the gas under the
following conditions.
(i)
When the gas is ideal (ii)
When the gas is non-ideal
a=2.253 atm dm6 mol-1
b=0.0428dm3 mol-1
Solution:
(i)
when methane gas is behaving as ideal, general gas
equation is applied , that is , PV=nRT
v=250 cm =0.25 dm3
n=1 mol
T=300k
R=0.0821atm dm3 k-1 mol-1
P=?
P=
P=
P=98.52 atm Answer
(ii)
When methane gas is behaving as non-ideal, van der Waals
equation is applied,
(P)(V-nb)=nRT
One rearranging the above equation for P,
P=P=
P=117.286-36.048
P=81.238atm Answer
In the non-ideal situation the pressure has lessened up to
=98.52-81.238=17.282atm Answer
Plasma Stat (or Plasma)
What is Plasma?
A high temperature ionized gas mixture consisting of free
electrons, positive ions and natural atom sis called plasma.
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molecule it meets. This aspect makes it both very useful and not easy to
use.
Natural plasma exists only at very high temperatures or low
temperature vacuums. It does not break down or react rapidly. It is
extremely hot having a temperature over 20.000 oC. Plasmas possess
very high energy. They vaporize any material they touch.
Characteristics of Plasma:
1.
Plasma shows a collective response to electric and magnetic
fields. This is because it has sufficient numbers of charged
particles. The motions of the particles in the plasma generate fields
and electric currents from within plasma density. It refers to the
density of the charged particles.
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