Topic 3 Covalent compounds and separation techniques

COVALENT BONDS
Most non-metal compounds are held together by pairs of electrons, which form
covalent bonds
The electrons used in covalent bonds come from the outermost shells of atoms
When covalent bonds form, the sharing of electrons allows both atoms to have full
outer shells (more stable)formation of molecules
Covalent bonding between atoms can be shown by dot-cross diagrams (often only
outer electrons are shown because it is these that form covalent bonds)
Covalent bonds between atoms of the same (non-metal) element:
E.g two hydrogen atoms (H) form one molecule of hydrogen gas (H2):
(note: compounds are molecules containing at least two different elements)
o Each hydrogen atom contributes one electron to the covalent bond (i.e
electrons are shared)both hydrogen atoms have full outer shells
o stable H2 molecule is formed

Note: in a dot-cross diagram theres no difference between the electrons from

different atomstheyre shown as dots and crosses just to show which atom each
electron is from
Covalent bonds between atoms of different (non-metal) elements:
E.g hydrogen chloride (HCl) only outer electrons are shown:

E.g2 water (H2O) only outer electrons are shown:

E.g3 methane (CH4) only outer electrons are shown:

Double bonds:
Atoms can share more than one pair of electrons if this is needed for each atom to
have a full outer shell
Two pairs of shared electrons form a double bond
o E.g O=O (O2) only outer electrons are shown:

o E.g2 O=C=O (CO2) only outer electrons are shown:

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT SUBSTANCES

Simple molecular covalent substances:
These include gases such as hydrogen, methane, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
liquids such as water
These substances have low melting and boiling points because (although there are
strong covalent bonds between atoms in each molecule) there are only weak
forces between neighbouring molecules
They are also poor conductors of electricity because they havent gained or lost
electronsthere are no charged particles that can move around (this is essential
for conduction of electricity to take place)
Giant molecular covalent substances:
E.g sand (made of silicon and oxygen atoms), diamond and graphite (both made
of carbon atoms)
These consist of billions of atoms all joined together by covalent bonds
Most of these substances have high melting and boiling points because all the
atoms are joined to other atoms by strong covalent bonds (lots of heat energy is
needed to break these bonds)
Properties of diamond and graphite:
Both diamond and graphite have high melting and boiling points because of the
strong covalent bonds between the carbon atoms
However:
o Carbon atoms in diamond form a compact structure
o Carbon atoms in graphite form layers
o graphite and diamond have different properties
Diamond:
o is very hard because all the atoms are joined with strong covalent bonds
diamond is used to make cutting tools
o doesnt conduct electricity because there are no free (delocalised)
electrons that can move around (i.e all four outer shell electrons in each
carbon atom are involved in making bonds)
Graphite:
o is very soft because although the covalent bonds within the layers are very
strong, there are only weak forces between the layersgraphite is used
as a lubricant
o conducts electricity because...:
only 3 outer shell electrons in each carbon atom are involved in
making bonds
one electron from each carbon atom is free to move along the
layers (electron is said to be delocalised)current can flow
graphite is used to make electrodes
MISCIBLE OR IMMISCIBLE?

Immiscible liquids:
Liquids that dont mix completely with each other (e.g oils in water) are
immiscible
Even when shaken up, immiscible liquids soon separate out again
Immiscible liquids can be separated using a separating funnel:
o Tap of funnel is opened so the lower liquid runs out of the funnel and can
be collected in a beaker
o Tap is then closed before the other (upper) liquid starts running out
o A different beaker is placed under the funnel and tap is opened to allow
upper liquid to be collected
Miscible liquids:
If two liquids dissolve in each other, their particles mix completely to make a
solution liquids like this are miscible
Once mixed, the only way to separate miscible liquids is by fractional distillation
Fractional distillation can separate mixtures of miscible liquids because they have
different boiling points:
o The mixture of liquids is heated and the liquids evaporate
o The vapours condense in a fractionating column:
The fraction with the highest boiling point condenses near the
bottom of the column (where its hotter)
The fraction with the lowest boiling point condenses near the top of
the column (where its cooler)
Fractional distillation can also be used to separate oxygen and nitrogen in air:
o Nitrogen boils at -183C, oxygen boils at -196C
o The air first has to be separated into a mixture of liquids:
To remove water vapour in the air, the air is cooled so that the
water can freeze and be removed
The remaining air is cooled to -200C (below boiling points of both
nitrogen and oxygen)air is in a liquid state
o Nitrogen has a lower boiling point than oxygenwhen liquid air is
warmed to -185C, the nitrogen evaporates and rises up the column
o The oxygen stays as liquid and is piped out of the bottom of the column
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Inks, paints and foods often contain mixtures of coloured compounds
Some coloured compounds dissolve better in a solvent (a solvent is what
substances dissolve intoe.g water) than others
mixtures of coloured compounds can be separated by their solubilities
This is done by chromatography:
o In paper chromatography, samples are placed near the bottom of a sheet of
special paper (base line on diagram)
o The solvent (e.g water) soaks up the paper (solvent must be placed above
the bottom edge of the paper but below where the samples are placed)
o More soluble compounds in a sample are carried up the paper faster (and
further) than less soluble onesseparating them
o The paper with the separated components on it is called a chromatogram
Rf value:

The Rf value is the distance the compound has moved up the paper (b on
diagram) divided by the distance the solvent has moved (a on diagram)
The further up the paper the compound has moved, the greater the Rf value
the greater the Rf value, the more soluble the compound

Uses of chromatography:
The Food Standards Agency uses chromatography to separate and identify food
colourings this ensures colourings used in foods and drinks are safe
The police use chromatography to compare a suspects DNA sample to the DNA
sample found at the crime scene
Chromatography can also be used to analyse paints and dyes this helps museum
staff to mix exact copies of old-fashioned paints, to restore old paintings or to
identify fakes