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EVAPORATION
Program Outcome 1
PO 1
To acquire and apply engineering fundamentals
to complex civil engineering problems
(Engineering knowledge).
Lesson Outcomes
On completion of this chapter ,you will be able to:
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Infiltration
Depression storage
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the process in which a liquid changes to the
gaseous state at the free surface, below the boiling point through
the transfer of heat energy.
Evaporation is particularly significant over large bodies of water
such as lakes, reservoirs and the ocean.
Knowledge on evaporation is useful for:
Planning and design of many water resources projects
Capacity of reservoirs for water supply & irrigation
Allowance for evaporation should be made to avoid serious errors.
3. Atmospheric pressure
4. Wind speed
5. Quality of water
6. Size of the water body
Evaporation: ew > ea
Condensation: ew < ea
E
water
3. Atmospheric Pressure
Patm (e.g. at high altitudes) E
atm
5. Wind Speed
Help in removing the evaporated water vapor close to the
surface of the water bodies and consequently create greater
scope for further evaporation.
Vwind E
However, if the wind velocity is large enough to remove all
the evaporated water vapour (critical speed), any further
increase in wind velocity does not influence the evaporation.
Vwind E retains
E
Critical velocity
Vwind
Estimation of Evaporation
The amount of water evaporated from a water surface can be
estimated by the following methods:
Measurement
Empirical equations
Analytical methods
Meteorological data such as humidity, wind movement, air &
water temperature and precipitation are also noted along with
evaporation measurements.
Measurement
Measurement of Evaporation
Measurement
Measurement
Measurement
Day 1
Day 2
Measurement
Measurement
The Colorado Sunken Pan is 920 mm2 and 460 mm deep, made up of
galvanized iron sheet and buried into the ground within 100 mm of
the top.
Radiation and aerodynamic characteristics are similar to
those of a lake
Difficult to detect leak, tall grass and dust might disturb
measurement, expansive to install
Measurement
The water level in the pan is kept at the same level as the lake
leaving a rim of 75 mm.
Simulate the radiation and aerodynamic characteristics of
large body of water
High cost of installation and maintenance
Difficult to perform measurements
Measurement
Types of pan
Average Cp
Range
Class A Pan
0.70
0.60-0.80
0.78
0.75-0.86
0.80
0.70-0.82
Measurement
Films of dust
Oil from sprays
Screen covers placed over the pans to keep
out birds can cause errors in observation
Birds/Ducks bathing in pans
Empirical Equations:
Daltons Formula
Meyers Formula
Rohwers Formula
Analytical Methods:
Water-Budget Method
Energy-Budget Method
Mass Transfer Method
Relevant Parameters
ew 611 exp
237.3 Tw
17.27 Tw
ew 4.584 exp
237.3 Tw
Note: Tw = Water temperature in C
[Pa or N/m2]
[mm of Hg]
Water sueface
temperature (oC)
Slope, A
(mm/oC)
4.58
0.30
5.0
6.54
0.45
7.5
7.78
0.54
10.0
9.21
0.60
12.5
10.87
0.71
15.0
12.79
0.80
17.5
15.00
0.95
20.0
17.54
1.05
22.5
20.44
1.24
25.0
23.76
1.40
27.5
27.54
1.61
30.0
31.82
1.85
32.5
36.68
2.07
35.0
42.81
2.35
37.5
48.36
2.62
40.0
55.32
2.95
45.0
71.20
3.66
Relative Humidity ( ):
The ratio of the actual water vapour pressure of the air, ea
to that at saturated, ew.
Unit %
ea
100
ew
ea
.ew
100
Daltons Formula
ew
ea
u9
h
uh un
n
Example
A reservoir with a surface area of 250 hectares (large waters, KM
= 0.36 ) had the following average values of parameters during a
week:
(b)
the volume of water evaporated from the lake during that one
week.
Solution
17.27Tw
ew 4.584 exp
237.3 Tw
17.27 20
4.584 exp
237
.
3
20
17.54 mm of Hg
ea
0.4 (Relativehumidity)
ew
ea 0.4 ew 0.4 17.54
7.02 mm of Hg
1/ 7
h
uh un
n
u
EL K M (ew ea )1 9
16
21.9
0.3617.54 7.021
16
8.97 mm/day
8.97
250 104
1000
157,000 m3
1/ 7
9
u9 u1
1
Empirical Equations
uh 0.6
0.6
un
Water-Budget Method
Energy-Budget Method
Mass Transfer Method
Water-Budget Method
EL
TL
Vos
Vis
Vog
Vig
CROSS SECTION OF A LAKE
Ground Surface
Ground
Water-Budget Method
P
EL
TL
Vos
Vis
Vog
Vig
Ground Surface
Ground
Water-Budget Method
Energy-Budget Method
Hn
Hn = Ha + H e + Hg + Hs + Hi
Hb
Hc
rHc
Ha
He
Hs
Hi
Energy-Budget Method
Hg
CROSS SECTION OF A LAKE
Energy-Budget Method
Hn = Ha + He + Hg + Hs + Hi
Negligible if the time periods are short
Ha
T T
6.1104 pa w a
LEL
ew ea
Energy-Budget Method
0.1
0.1 - 0.3
0.4 - 0.8
0.4 - 0.8
2-6
10
Energy-Budget Method
EL
H n H g H s Hi
w Lv 1
= Bowens ratio
w = density of water (1000 kg/m3)
Lv = latent heat of evaporation
Lv = (2.501 x 106) 2370 Ta
Lv = 2501 2.37 Ta
Ta = air temperature in C
[J/kg]
[kJ/kg]
Energy-Budget Method
Example
Calculate the daily evaporation rate (in mm/day) from an open
surface, if the net radiation is 200 W/m2, relative humidity of
40%, water surface temperature is 30 oC and the air temperature
is 25 oC. Assume no other sensible heats or ground heat flux.
Daily evaporation rate = ??? mm/day
Hn = 200 W/m2
= 40%
Tw = 30 oC
Ta = 25 oC
Hs = Hg = 0 W/m2
0.622k au
EL
(ew ea )
2
pa w ln Z / Z o
2
Example
Calculate the evaporation rate from an open surface with air
temperature 20oC, water surface temperature 25oC, relative
humidity 40%, atmospheric pressure 100 kPa and wind speed
3 m/s, all measured at height 2 m above the water surface.
Assume a roughness height of 0.03 cm.
Daily evaporation rate = ??? mm/day
Tw = 25 oC
= 40%
2
0.622k au
Pa = 100 kPa
EL
u2 = 3 m/s
p
ln
Z
/
Z
a
w
o
k = 0.4
Z=2m
Za = 0.03 cm = 0.0003 m
(ew ea )
Empirical Equations:
Daltons Formula
Meyers Formula
Rohwers Formula
Analytical Methods:
Water-Budget Method
Energy-Budget Method
Mass Transfer Method
Chemical Films
Application of thin chemical film (e.g. cetyl alcohol) on water
surface to reduce evaporation.
Characteristics of the films: strong, flexible, close back if
punctured, pervious to O2 and CO2, colourless, odourless,
nontoxic etc