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CHAPTER 16

Process Modeling in Impression-Die

Forging Using Finite-Element Analysis
Manas Shirgaokar
Gracious Ngaile
Gangshu Shen

16.1

Introduction

Development of nite-element (FE) process

simulation in forging started in the late 1970s.
At that time, automatic remeshing was not available, and therefore, a considerable amount of
time was needed to complete a simple FE simulation [Ngaile et al., 2002]. However, the development of remeshing methods and the advances
in computational technology have made the industrial application of FE simulation practical.
Commercial FE simulation software is gaining
wide acceptance in the forging industry and is
fast becoming an integral part of the forging design and development process.
The main objectives of the numerical process
design in forging are to [Vasquez et al., 1999]:

Develop adequate die design and establish

process parameters by:
a. Process simulation to assure die ll
b. Preventing ow-induced defects such as
laps and cold shuts
c. Predicting processing limits that should
not be exceeded so that internal and surface defects are avoided
d. Predicting temperatures so that part properties, friction conditions, and die wear
can be controlled
Improve part quality and complexity while
reducing manufacturing costs by:
a. Predicting and improving grain ow and
microstructure
b. Reducing die tryouts and lead times

c. Reducing rejects and improving material

yield
Predict forging load and energy as well as
tool stresses and temperatures so that:
a. Premature tool failure can be avoided.
b. The appropriate forging machines can be
selected for a given application.
Process modeling of closed-die forging using
nite-element modeling (FEM) has been applied
in aerospace forging for a couple of decades
[Howson et al., 1989, and Oh, 1982]. The goal
of using computer modeling in closed-die forging is rapid development of right-the-rst-time
processes and to enhance the performance of
components through better process understanding and control. In its earlier application, process
modeling helped die design engineers to preview the metal ow and possible defect formation in a forging. After the forging simulation is
done, the contours of state variables, such as effective strain, effective strain rate, and temperature at any instant of time during a forging, can
be generated. The thermomechanical histories of
selected individual locations within a forging
can also be tracked [Shen et al., 1993]. These
functions of process modeling provided an insight into the forging process that was not available in the old days. Integrated with the process
modeling, microstructure modeling is a new area
that has a bright future [Sellars, 1990, and Shen
et al., 2000]. Microstructure modeling allows the
right-the-rst-time optimum metallurgical features of the forging to be previewed on the computer. Metallurgical aspects of forging, such as

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grain size and precipitation, can be predicted

with reasonable accuracy using computational
tools prior to committing the forging to shop trials. Some of the proven practical applications of
process simulation in closed-die forging include:

Design of forging sequences in cold, warm,

and hot forging, including the prediction of
forming forces, die stresses, and preform
shapes
Prediction and optimization of ash dimensions in hot forging from billet or powder
metallurgy preforms
Prediction of die stresses, fracture, and die
wear; improvement in process variables and
die design to reduce die failure
Prediction and elimination of failures, surface folds, or fractures as well as internal
fractures
Investigation of the effect of friction on
metal ow
Prediction of microstructure and properties,
elastic recovery, and residual stresses

16.2

Information Flow in
Process Modeling

It is a well-known fact that product design

activity represents only a small portion, 5 to
15%, of the total production costs of a part.
However, decisions made at the design stage determine the overall manufacturing, maintenance,
and support costs associated with the specic
product. Once the part is designed for a specic
process, the following steps lead to a rational
process design:
1. Establish a preliminary die design and select
process parameters by using experiencebased knowledge.
2. Verify the initial design and process conditions using process modeling. For this purpose it is appropriate to use well-established
commercially available computer codes.
3. Modify die design and initial selection of
process variables, as needed, based on the results of process simulation.
4. Complete the die design phase and manufacture the dies.
5. Conduct die tryouts on production equipment.
6. Modify die design and process conditions, if
necessary, to produce quality parts.

Hopefully, at this stage little or no modication

will be necessary, since process modeling is expected to be accurate and sufcient to make all
the necessary changes before manufacturing the
dies.
Information ow in process modeling is
shown schematically in Fig. 16.1 [Shen et al.,
2001]. The input of the geometric parameters,
process parameters, and material parameters sets
up a unique case of a closed-die forging. The
modeling is then performed to provide information on the metal ow and thermomechanical
history of the forging, the distribution of the
state variables at any stage of the forging, and
the equipment response during forging. The histories of the state variables, such as strain, strain
rate, temperature, etc., are then input to the microstructure model for microstructural feature
prediction. All of the information generated is
used for judging the closed-die forging case. The
nonsatisfaction in any of these areas will require
a new model with a set of modied process parameters until the satised results are obtained.
Then, the optimum process is selected for shop
practice.

16.3

Process Modeling Input

Preparing correct input for process modeling

is very important. There is a saying in computer
modeling: garbage in and garbage out. Sometimes, a time-consuming process modeling is
useless because of a small error in input preparation. Process modeling input is discussed in
terms of geometric parameters, process parameters, and material parameters [SFTC, 2002].
16.3.1

Geometric Parameters

The starting workpiece geometry and the die

geometry need to be dened in a closed-die forging modeling. Depending on its geometrical
complexity, a forging process can be simulated
either as a two-dimensional, axisymmetric or
plane-strain, or a three-dimensional problem. If
the process involves multiple stations, the die
geometry of each station needs to be provided.
A typical starting workpiece geometry for a
closed-die forging is a cylinder with or without
chamfers. The diameter and the height of the
cylinder are dened in the preprocessing stage.
A lot of closed-die forgings are axisymmetric,
which need a two-dimensional geometry handling. Boundary conditions on specic segments

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Process Modeling in Impression-Die Forging Using Finite-Element Analysis / 195

of the workpiece and dies that relate to deformation and heat transfer need to be dened. For
example, for an axisymmetric cylinder to be
forged in a pair of axisymmetric dies, the nodal
velocity in the direction perpendicular to the
centerline should be dened as zero, and the heat
ux in that direction should also be dened as
zero.
16.3.2

Process Parameters

The typical process parameters to be considered in a closed-die forging include [SFTC,

2002]:

The environment temperature

The workpiece temperature
The die temperatures
The coefcients of heat transfer between the
dies and the billet and the billet and the atmosphere
The time used to transfer the workpiece from
the furnace to the dies
The time needed to have the workpiece resting on the bottom die
The workpiece and die interface heat-transfer coefcient during free resting

Fig. 16.1

The workpiece and die interface heat-transfer coefcient during deformation

The workpiece and die interface friction, etc.
The die velocity is a very important parameter
to be dened in the modeling of a closed-die
forging. If a hydraulic press is used, depending
on the actual die speed proles, the die velocity
can be dened as a constant or series of velocities that decrease during deformation. The actual die speed recorded from the forging can also
be used to dene the die velocity prole. If a
mechanical press is used, the rpm of the ywheel, the press stroke, and the distance from
the bottom dead center when the upper die
touches the part need to be dened. If a screw
press is used, the total energy, the efciency, and
the ram displacement need to be dened. If a
hammer is used, the blow energy, the blow efciency, the mass of the moving ram and die,
the number of blows, and the time interval between blows must be dened. Forgings performed in different machines, with unique velocity versus stroke characteristics, have been
simulated successfully using the commercial FE
software DEFORM (Scientic Forming Technologies Corp.) [SFTC, 2002].

Flow chart of modeling of closed-die forging [Shen et al., 2001]

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16.3.3

Tool and Workpiece

Material Properties

In order to accurately predict the metal ow

and forming loads, it is necessary to use reliable
input data. The stress-strain relation or ow
curve is generally obtained from a compression
test. However, the test is limited in achievable
strains. In order to obtain the ow stress at large
strains and strain rates, the torsion test can be
used or, alternatively, the compression data is
extrapolated with care.
In most simulations, the tools are considered
rigid; thus, die deformation and stresses are neglected. However, in precision forging operations, the relatively small elastic deformations of
the dies may inuence the thermal and mechanical loading conditions and the contact stress distribution at the die/workpiece interface. Thus,
die stress analysis is a crucial part of process
simulation to verify the die design and the forging process parameters.
16.3.4

Interface Conditions
(Friction and Heat Transfer)

The friction and heat-transfer conditions at

the interface between the die and the billet have
a signicant effect on the metal ow and the
loads required to produce the part. In forging
simulations, due to the high contact stresses at
the interface between the workpiece and the die,
the constant shear friction factor gives better results than the coulomb friction coefcient.
The most common way to determine the shear
friction factor in forging is to perform ring compression tests. From these tests, it is possible to
estimate the heat-transfer coefcient, ow stress
and friction as a function of temperature, strain
rate, strain, and forming pressure, as discussed
in Chapter 6, Temperatures and Heat Transfer.
Friction factors measured with the ring compression test, however, are not valid for precision forging processes (hot, warm, and cold)
where the interface pressure is very high and the
surface generation is large. The friction conditions change during the process due to changes
in the lubricant and the temperature at the die/
workpiece interface. In such applications, the
double cup extrusion test is recommended for
estimation of the friction factor, as discussed in
Chapter 7, Friction and Lubrication.
16.3.5

Material Parameters

The closed-die hot forging modeling is a coupled heat-transfer and deformation simulation.

Material parameters that relate to both heat

transfer and deformation need to be dened. The
material parameters commonly used for heattransfer modeling are the thermal conductivity,
heat capacity, and emissivity of the workpiece
and die materials. These parameters are usually
dened as a function of temperature, The ow
stress of the workpiece material is very important for the correct prediction of metal ow behavior. It is usually dened as a function of
strain, strain rate, temperature, and possible
starting microstructures. The Youngs modulus,
the Poissons ratio as a function of temperature,
and the thermal expansion of the die materials
are important parameters for die stress analysis.

16.4
16.4.1

Characteristics of
the Simulation Code
Mesh Generation and
Automatic Remeshing

In forging processes, the workpiece generally

undergoes large plastic deformation, and the
relative motion between the deforming material
and the die surface is signicant. In the simulation of such processes, the starting mesh is
well dened and can have the desired mesh density distribution. As the simulation progresses,
the mesh tends to get distorted signicantly.
Hence, it is necessary to generate a new mesh
and interpolate the simulation data from the old
mesh to the new one to obtain accurate results.
Automated mesh generation (AMG) schemes
have been incorporated in commercial FE codes
for metal forming simulations. In DEFORM,
there are two tasks in AMG: 1) determination of
optimal mesh density distribution and 2) generation of the FE mesh based on the given density. The mesh density should conform to the
geometrical features of the workpiece at each
step of deformation [Wu et al., 1992]. In order
to maximize the geometric conformity, it is necessary to consider mesh densities that take into
account the boundary curvature and local thickness.
In DEFORM, two-dimensional (2-D) simulations use quadrilateral elements, whereas
three-dimensional (3-D) simulations use tetrahedral elements for meshing and automatic remeshing [Wu et al., 1996]. With this automatic
remeshing capability, it is possible to set up a
simulation model and run it to the end with very
little interaction with the user.

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Process Modeling in Impression-Die Forging Using Finite-Element Analysis / 197

16.4.2

Reliability and
Computational Time

Several FE simulation codes are commercially available for numerical simulation of forging processes, such as DEFORM (2-D and 3-D),
FORGE (2-D and 3-D) (Ternion Corp.), Qform
(2-D and 3-D), etc. In addition to a reliable FE
solver, the accurate and efcient use of metal
ow simulations require [Knoerr et al., 1992]:

Interactive preprocessing to provide the user

with control over the initial geometry, mesh
generation, and input data; automatic remeshing to allow the simulation to continue
when the distortion of the old mesh is excessive; interactive postprocessing that provides more advanced data analysis, such as
point tracking and ow line calculation
Appropriate input data describing the thermal and physical properties of die and billet
material the heat transfer and friction at the
die/workpiece interface under the processing
conditions investigated, and the ow behavior of the deforming material at the relatively
large strains that occur in practical forging
operations
Analysis capabilities that are able to perform
the process simulation with rigid dies to reduce calculation time and to use contact
stresses and temperature distribution estimated with the process simulation using
rigid dies to perform elastic-plastic die stress
analysis
The time required to run a simulation depends
on the computer used and the amount of memory
and workload the computer has. However, with
todays computers, it is possible to run a 2-D
simulation in a couple of hours, while a 3-D
simulation can take anywhere between a day to
a week, depending on the part complexity [Wu
et al., 1996].

16.5

duces defects in the forging. In real closed-die

forging, it is necessary to wait until the forging
is nished to see the forged part and the defect,
if there is one. The advantage of computer simulation of forging is that the entire forging process
is stored in a database le in the computer and
can be tracked. Whether there is a defect formed
and how it is formed can be previewed before
the actual forging. Figure 16.2 shows the lap formation for a rejected process in the design stage.
The lap formation can be eliminated by changing the workpiece geometry (the billet or preform), or the die geometry, or both. The computer modeling can again indicate if the
corrective measure works or not.
16.5.2

Distribution and
History of State Variables

The distribution of the state variables, such as

the strain, strain rate, and temperature, at any
stage of a closed-die forging can be plotted from
the database le saved for the forging simulation. The history of these state variables can also
be tracked.
Figure 16.3(a) shows the effective strain distribution of a closed-die forging forged in an isothermal press. The effective strain has a value of
0.4 to 0.9 in the bore die lock region. The region
that is in contact with the upper die has an effective strain value of 0.4 to 0.9, and the region
that is in contact with the lower die, a value of
0.7 to 0.9. With an effective strain of 2.0 to 2.8,
the bore rim transition region has the largest
strain. The effective strain value is approximately 1.5 for both the rim and the midheight of
the bore region. From the state variable distribution plot, the state variable at a specic stage
of the forging is known. This specic stage,

Process Modeling Output

The process modeling provides extensive information of the forging process. The output of
process modeling can be discussed in terms of
the metal ow, the distribution and history of
state variables, the equipment response during
forging, and the microstructure of the forging.
16.5.1

Metal Flow

The information on metal ow is very important for die design. Improper metal ow pro-

Fig. 16.2

Lap prediction using process modeling tool

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shown in Fig. 16.3(a), is the end of the forging.

The distribution of the state variables can be
plotted for any other stages of forging as well.
Figure 16.3(b) shows the effective strain versus time of a material point located at midheight
of the bore section of the forging, as shown in
Fig. 16.3(a). In this isothermal forging case, a
20 min deformation time was used, as shown in

the gure. The nal strain value, 1.5, shown in

Fig. 16.3(b) is in agreement with the value
shown in the distribution plot in Fig. 16.3(a).
The history plot of state variables (strain, strain
rate, and temperature) provides valuable information on the thermomechanical history of the
forging that determines its mechanical properties.
16.5.3

Fig. 16.3

(a) Effective strain distribution and (b) the effective

strain history of the center location of a closed-die

forging

Fig. 16.4

Load versus stroke obtained from a hammer forging simulation

Equipment Response/Hammer
Forging

Process modeling also provides the information regarding the response of the equipment.
Examples of equipment response discussed here
are forging load and ram velocity of hammer
forging. The information is usually not available
in the hammer shop. However, it is useful for
understanding the hammer response to a forging
process.
Figure 16.4 shows the load versus stroke predicted for a hammer forging operation. The gure shows that there are eight blows in the hammer operation. Each ends with a zero load. The
stroke in the gure is the stroke of the ram/die.
The zero stroke refers to the position of the die,
where the rst die/workpiece contact occurs during forging. This zero position is the same for
all of the eight hammer blows. With the increase
in the number of blows, the load increases and
the stroke per blow decreases. The last blow of
the sequence has the shortest stroke. This behavior is very real for hammer forging operations. During a hammer forging operation, the
workpiece increases its contact area with the
dies, which increases the forging load. The total
available blow energy is xed for a hammer.
With the increase in forging load, the length of

Fig. 16.5

Ram velocity versus stroke obtained from a hammer forging simulation

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Process Modeling in Impression-Die Forging Using Finite-Element Analysis / 199

stroke is reduced. Moreover, the blow efciency,

which is the ratio between the energy used for
deformation and the total blow energy, is also

Fig. 16.6

Prediction of the distribution of the size (lm) of

gamma prime for a Rene 88 experimental forging

Fig. 16.7

Comparisons of hot-die forging and mechanical

press forging of an experimental part using process

reduced with the increase in forging load. Thus,

a smaller amount of energy is available toward
the end of a blow sequence and with the decrease in the stroke per blow.
Figure 16.5 gives the ram velocity versus
stroke obtained from a simulation of another
hammer forging process. There are nine blows
for this hammer operation. The velocity of the
rst blow was smaller than the other eight blows,
because a soft blow was used initially to locate
the workpiece. In a soft blow, there is only a
portion of blow energy applied to the workpiece.
Thus, the rst blow has a smaller starting ram
velocity. After the rst blow, full energy was applied to the forging. Thus, the starting ram ve-

modeling

Fig. 16.9
Fig. 16.8

Rene 88 experimental part out of forging press

[Hardwicke et al., 2000]

Predicted model and optically measured grain

sizes in the three developmental Rene 88DT disks
with (a) coarse, (b) medium, and (c) ne grains [Hardwicke et al.,
2000]

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locity for the rest of the blows was the same.

There is always an energy loss to surroundings
in a hammer blow. Therefore, blow efciency
needs to be factored in for each hammer blow.
However, the blow efciency only has an effect
after the ram/die workpiece are in contact.
Hence, blow efciency does not inuence the
starting velocity of the ram/die. It is factored in
during the blow. The decay in ram velocity in
each blow is a result of both the energy consumption in deforming the workpiece and the
energy lost to the surroundings.
16.5.4

Microstructures in Superalloys

Microstructure and property modeling is now

the major emphasis in advanced forging process
design and improvement, especially in forging
aerospace alloys such as nickel and titanium superalloys. The development and utilization of
physical metallurgy-based microstructure models and the integration of the models with niteelement analysis has allowed for microstructure
prediction by computer. Two important microstructural features of superalloy forgings are the
grain size and the gamma-prime precipitation.
The grain size modeling is discussed in detail in
Chapter 19, Microstructure Modeling in Superalloy Forging. The prediction of gammaprime distribution is discussed here. Gamma
prime is a very important precipitation phase in

Fig. 16.10

strengthening superalloys. The size and spacing

are two features of interest in gamma-prime precipitation. Figure 16.6 shows the prediction of
the distribution of the size of gamma prime of
an experimental nickel-base superalloy forging,
Rene 88, coupled with a few measurement
points. The measurement made is in the range
of 0.07 to 0.21 lm. The model predicts a range
of 0.08 to 0.14 lm. The ne gamma prime was
correctly predicted and the coarser gamma prime
was underpredicted, which pointed out the need
for further improvement of the gamma-prime
model. The microstructure prediction feature is
useful for the process development for closeddie forging.

16.6

Examples of
Modeling Applications

One of the major concerns in the research of

manufacturing processes is to nd the optimum
production conditions in order to reduce production costs and lead-time. In order to optimize
a process, the effect of the most important process parameters has to be investigated. Conducting experiments can be a very time-consuming and expensive process. It is possible to
reduce the number of necessary experiments by
using FEM-based simulation of metal forming
processes.

Investigation of defects in ring gear forging using FEM [Jenkins et al., 1989]

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