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International Journal of Production Research,

Vol. ??, No. ??, Month? 2005, 120

Rapid video-based analysis system for advanced work measurement

M. ELNEKAVE* and I. GILAD
Faculty of Industrial Engineering and Management, Technion Israel Institute of Technology,
Haifa 32000, Israel

(Received April 2005)

A digital video-based approach is proposed to enhance work measurement
and analysis by facilitating the generation of rapid time standards. This approach
takes conservative videotaped analysis a giant step forward. A genuine description of the work situation is imported into the analytical system via digital video
input, thereby enabling a free-of-work site attendance study for evaluating time
and work performance. The proposed method serves as a computerized tool for
remote work measurement with the ability to derive rapid generation of time
standards. The paper veries the methods abilities for rapid generation of time
standards through ve case studies. It compares the performance of work analysts
for making a MOST study using the proposed method versus using traditional
videotape analysis. About 40% of the time devoted to work measurement and
analysis can be saved using this technique.
Keywords: MOST; Time study; Work measurement; Distance measurement

1. Introduction
Work study methodologies diligently deal with determining time standards and
contributing to an improvement of work eciency. Experience has shown that
eciency can be maximized over time, and when performance standards exist,
they are maintained and derived through the implementation of scientic
approaches. Deriving and setting performance standards for given tasks in industry
enable management to set standards for the number of workers needed, the
required work hours per job, the production output, scheduling, forecasting, etc.
The importance of setting time standards was the stimulus for the development
of the modern work study technique reviewed in this paper.
Theoretically, it is possible to generate time standards using predetermined
motion time systems (PMTS) without observing the worker at work. This frees
the analyst from tedious measurements at the work site, including having to invest
time in following operators performing tasks including travelling and transporting
materials. Nevertheless, analysts know that the level of inaccuracy rises as the
chances of overlooking unexpected and unobserved details growa very real

*Corresponding author. Email: morane@techunix.technion.ac.il

International Journal of Production Research
ISSN 00207543 print/ISSN 1366588X online # 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/00207540500160920

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possibility when analysis is not conducted on site. Experienced analysts, therefore,

improve their analysis by using video cameras to document the work situation in
a precise manner. The analysis is then made from the oce using a video cassette
recorder (VCR), a monitor and a computer with PMTS software. Video clips
are ecient for documenting the work method but do not eliminate the necessity
in being present at the work site (Karger and Hancock 1982, Konz 2001).
Measurement of actual distances traversed by workers as they do their jobs is
needed for work analysis and such distances can be only roughly estimated through
video playback. The diculty in documenting the work situation solely using
electronic equipment and the analysts need to be on site are keen drawbacks of
computerized PMTS systems, despite their eciency.
The authors sought a solution to this problem in the use of multimedia technology for capturing and playback of the taped scenario on a computer. This
approach, it was postulated, would allow a work scenario to be transmitted to the
analysts computer in practically no time. By using digital mapping, it is possible to
translate distances accurately from the picture frame into the real distance values of
the employees workstation. Furthermore, advanced playback options, possible for
digital video scenarios, would theoretically shorten the time required to make the
analysis. Realizing what these benets have to oer to work analysis, custom-made
software was developed supporting an algorithm for work measurement under
remote conditions. This system enables analysts to conduct a spontaneous work
analysis from practically anywhere and under almost any condition.
Two main approaches for developing standard times have evolved over the
years: time study and motion study. Time study evolved from the work of
Frederick W. Taylor and is founded on breaking down the work into basic elements
and timing each work element a satisfactory number of timesleading to a time
standard within a measurable limit, and applicable to a workers performance rating
and allowances. Motion study evolved from the work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
who broke down work into 18 basic element types, which were then categorized
as ecient or inecient. Using these basic element types, the description of work
methods was skilfully carried out and easy identication of the ineciencies in
the work method was achieved. Following the Gilbreths idea of motion study,
hybridized with the micro-motion study techniques available at that period for
determining and assigning times to specic basic-motions, PMTS were developed.
A study using state-of-the-art PMTS has the same accuracy as a stopwatch study,
requires less time for analysis and provides better documentation of the work
method (Zandin 1990).
Time study today denotes, among other methodologies, using PDA stopwatches,
through which the analysts spreadsheet software on the computer is automatically
synchronized. Such tools omit the rework of keying observations into the spreadsheet and automate tedious calculations of observation data. Such tools are
available on the market through a number of commercial companies. Motion
studys in IE works using, for instance, basic PMTS, founded on distinct motions
of the human body, and extending to complete motion-sequence-driven solutions
such as MOST (Maynard Operation Sequence Technique). The latter enables
much faster calculation of time standards and for long cycle times. Modern
PMTS technology oers software bundles for calculation of manufacturing times.
Despite their potential ability to save time in work analysis, PMTS are not part of

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most IE everyday procedures. Freivalds et al. (2000) quantied this fact in their
study that showed that IE practitioners, using time standards, largely implement
the stopwatch technique (approximately 60%).
PMTS have two main drawbacks. (1) They require analysts to attend a designated and approved training course. Not only are the costs of the course high, but
also the course is also generally taught only at certain designated places, making it
inconvenient to attend and raising the already high price because travel costs must
also be included. (2) Regardless of their sophistication and technological advancements, PMTS require the analyst to attend the work site in order to document the
work method as a basis for analysis. Due to the need to attend the work site, which
means wasted time while the analyst travels there, not many companies are interested
in investing in such ventures. They prefer to send an analyst with a clipboard and
a stopwatch when a time study is required.
Only a few publications can be found in the literature addressing the issue
of implementing, advancing and enhancing the discipline of PMTS-based studies
and solutions. Cohen et al. (1998) and Zandin (1996) described a software tool
named TALKMOST for rapid generation of time standards. TALKMOST
comprises voice recognition software called TalkManTM coupled with the MOST
work measurement system. Using this tool, it is possible, by simply talking, to
rapidly generate the MOST sequence models and assign time values to suboperations. The voice recognition software recognizes the MOST keywords in the
spoken sentence and translates them into meaningful time values and documentation. It eliminates the manual documentation of the MOST keywords and the
rework of keying them into the computer after documenting them at the work
site. Although this solution was aimed at advancing PMTS, IE practitioners have
not adopted it and it remains a laboratory study.
Analysing work through video tape is the procedure of choice for many work
analysts. They set up a video camera at the workstation, and then analyse the taped
scenario in their oce, at leisure, using a VCR and a television monitor. This
approach improves work measurement in the following ways:
Reduces costs of transportation for the analyst to distant work sites and
saves long study sessions at the workstation.
. Improves the studys accuracy by minimizing unnecessary pressure, which
the analyst may be imposed to at the work site due to environmental conditions or short cycle times. This can result in measurement, recording and
calculation mistakes. As well, using videotape allows rewind or view in slow
motion to achieve the best description of the work situation. The analysis of
one cycle of a team of workers can be carried out, with the analyst studying
a different worker each time the video is played backthis cannot be done by
one analyst at a work site.
. Videotapes are ideal for data storage. They can be saved for future reference
for improving work methods and training new workers.
. The presence of an analyst at the workstation inuences the performance
rate and the work method that is carried out. A camera is much friendlier,
and after a while the worker pays less attention, if any, to it (Mundel 1985).
.

The use of digital video and multimedia les has yet to be exploited by IE
practitioners and researchers. Gunasekaran and Love (1999) reviewed various

11

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applications of multimedia in manufacturing. They stated that by using multimedia

it is possible to bring the right people to the right spot in order to solve problems
at a reduced cost. The potential of digital video clips used for teleconferencing and
educational purposes (training workers) is obvious. Kadefors and Forsman (2000)
made use of digital movie clips for psychosocial evaluation of potential hazards
in the workplace. Their methodology included videotaping workers performing
a job. The movies are captured on a computer and coupled with software for risk
evaluation. The methodology has the workers watch themselves on the screen and
answer a questionnaire regarding discomfort in various body parts in specic
postures. The process results in an ergonomic evaluation of the job. The questionnaire and specic screen shots are coupled and saved for documentation and training
purposes.
Christmansson et al. (2000) coupled a PMTS system with ergonomic measures
to predict physical demand of work postures. The analysis method developed in their
research stipulates the conducting of an ergonomic study in parallel to the PMTS
study. This looks like a promising approach in conducting work analyses, as
ergonomic measures are becoming increasingly important to workers and management. Christmansson et al.s research has shown that this two-in-one analysis could
be made with a marginal 5% increase in time required for analysis.
A literature review shows that not one single tool or methodology exists that
eliminates the need for the analyst to be at the work site and permits rapid determination of time standards. By providing such, PMTS can be used more extensively to
set time standards by analysts working in remote conditions, and to produce time
standards more quickly and eciently. In the remainder of the paper we introduce
our methodology and then prove its eectiveness for rapid determination of work
standards and detailed time analysis. We also provide examples of case studies.

2. Methodology
2.1 Conguration for executing a remote study
Recording a work situation in one place and transporting the clip to a computer
located elsewhere may be variously congured. Nevertheless, all congurations
are based on the same principle: lming, capturing/converting to digital format
and transmitting/delivering the package. The speed at which this process is carried
out and its picture quality depend on the equipment being used. One option is to set
up a video camera and deliver streaming video live to the analysts computer.
This procedure, however, is still expensive and technologically sophisticated.
We recommend the following conguration for making the study:
.

Choosing a camera to use: we recommend using a video camera, not a

web-cam, or a digital camera with video abilities. It was our experience
that the video picture quality of web-cams and digital cameras is poor
in comparison with video cameras. DV (digital video) cameras available
nowadays are recommended because of their easy digital connection to the
computer, but are not essential. Older cameras, supporting VHS format,
are good enough.

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Capturing the lmed footage: to convert the lmed scenario into digital
format, a connection must be made between the computer and the video
camera. The computer must be equipped with a video card, which enables
the connection between the two and translates the video data into a digital
media le. Some advanced computers have FireWire cards, which enable
direct connection to a DV camera and make the capturing process simpler.
. Getting the video to the analyst: the captured video le can be transmitted
to any computer connected to the Internet. This is best achieved using a
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), which enables transfer of les between distant
computers. In order to save time in sending the le, one should convert the
le into a compressed format (such as MPEG4) and reduce the picture size.
The captured les are usually not in compressed formats and, therefore,
consume much disk space (approximately 1 GB disk space per 5 min of
DV). Using a compressed format and a smaller picture resolution may reduce
the le size by up to 95% without compromising the picture quality necessary
for work measurement.
.

2.2 Software dedicated to evaluation of performance

Software was developed to support the needs of the work analyst conducting
a remote work site study. We specify below the analysts needs and list our
corresponding software modules, which were programmed in Visual Basic 6.0:
Basic video playback: the analyst needs to view the le in order to analyse it.
Therefore, a computerized video-player was developed offering basic video
le playback options: play, pause, rewind, fast-forward and stop. During
playback, the elapsed time of the clip advances in time units of min/100
and is visible to the analyst.
. Advanced playback options: as the analyst will most likely need to focus on
sub-operations and replay them until the work method is fully understood,
loop-play and slow-motion options were developed. Using loop-play, the
analyst can mark the beginning and end of an operation and the software
will replay it automatically. Pressing the slow-motion button will show the
work situation at a reduced speed, enabling a detailed motion study.
. Distance measurement: some work study analyses require the measurement
of distances involved in actions that are performed by operators as part of
the work situation. A distance measurement software module was developed
in order to support this need. Our solution is based on a geometric formulation for transforming the coordinates of two points on the screen (measured
in pixels) into their actual coordinates at the work area (measured in metres).
Then calculation of the distance between these two points of known coordinates at the work area is straightforward. The process of translating each
point on screen into its actual coordinate at the work area relies on the fact
that the work area is projected, through the camera lens, onto a charged
coupled device (CCD) chip inside the camera and the picture on the screen
is an enlarged picture of the one projected on the CCD chip. The relative
ratio between the video frame on the computer screen and the CCD enables
us to convert the coordinates of a point on the screen (ScreenX, ScreenY),
.

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Figure 1. Ratio between the video frame from the computer screen and the CCD chip. Video
clips were captured as 240  320 pixel movies (ScreenHeight  ScreenWidth). The camera used
had a CCD of 2.4  3.2 mm (CCDHeight  CCDWidth). The cameras focal distance was
5.2 mm.

which is visible to the analyst, to its original coordinates on the CCD (x, y)
(gure 1). The conversion is expressed mathematically as follows:
x CCDWidth

ScreenX
ScreenWidth

y CCDHeight

ScreenY
ScreenHeight

In order to translate the CCD coordinates of a point into the actual coordinates
in the work area, three inputs are required: H, the height of the cameras lens
from the measured plane; , the puncture angle of the cameras lens with the
measured plane; and f, the focal length of the camera. These parameters are
shown in gure 2. In order to nd the coordinates of a given point on the measured
plane, we set the origin under the cameras lens (point O in gure 2). We calculate the
coordinates of a point relative to this origin by nding a vector with length OD and
an angle  on the measured plane. The point is projected from the work area onto
the CCD, where the angle  is dened as the inverse tangent ratio between the points
y-coordinate and the focal length (equation (3)). The length OB is obtained using
equation (4), which expresses the projection of the distance OD in gure 2, on the
vertical axis in the work area. Using the angle , the length OD is expressed using
equation (5).
Equations (6) and (7) show how  can be obtained. We project the measured
x distance from the CCD plane onto the work area plane. The angle  is then
expressed using x and OA (equation (6)). OA is projected back to the CCD plane
and can be derived out of a triangle where one perpendicular side is expressed using
y and f, and the head angle is   . Equation (7) expresses OA, which can be
assigned in equation (6) to express . The coordinates of a point in the work area
will be found through its CCD coordinates: x and y. OB is actually a points
y-coordinate in the work area and OD*sin() is the points x-coordinate

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Figure 2.

Geometric representation of work area, camera lens and CCD.

(or X1 and Y1) (gure 2). Repeating this procedure for another point enables us
to formulate its coordinates in the same fashion using equations (1)(7). The distance
M between two points in the work area (gure 2) is expressed in equation (8) using
the points coordinates (X1, Y1) for point 1 and (X2, Y2) for point 2:


y
3
 tan1
f
H
4
OB
tan  
OB
OD
5
cos
 x 
 tan1
6
OA
q
7
OA y2 f 2
cos  
q
8
M X1  X2 2 Y1  Y2 2

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Stopwatch: during the video playback the elapsed time is visible and can be
used for timing tasks. There is nonetheless still a need for a dedicated
stopwatch in order to allow a snap-back time study on the viewed clip.
A stopwatch function was developed, which can be started, stopped and
reset with a mouse click.
. Work sampling: work sampling is a work measurement technique for
measuring non-repetitive work, and for determining the percentage of allowances, delays and utilization. A work sampling module was developed
to provide the analyst with a semi-automatic work sampling procedure.
The function is based on two values the analyst inputs: average time between
samples (t) and a standard deviation (s), both expressed in seconds. A random number between 0 and 1 (R), input to an inverse normal distribution
function (ZR), allows rafing random sampling intervals from a normal
distribution using the Monte Carlo technique (equation (9)). This enables
the analyst to sample within random time intervals, which makes the study
more accurate (Klarin et al. 2000). The rafed sampling time interval is used
in the software to dene the number of frames to jump for making the next
observation, omitting the need to wait for the right frame to show up in order
to record the observation:
.

Sampling Interval t s
ZR

2.3 Evaluation of remote distance measurement

The distance modules accuracy was initially evaluated as follows. The camera
lens was set at a height of 84 cm with a puncture angle of 428, aimed at a grid
containing squares of 30  30 cm, where 12 intersections were marked (gure 3).
Ten measurements between some of the intersections on the grid were made using
the distance module. The results were compared with the real distances on the grid.
Table 1 shows results of the rst experiment, where an average deviation of 2.1%
was attained. A similar experiment was conducted on the same grid when the camera
lens was set at a height of 53 cm with a puncture angle of 278. Fifteen intersections
were marked on the grid this time and another ten measurements were made.
This experiments results are shown in table 2; an average deviation of 0.93% was
attained.
2.4 Remote work measurement procedure
An algorithm for computerized work measurement when using the developed
software in conjunction with the PMTS software, MOST for Windows, is shown
in gure 4. The algorithm was developed to ensure that the study is implemented
optimally. Following the algorithm, the analyst helps ensure that maximal data can
be retrieved from the dynamic data presented to the analyst. The algorithm traces
the steps from setting up the camera at the work site until time standards are
generated. It consists of the following phases:
.

Setting the camera lens to capture the work site: the camera should be set up
so that all data relevant for the analysis is lmed.

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Step 1: Feed input data and

click first point.

Step 2: Click second point

and retrieve result.

Figure 3. Two screen shots of the software measuring the distance between two points on
a 30  30 cm grid for accuracy purposes. The result of the measurement is shown in the
right frame.

Table 1.

Results of experiment 1lming a 30  30 cm grid with a camera height of 84 cm

and a puncture angle of 428.

Sub-experiment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Points studied

Actual
distance (cm)

Measured distance
with software (cm)

Deviation (%)

12
13
14
15
19
67
811
1012
312
610

30
60
30
42.43
84.85
67.08
30
60
90
84.85

30.96
61.71
29.09
43.39
84.54
68.46
28.84
59.68
86.69
84.02

3.2
2.8
3.0
2.3
0
2.1
3.8
0
3.7
0

Importing the scenario: the video clip can be captured at the work site and
downloaded to a remote computer or it can be taped onto a video-cassette
and exported at a later time into a digital format. The capture is made using a
video card. This process was reviewed in section 2.1.
. Calibrating the distance module: the calibration is done in order to enable
distance measurement in the workstation. While lming the video, there
must be a calibration bar with known dimensions within the picture frame.

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Results of experiment 2lming a 30  30 cm grid with a camera height of 53 cm
and a puncture angle of 278.

Sub-experiment

Points studied

Actual
distance (cm)

Measured distance
with software (cm)

Deviation (%)

115
210
314
111
413
58
67
912
1115
715

127.28
84.85
90
94.87
67.08
30
67.08
67.08
120
94.87

124.58
84.36
89.46
95.7
68.22
29.61
68.3
68.69
119.52
94.77

2.1
0
0
0
1.7
1.3
1.8
2.4
0
0

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Figure 4.

Proposed algorithm for computerized work measurement.

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11

Given the camera height, the analyst uses a trial and error method to
determine the correct puncture angle, as this angle is not easy to measure
accurately on site. Once the correct angle is derived, it is set and used for
determining the dimensions required for analysis.
. Determining the actual performance from a pilot study: a pilot study is
required in order to gather general data about the nature of the work taking
place, distances in the workstation, tools and conveyors used and unusual
efforts made while performing the task. In this stage, the analyst
inputs into MOST for Windows: objects, tools, operators, and distances
between them.
. Performing MOST analysis using multimedia options: the MOST analysis
requires using the softwares playback options. Use varies according to the
difculty the tasks present for analysis. For example, in analysing short
sub-operations, playback is usually done using loop-play and slow-motion.
After a sub-operation is analysed, a comparison is made between the
standard time and the stopwatch measured performance time where the
estimated work rate is taken into consideration for achieving an efciency
ratio (synthetic time divided by the rated stopwatch time). As a self-test, the
analyst does this for the time generated, verifying that the time describes the
work situation in a precise manner. An efciency ratio signicantly deviating
from 100% usually indicates a poor level of analysis, and the sub-operation
should be re-analysed to achieve a satisfactory level of deviation. When
reaching an adequate t, the analysis continues to the next sub-operation.
. Establishing actual time standards: the time generated from MOST tables
expresses the values of normal time. These do not include time-allowances
and frequencies of sub-operations within a dened work cycle. In order to
reach a time standard, it is necessary to account for the frequency of each
sub-operation and to allow time for personal delays, unavoidable delays
and secondary tasks. (Unavoidable delays are delays in an operators
work, which take place systematically. These might be, for example, getting
instructions and machine interference. Secondary tasks are tasks performed
by the operator and are not necessarily productive. These can be cleaning the
workstation, oiling the machine, etc.) Personal delay time-allowances are
taken from standard tables available on the computer. Unavoidable delays
and secondary task time-allowances are calculated as their proportion of the
total time of productive work carried out in the video clip (or they can be
taken from previously conducted studies or from agreements with labour
unions). To calculate this proportion in a rapid non-costly way, work
sampling techniques are implemented, consisting of sampling the video,
recording the observations and dividing the number of successful observations by the number of productive observations. Time allowance in percentage is then calculated, by adding up all allowances and multiplying them by
normal time and the frequency factor, thus establishing a time standard.
Figure 5 shows a screenshot of the previously mentioned software with the
distance module in action. The cameras height and the puncture angle are
initial inputs to the distance module and must be input in the correct text boxes
of the software module. In the case of distance measurement on an elevated plane,

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Figure 5. Snapshot of the developed software showing the distance module in operation.
The cameras height, puncture angle and planes height are keyed in and the required distance
between two points on the screen, dened using two mouse button clicks, is calculated.

the planes height is an input as well. Note that the latter is an optional input and by
default is 0 for the measurement of distances on the oor. The software guides
the analyst to click on one point on the screen and then on another. The result is
shown in the window in meters.

3. Case studies and ndings

A comparative study was executed in aim to test the performance of the proposed
approach for the analysis of work situations with MOST for Windows using
the BasicMOST sequence models. Five dierent work situations involving manual
labour were evaluated, each having dierent cycle times, layouts and working
conditions. The ve case studies are from two dierent industries: the printing
press industry and the aluminium framing industry. Each case study was analysed
using MOST for Windows, where the time required for analysis was measured when
the proposed approach versus a traditional approach for remote study was used,
incorporating video playback of the tasks using a television monitor and a VCR.
Tables 37 show the results of the ve case studies. The tables include the work
method description and the MOST sequence for each sub-operation. A normal time
in TMU (one TMU values 0.036 s) was calculated from the MOST sequence for
each sub-operation. The frequency for each sub-operation (expressed as a fraction

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Table 3.
Work method

Findings of case study 1 (calendar assembly).

MOST sequence

Normal time
Allowances Time standard
(TMU)
Frequency
(%)
(min/100)

Place months A1 B0 G1 A1 B0 P6 A0
pamphlet
Lay calendar A1 B0 G1 A1 B0 P1 A0
aside
Spread glue
hA1 B0 G1 (A1 B0 P1)2
on trio
S6 A1 B0 P1 A0i

90

3:1

15

18.6

40

1:1

12

2.7

140

1:1

11

h9.3i

Generated time (min/100)

Number of analysed
sub-operations

Normal

Standard

16.2

21.3

Table 4.
Work method

9.8

17.3

Normal time
Allowances Time standard
(TMU)
Frequency
(%)
(min/100)

Collect a
(A3)12 B0 (G1 A1)12 B0
pamphlet
h(P1)12i A10
Lay ve
A1 B0 G3 A1 B0 P1 A0
pamphlets
aside
Rub balm
A0 B0 G0 A1 B0 P1 F6
A0 B0 P0 A1
onto nger

700

1:1

15

48.3

60

1:5

14

0.8

90

1:7

11

0.9

Generated time (min/100)

Present approach Traditional approach

Findings of case study 2 (pamphlet collection).

MOST sequence

Number of analysed
sub-operations

Time required for analysis (min)

Normal

Standard

30.6

50.0

Time required for analysis (min)

Present approach Traditional approach
11.2

18.7

within a work cycle, e.g. a frequency of 2 : 1 means a sub-operation appears twice

within a work cycle) and the percentage of allowances are shown as calculated from
the movie clip. The time standard is calculated for each sub-operation by multiplying
the normal time by the frequency and 1 the percentage allowances. At the bottom
of each table the number of sub-operations, normal times and standard times are
summarized for each case study. The time required for analysis is shown for both
analyses of the case studies using suggested (developed software MOST) versus
traditional (television VCR MOST) work measurement procedures.
3.1 Case study 1: calendar assembly
This case study was lmed at a printing press factory where two workers manually
assemble calendars with three multiple-sheet 12-month pamphlets on them.
The job consists of worker A spreading glue with a brush on the three multiple

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Table 5.

Work
method
Load
proles
Unload
proles
Remove
dividers
Place
cardboard
dividers

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Findings of case study 3 (load/unload conveyor).

Time
Normal time
Allowances standard
(min/100)
(TMU)
Frequency
(%)

MOST sequence
A1 B3 (G1)6 A42 B16 (P3)6 A42

1280

1:1

14

87.6

A32 B6 G3 A32 B3 P3 A24

1030

3:8

15

26.7

360
170
120

3:10

12

11.9

1:5

12

1.6

A32 B3 G1 A0 B0 P0 A0
A6 B3 G1 A6 B0 P0 A1
A1 B6 G1 A1 B0 P3 A0

Generated time (min/100)

Number of analysed
sub-operations
4

Table 6.
Work method
Load from
right
Load from
left
Arrange
proles
Position
dividers
Remove
dividers

Normal

Standard

177.6

127.7

Present approach Traditional approach

16.3

32.8

Findings of case study 4 (preparation for treatment).

Normal time
Allowances Time standard
(TMU)
Frequency
(%)
(min/100)

MOST sequence
A6 B3 (G3)5 A6 B3 P1 A1

350

1:1

13

23.7

A3 B3 (G3)5 A3 B3 P1 A1

290

1:1

13

19.7

50

10:1

21

36.3

350
160
70
300

1:1

17

35.8

1:2

11

12.3

A1 B0 G1 A1 B0 P1 A1
A3
A0
A3
A6

B6
B0
B3
B3

G1
G0
G1
G1

A10 B3 P6 A6
A1 B3 P6 A6
A0 B0 P0 A0
A10 B6 P1 A3

Generated time (min/100)

Number of analysed
sub-operations
5

Time required for analysis (min)

Normal

Standard

94.2

127.8

Time required for analysis (min)

Present approach Traditional approach
14.1

23.2

sheet pamphlets and passing them to worker B, who aligns them on a cardboard
frame, sticks them in place and lays aside the nished product. All work distances in
the work area are within reach. Findings derived from the MOST sequence analysis
for case study 1 are presented in table 3. A work cycle for assembling one calendar in
the case study is dened. As worker A and worker B do their jobs serially, the
standard time is calculated according to the rst two sub-operations, made by
worker Bwho sets the work pace, disregarding the time standard of the third
sub-operation done by worker Awhich is shorter.

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Rapid video-based analysis system for advanced work measurement

Table 7.
Work method

Findings of case study 5 (hang proles with clips).

Normal time
Allowances Time standard
(TMU) Frequency
(%)
(min/100)

MOST sequence

Clip prole (A1 B6 G1 A1)2 B3 P3 A0

to hanger
Get hanger A32 B0 G3 A32 B0 P3 A1
Sand hanger A3 B0 G1 A3 B0 P1 S32 A3
B0 P1 A3
Number of analysed
sub-operations
3

240

1:1

16

16.7

710
470

1:20
1:20

15
11

2.4
1.6

Generated time (min/100)

Normal

Standard

85.2

20.7

Time required for analysis (min)

Present approach Traditional approach
12.4

20.1

3.2 Case study 2: pamphlet collection

This case study was lmed at another printing press factory where manual collection
of paper sheets for the formation of a pamphlet is carried out. A worker walks
along a table on which lie 12 dierent piles of paper sheets. The worker consecutively, picks up one sheet from each pile with one hand and transfers it to a
heap accumulated in his left hand. After collecting 12 sheets, the worker returns
to the rst pile and begins the pick up process again. After doing this ve times, the
worker lays the heap aside in the nished goods area, next to the last pile. In order to
ease picking up one sheet at a time, the worker rubs a balm on his ngers after
collating about seven pamphlets. The distances in the work area were calculated
using the software. The distance between the rst and last piles is 3 m. Findings
derived from the MOST sequence analysis for case study 2 are presented in
table 4. A work cycle in the case study is dened for collection of one pamphlet.

3.3 Case study 3: load/unload conveyor

This case study was lmed in a factory manufacturing aluminium proles. The job
consists of loading and unloading a round overhead conveyor carrying aluminium
proles that pass sequentially through a spray painting area, a high heat area and
a cooling area, to form a colour coat on the proles. Two workers together transport
six proles at a time from a raw material pallet and load them on the conveyor racks
with a downward semi-smooth sweeping motion, hanging each prole separately.
After the proles are painted, dried and cooled, the workers unload them from
the conveyor and transport them to the nished goods pallet. The following
distances were calculated using the software: hanger to raw material pallet, 11 m;
hanger to nished goods pallet, 9 m; nished goods pallet to raw materials pallet,
7 m; conveyor length, 40 m; each prole, 6 m; distance between hangers, 9 m; conveyor speed (extracted through measuring the distance between hangers and the
position of the hanger over time), 2.5 m/min. Findings derived from the MOST
sequence analysis for case study 3 are presented in table 5. A work cycle in the
case study is dened for loading the conveyor with six proles.

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3.4 Case study 4: preparation for treatment

This case study was lmed at the same aluminium prole manufacturers site,
as case study 3. The job is the preparation of aluminium proles for chemical treatment. It consists of supplying two workers with two pallets of raw aluminium
proles and an empty pallet for stacking them before treatment. The pallets are
arranged so that the raw material pallets are on the right and left of the treatment
pallet, and the two workers stand at the opposite ends of the pallets. Together they
lift six proles from the right pallet and place them on the treatment pallet and then
do the same for six proles from the left-hand pallet. They arrange the proles
so contact between them is avoided. After arranging a layer of 12 proles on the
treatment pallet, they place dividers between them so as to keep the layers separate.
They continue transferring proles until the treatment pallet is full. Findings derived
from the MOST sequence analysis for case study 4 are presented in table 6. A work
cycle in the case study is dened for arranging a single layer of proles in the
treatment pallet.
3.5 Case study 5: hang proles with clips
This case study was lmed at the same aluminium prole manufacturers site, as case
studies 3 and 4. In this work area, three workers tie 25 aluminium proles to three
vertical bars in preparation for a dipping paint job. The workers position three
vertical brass bars equal distances apart and sand them. Raw proles are located
at their feet. Two workers, standing on the sides, together lift a prole and attach
it to the bar using a clip. The third worker, standing between them, ties the prole to
a bar using a metal wire. This is repeated until the bars are completely stacked from
the bottom up. Findings derived from the MOST sequence analysis for case study 5
are presented in table 7. A work cycle in the case study is dened for hanging a single
prole.

4. Discussion
Work measurement is the basis for analysing industrial tasks. It requires long
hours devoted by IE practitioners who measure, standardize and consider improvements in workstations using various techniques. The proposed work measurement
approach reduces the time required to make a study, and it eliminates travel expenses
to distant work sites through the use of technology. Results for case studies 15 are
compared in table 8, which also includes summaries for the number of suboperations and normal times generated. For comparison between the case studies,
table 8 shows the sum of generated normal times (and not the standard time) as it is
the main factor aecting the length of the study (the standard time includes operation frequencies where the normal time includes the net time studied for operations).
A comparison of the time required for making a BasicMOST analysis is shown
for each case study using existing (with VCR) methodologies versus our proposed
approach (with digital video clips and software). The increase in time required
for analysis, for both existing and proposed approaches, as normal time increases
is evident and logicalthe longer the task, the longer the study. It is more

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Table 8.

17

Comparative results of ve case study analyses: comparison between traditional

MOST analysis and the proposed method.

Case study
Calendar assembly
Paper collection
Load/unload conveyor
Preparation for treatment
Hang proles with clips
Total

Normal Time for analysis (min)

Improvement
time
Number of
(%)
sub-operations (min/100) Traditional Proposed
3
3
5
7
3
20

4.7
30.6
67.2
56.5
51.1
210.1

17.3
18.7
32.8
23.2
20.1
112.1

9.8
11.2
16.3
14.1
12.4
63.8

43
40
50
39
38
Mean 43

unmistakable that all case studies achieved an improvement in reducing the time
required for analysis. An average improvement of 43% was achieved. During the
study, it was obvious that the analyst on the traditional set spent unproductive
timemaking transitions to the computer for using the analysis softwareand back
to the VCRfor viewing the task. Moreover, some of the time was spent waiting to
rewind the videocassette and to search through it for sub-operations to be studied.
The analyst on the proposed set had no transition times. There was hardly any time
lost due to waiting for rewind thanks to the digital nature of the le allowing the
analyst to skip quickly through the clip.
Though the results supporting the proposed approach shown in table 8 are
only partial, the main breakthrough is the ability to perform an accurate study
from o-site. Moreover, while the added value is hard to gauge, creating such
software proves it is possible to conduct a study under completely remote conditions.
In addition, the procedure of capturing the le at the workstation and transporting
it to the analyst using network technologies brings the workstation to the analysts
oce faster than ever. When analysis is possible under such conditions and
when PMTS-based software, such as MOST for Windows, is used for generating
synthetic times, time standards are achieved rapidly, eliminating the traditional
stopwatch-based time study. Using this approach, the work situation is 100%
clear to the analyst, as the work method can be viewed in an ecient way and all
the distances needed for the analysis are known. This new approach reduces the
analysts transportation costs since the analysis is made nearly on-line. This is
very crucial in many cases where learning is based on small batch assemblies
and time standards must be set quickly and accurately. Furthermore, the procedure
encourages more frequent updates of standards, as they can be achieved quickly
and spontaneously without long hours of travel, varying environmental
conditions, and no long time between the beginning of the study and the setting
of the standard.
The method presents a simple-to-use solution for determining physical measurements from video scenarios. Given a digital picture and initial data regarding the
camera settings, it is possible to measure accurately distances in the workstation
while o-site. Freivalds et al. (2000) supported the need for such a tool in their
ndings. Moreover, the need for distance determination on the factory oor is not
limited only to time study purposes. Distance measurement is required for process
ow charts and diagrams, which are widely used in industry (by approximately

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85% of IE practitioners). A computerized tool for making tedious measurements

quickly should further enhance the generation of the above-mentioned items and
reduce the cost of producing them.
This paper presented the idea of using digital video clips for the purpose of time
study analysis. The ability to import a workers real-life moves from the work site and
then to create time standards from the moving scenario, while referring to actual
physical measurements and saving the data clips and the evaluation sheets alongside
them, oers analysts a signicant research benet. Furthermore, the software
ensures that calculations are error free, where in manual documentation at the
work site mistakes might be made.
The errors presented for the distance measurement module are small (about
2.5%), but they still exist. They stem mostly from the movements of the mouse
while clicking. This resolution of error is good enough for a BasicMOST study,
where most recently used indices are split into quite diverse zones (within reach,
up to two, four, seven and ten steps) where the actual dierences between zones
are 33% or more, so the 2.5% rate mistake in measurement is safe for such analysis.
Yet, for making a methods time measurement (MTM) study, where there is need for
accurate distances and indexing (with resolution of up to 1 inch, unforgiving of a
2.5% error), this approach may be less accurate but still good enough. As in MTM,
the arc of the motion should be measured and not the spatial distance on the table.
Therefore, the measured distance on the table is a much better starting point for
making a good estimate of the travel distance than not knowing the distance at all,
using a VCR.
Another limitation of the distance module is the fact that for each clip the camera
set-up parameters must be known. The analyst must have an accurate measurement
of the height of the camera lens and this height may not change throughout the clip
in order to make distance measurements from the video. This fact limits the analyst
to using video clips with known camera heights. Moreover, it is not possible to use
the distance module for video clips if the camera moves along with the worker,
since there might be a change in the camera height. In short, the camera must be
set in a stable known position and should not be moved from that position.
This self-explained, easy-to-use software device is a tool of choice for work
measurement using video and distance telemetering. After using it in eld studies,
few of which are reported in this paper, we know that practitioners as IE researchers
who like to draw maximum quantitative information for time study and system
improvements purposes benet from such an approach. Distance measurement at
the manufacturing oor is part of the work analysts job, as for quantifying work one
must relate to time and distance. We suggest the following uses for remote distance
measurement, improving the quality of analysts results and shortening the time
required for measurement:
.

BasicMOST study. Although times for action-distances in BasicMOST

can be set using foot steps, the extended values in the General Move
table convert distances into times (Zandin 1990). This actually shortens
the study where instead of carefully counting operators footsteps, the analyst
can click on two points (origin and destination) and convert the distance into
the number of steps to be taken. When long distances are traversed, such a
tool makes the analysts job easier and shorter.

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19

MTM or MiniMOST study. One can measure distances on a table for reach
motions. These are many times not measured on the production oor and the
operator must be stopped in order to measure them.
. Process ow charts. Distances are essential for charting work processes using
traditional charting techniques. In such, the distance is in many cases the
main factor that is used for methods improvement and must be charted.
. Mapping the production oors layout. When precise measurement of work
areas, machine sizes and the distances between them are required, the
proposed distance measurement tool comes in handy. Instead of using
any different measuring technique, distance measurement is done on the
same platform used for analysis. In some cases, this might call for lming
the production oor from various angles in order to have all work areas
and equipment in the picture frame. Such measurement is essential when
rearrangement to the work site is proposed, as this data is the basis for
analysis and further synthesis of proposed layouts.
. Synthetic time formulation. For an experienced analyst, one snapshot of
the work area in many times is enough in order to make a PMTS analysis,
as the analyst is capable of visualizing the work situation. Once the distances
are measured on the snapshot, an accurate synthetic time can be formulated
using PMTS.
.

Nowadays work analysis is strongly inuenced by ergonomic procedures for

quantifying risk factors in tasks. Our approach does not support any ergonomic
analysis model, yet by using the software infrastructure, some ergonomic
analyses can be made. It is possible to use the work-sampling module to make a
postural analysis on workers in the videos by assessing the percentage of poor
posture. Such an approach can yield results quickly for ergonomic studies. Some
biomechanical models, such as the NIOSH lifting model, use an input of distances
from the work area and translate those into biomechanical forces and, nally, into
ergonomic risk factors (the lifting index). The distance module can only partially
support the NIOSH model. It can measure the spatial distances but is constrained
from measuring vertical distances, upon which the NIOSH lifting equation is
also based.

References
Christmansson, M., Falck, A.C., Amprazis, J., Forsman, M., Rasmusson, L. and
Kadefors, R., Modied method time measurements for ergonomic planning of production systems in manufacturing industries. Int. J. Prod. Res., 2000, 38, 40514059.
Cohen, Y., Bidanda, B. and Billo, R.E., Accelerating the generation of work measurement
standards through automatic speech recognition: a laboratory study. Int. J. Prod. Res.,
1998, 36, 27012715.
Freivalds, A., Konz, A., Yurgec, A. and Goldberg, A.H., Methods, work measurement and
work design: are we satisfying customer needs? Int. J. Ind. Eng., 2000, 7, 108114.
Gunasekaran, A. and Love, P.E.D., A review of multimedia technology in manufacturing.
Comput. Ind., 1999, 38, 6576.
Kadefors, R. and Forsman, M., Ergonomic evaluation of complex work: a participative
approach employing video-computer interaction, exemplied in a study of order
picking. Int. J. Ind. Ergonom., 2000, 25, 435445.

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Karger, D.W. and Hancock, W.M., Advanced Work Measurement, pp. 94137, 208255, 1982
(Industrial Press: New York).
Klarin, M.M., Cvijanovic, J.M. and Spasojevic Brkic, V.K., The shift level of the utilization
of capacity as the stochastic variable in work sampling. Int. J. Prod. Res., 2000, 38,
26432651.
Konz, S., Methods engineering. In Handbook of Industrial Engineering, edited by G. Salvendy,
3rd ed., pp. 13531390, 2001 (Wiley: New York).
Mundel, M.E., Motion and Time Study Improving Productivity, 6th ed., pp. 273285, 1985
(Prentice-Hall: New York).
Zandin, K.B., MOST Work Measurement Systems, 2nd ed., pp. 1122, 1990 (Marcel Dekker:
New York).
Zandin, K.B., On integrating work measurement systems with voice recognition technologies.
In Proceedings of the Fifth Industrial Engineering Research Conference, pp. 551556,
1996 (Institute of Industrial Engineering: Norcross, GA).

AUTHOR QUERIES
Journal id:
Query
number

TPRS 116075
Query

if any, to it (Mundel 1985). Date OK as edited?

Table 8. Comparative results of five case study analyses: comparison between

traditional MOST analysis and the proposed method. Ok as edited?

Figure 1. Ratio between the video frame from the computer screen and the CCD
chip. Video clips were captured as 240 320 pixel movies (ScreenHeight
ScreenWidth). The camera used had a CCD of 2.4 3.2 mm (CCDHeight
CCDWidth). The cameras focal distance was 5.2 mm. OK with extra text
added. I thought it best to go here

Please provide better quality artwork for figure 2.